1

Electricity is a form of energy, like solar, heat, hydro, etc.

It is known to human since ancient times.

But we only started to harness its true

power when Benjamin Franklin initiated
experiments with it on year 1752.
This sparked constant study on finding ways
how to use it in making our life more
comfortable.

One of the major breakthroughs was on 1831.

This was when Michael Faraday discovered
the basic principle of electricity generation.

Today, electricity powers from

largest cities to the smallest phone
you are holding on your hand.
2
  phenomenon associated with stationary or moving
electric charges (a fundamental property of matter)

• the particle involved is the electron (which carries

a charge designated, by convention, as negative),
hence the term electricity.
(https://www.britannica.com/science/electricity)

We will start this lesson by

studying, analyzing, and examining
the force of electromagnetism
when there are no
moving charges: ELECTROSTATICS

3
 Electric charge
• an attribute that is as fundamental as mass
Analogy: Just as objects with mass are accelerated
by gravitational forces, so electrically charged
objects are accelerated by electric forces.

• can be positive or negative, occurs in discrete natural units

and is neither created nor destroyed

• expressed in coulombs ( )

Brief History
600 BC Ancient Greeks discovered that after they rubbed amber
with wool, the amber could attract other objects.

The amber has become charged or has

acquired a net electric charge

“electric” is derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber.

4
 Ways of Charging Objects:
Rubbing, Conduction, and Induction
Charging by Conduction

Charging by Induction

5
 Charging by Rubbing (Try this simple experiment)

Using two plastic rods, Using two glass rods,

rub it in fur (real or fake) rub it in silk cloth

Then try:

6
 The simple experiment shows two kinds of electric charge:
• the kind on the plastic rod rubbed with fur and
• the kind on the glass rod rubbed with silk

Hence,

“Like charges repel, and

opposite charges
attract.”

Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) suggested calling these

two kinds of charge negative and positive, respectively
(these names are still used)

NOTE: When you charge a rod by rubbing it with fur or silk,

there is no visible change in the appearance of the rod.
To understand what actually happens to the rod when you
charge it, we must look closely at the structure of atoms (the
building blocks of ordinary matter)
7
 Electric Charge and the Structure of Matter

Electron Proton Neutron

Mass (𝑘𝑔) 9.1094 × 10 1.6726 × 10 1.6749 × 10

Charge (𝐶) − 1.6022 × 10 + 1.6022 × 10 none

 the proton and neutron are combinations of other entities

called quarks (Isolated quarks have not been observed, and
there are theoretical reasons to believe that it is impossible in
principle to observe a quark in isolation)

Observations:
• The charges of the electron and proton are equal in magnitude.
• Mass of proton and neutron are closely identical
• Mass of electron is very small compared to proton and neutron
• Over 99.9% of the mass of any atom is concentrated in its nucleus
• But most of the atom’s volume is occupied sparsely by electrons
 If the nucleus is the size of a tennis ball,
the atom will have a diameter in kilometers.
8
 Electric Charge and the Structure of Matter
Let us closely 4 neutrons
look in a
3 protons
Lithium
atom: 3 electrons
Li
# of protons = # of electron
zero net charge
(Neutral Lithium Atom)

4 neutrons
Removing 1 # of protons > # of electron
3 protons
electron: positive net charge
2 electrons
(Positive Lithium Ion)

Adding 1 4 neutrons
electron: 3 protons # of protons < # of electron
4 electrons negative net charge
(Negative Lithium Ion)
9
 Conservation of Electric Charge
In the experiment,
the fur becomes
positively charged
by losing electrons
and the plastic rods
become negatively
charged by gaining
electrons.

During this process,

the algebraic sum of all the electric charges
in any closed system is constant.

* The process of gaining or losing of electrons

(in an atom) is called ionization.
10
 Strictly speaking,

does the plastic rod weigh more, less, or the same

after rubbing it with fur?
What about the fur?

What about the glass rod after rubbing it with silk?

What about the silk?

Hmmmmmm…..

11
 Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806)
studied the interaction forces of
charged particles in detail in 1784.

He used a torsion balance

similar to the one used 13
years later by Cavendish to
study the much weaker
gravitational interaction

He then established the

Coulomb’s Law:
“The magnitude of the electric force between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.”

12
 Coulomb’s Law
where
𝐹 is the electric force between the 2 point
charges (in 𝑵)
𝑞 and 𝑞 are the charges (in 𝑪)
𝑟 is the distance between them in meters

𝑘 is a proportionality constant (9 × 10 )

*𝑘= , where 𝜖 is the permittivity of free space

𝐶
𝜖 = 8.854 × 10
𝑁 𝑚
Direction of Electric Force
Like charges: Opposite charges:

𝟐𝒐𝒏𝟏

𝟏𝒐𝒏𝟐

13
 Coulomb’s Law

Remember: • The directions of the forces the two charges exert on each
other are always along the line joining them.
• When the charges and have the same sign (either both
positive or both negative) the forces are repulsive;
• when the charges have opposite signs, the forces are
attractive

𝟐𝒐𝒏𝟏

𝟏𝒐𝒏𝟐

𝟐𝒐𝒏𝟏 𝟏𝒐𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝒐𝒏𝟑 𝟑𝒐𝒏𝟒

𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏 = −𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐 𝑭𝟒 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = −𝑭𝟑 𝒐𝒏 𝟒

• The two forces obey Newton’s third law;

 they are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
14 even when the charges are not equal in magnitude.
 Sample Problem 1: Force between two point charges

Two point charges 𝑞 = +25 𝑛𝐶 and 𝑞 = −75 𝑛𝐶 are

separated by a distance 𝑟=3.0 𝑐𝑚.
Find the magnitude and direction of the electric force
(a) that 𝑞 exerts on 𝑞 , and
(b) that 𝑞 exerts on 𝑞 .

Draw the diagram as you write the given from the problem.

Given: Req’d:
𝑞 = 25 × 10 𝐶 𝑞 = −75 × 10 𝐶 a) 𝐹⃗ b) 𝐹⃗

Equation:
𝑟 = 3.0 𝑐𝑚 𝑞 𝑞
𝐹 =𝐹 =𝑘
= 3.0 × 10 𝑚 𝑟

where
𝑁 𝑚
𝑘 = 9 × 10
𝐶
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 Sample Problem 1: Force between two point charges

𝑞 = 25 × 10 𝐶 𝑞 = −75 × 10 𝐶

𝑟 = 3.0 𝑐𝑚 = 3.0 × 10 𝑚
Sol’n:
𝑞 𝑞
Write the formula 𝐹 =𝐹 =𝑘
𝑟

Substitute the given 𝑁 𝑚 25 × 10 𝐶 −75 × 10 𝐶

𝐹 =𝐹 = 9.0 × 10
variables 𝐶 3.0 × 10 𝑚

Compute 𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏 = 𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝑵

Answers:
a) b)

𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝑵, 𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝑵,
to the left to the right
16
 Sample Problem 2: Electric force vs. gravitational force

An 𝛼 particle (the nucleus o a helium atom) has mass 𝑚 = 6.64 × 10 𝑘𝑔

and charge 𝑞 = +2𝑒 = 3.2 × 10 𝐶.
Compare the magnitude of the electric repulsion between two 𝛼 (“alpha”)
particles with that of the gravitational attraction between them.

Draw the diagram as you write the given from the problem.
𝑁 𝑚
Given: 𝑚 = 6.64 × 10 𝑘𝑔 𝑘 = 9 × 10
𝐶
𝑞 = 3.2 × 10 𝐶 𝑁 𝑚
𝐺 = 6.67428 × 10
Remember that 𝑘𝑔
the gravitational
force is always
attractive. Req’d: Equation/s:
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹 𝐹 =𝑘
But electric force will 𝑟
be repulsive because 𝐹
both particles are 𝑚 𝑚
𝐹 =𝐺
positive. 𝑟

17
 Sample Problem 2: Electric force vs. gravitational force
Sol’n:

Write the formula by 𝑞 𝑞

𝐹 𝑘
dividing the 2 = 𝑚𝑟 𝑚
equations 𝐹 𝐺
𝑟
Since 𝑞 and 𝑚 is the 𝑞
same for both 𝐹 𝑘
= 𝑟
particles, we can 𝐹 𝑚
𝐺
simplify the equation 𝑟

We can cancel 𝑟 then 𝐹 𝑘 𝑞

=
rearrange the fraction 𝐹 𝐺 𝑚

𝑁 𝑚
9.0 × 10
Substitute the 𝐹 𝐶 (3.2 × 10 𝐶)
variables =
𝐹 𝑁 𝑚 (6.64 × 10 𝑘𝑔)
6.67428 × 10
𝑘𝑔

𝑭𝒆
Compute = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟓
𝑭𝒈

𝐹
Answer: = 3.1 × 10
𝐹
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Sample Problem 3: Vector addition of electric forces in a plane
Two equal positive charges 𝑞 = 𝑞 = 2.0 𝜇𝐶 are located at 𝑥 = 0, y = 0.30 m and 𝑥 = 0, y = −0.30 m, respectively.
What are the magnitude and direction of the total electric force that 𝑞 and 𝑞 exert
on a third charge 𝑄 = 4.0 𝜇𝐶 at 𝑥 = 0.40 𝑚, y = 0?

Plot the 3 charges in an x-y

plane as you write the
given from the problem.

Given: Req’d:
𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟑
𝑞 = 2.0 × 10 𝐶, at (0,0.30 𝑚)

𝑞 = 2.0 × 10 𝐶, at (0, −0.30 𝑚)

𝑄 = 4.0 × 10 𝐶, at 0.40 𝑚, 0

Observations from the problem:

• All the forces are repulsive.
• The angles created by the forces exerted by 𝑞
and 𝑞 to 𝑄 are equal (Geometry)
• Distance between 𝑞 and 𝑄 is equal to distance 𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟑
between 𝑞 and 𝑄 (Pythagorean Theorem)
• Since 𝑞 and 𝑞 have the same charge and has
the same distance with 𝑄 , the magnitude of their
19 force to 𝑄 is equal.
Sample Problem 3: Vector addition of electric forces in a plane
Two equal positive charges 𝑞 = 𝑞 = 2.0 𝜇𝐶 are located at 𝑥 = 0, y = 0.30 m and 𝑥 = 0, y = −0.30 m, respectively.
What are the magnitude and direction of the total electric force that 𝑞 and 𝑞 exert
on a third charge 𝑄 = 4.0 𝜇𝐶 at 𝑥 = 0.40 𝑚, y = 0?

Equation/s:

𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟑

(from the 4ht

observation)

Use the Pythagorean

𝑐= 𝑎 +𝑏
Theorem to solve for 𝒓:
𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟑
Use Trigonometry 𝑂𝑝𝑝
to solve for 𝜃: 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐴𝑑𝑗

20
Sample Problem 3: Vector addition of electric forces in a plane
Sol’n:

Use
Pythagorean 𝑟= (0.30) +(0.40)
Theorem to
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎
solve for 𝒓

Solve for 𝐹
𝑞 𝑄
𝐹 =𝐹 =𝑘
and 𝐹 𝑟

Thus,
Substitute 𝑁 𝑚 2.0 × 10 𝐶 4.0 × 10 𝐶
𝐹 =𝐹 = 9.0 × 10
values and 𝐶 0.50 𝑚
compute 𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝑵, 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗°
𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝑵

0.30
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
Solve for 𝜽 0.40
𝜽 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗°

𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝑵, −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗°

21
Sample Problem 3: Vector addition of electric forces in a plane
Sol’n:
Last step is to get the vector sum of the two forces.
* (You can use any method given by your Physics 1 teacher)
𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝑵, 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗°

(y-component) (x-component)

𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝑵, −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗°

𝒔𝒖𝒎 Answer:

𝒔𝒖𝒎
(to the right)

22
 Michael Faraday
• Suggested that because an electrically charged
object, A, creates a force on another charged
object, B, anywhere in space, object A must
somehow change the properties of space.

• Object B somehow senses the change in

space and experiences a force due to the
properties of the space at its location.

• We call the changed property of

space an electric field.

• An electric field means that the

interaction is not between two
distant objects, but between an
object and the field at its location.
23
 Electric Field

Let us examine
the 2 particles:

What is happening between the 2

Analogy to Gravitational Force
charged particles
Consider body 𝐴, as a result of the charge Just like how a massive planet
that it carries, somehow modifies the modifies the gravitation field
properties of the space around it. around it
Then considering body 𝐵, as a result of
Just like how you feel the gravity
the charge that it carries, senses how
of earth
space has been modified at its position
Just like the force exerted by the
The response of body 𝐵 is to experience
earth due to its gravitation
the force 𝐹⃗
acceleration - weight
24
 Electric Field

Now, we remove
charge B then
label its former * The electric force on a charged
position as body (either attractive or repulsive)
is exerted by the electric field
created by other charged bodies.

The charged body produces or causes an electric field around it,

and for our analysis, specifically at .
• This electric field is present at point 𝑃 even if
there is no charge at this position.

We define electric field at a point as the electric force

experienced by a test charge at the point , divided by the charge .

𝟎 Inserting the equation for 𝑭𝟎

𝟐
𝟎

25
 Electric Field and Electric Force

𝟎 (definition of electric field as electric force per unit charge)

𝟎 • the unit of electric field magnitude is
newton per coulomb (𝑁/𝐶)

𝟎 𝟎 (force exerted on a point charge 𝑞 by an electric field 𝐸)

* The expression is analogous to the 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝟎 𝒈

gravitational force (𝐹⃗ ) that the earth
exerts on a mass 𝑚 : or (𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈)

where
𝑭𝟎 is the electric force on test charge 𝒒𝟎
𝒒𝟎 is the test charge
𝒒 is the source charge
𝒓 distance between the source and test charge
26
 Electric Field

The field produced by a The field produced by a

positive charge points negative charge points
away from the charge. towards the charge.

The charge 𝑞 can be either

positive or negative.

• If 𝑞 is positive, the force 𝑭𝟎 experienced by

𝟎
the charge is the same direction as 𝑬
𝟎
• If 𝑞 is negative, the force 𝑭𝟎 and 𝑬 are
in opposite direction

27
 Sample Problem 4:
Electric-field magnitude for a point charge
What is the magnitude of the electric field 𝐸 at a field point 2.0 𝑚 from
a point charge 𝑞 = 4.0 𝑛𝐶? What is the magnitude of electric force if the
point charge is replaced by a 2-coulomb charge.

Given: Req’d: Equation:

𝑞 = 4.0 𝑛𝐶 = 4.0 × 10 𝐶 𝐸 𝑞
𝐸=𝑘
𝑟 = 2.0 𝑚 𝑟

Sol’n:
Write the
𝐸=𝑘
𝑞 Answer:
formula 𝑟

Substitute the 𝑁 𝑚 4.0 × 10 𝐶

𝐸 = 9.0 × 10
given variables 𝐶 2.0 𝑚

Compute 𝑬 = 𝟗. 𝟎 𝑵/𝑪

What is the magnitude of electric force if the point

28 charge is replaced by a 2-coulomb charge?
 Sample Problem 4:
Electric-field vector for a point charge
A point charge 𝑞 = −8.0 𝑛𝐶 is located at the origin. Find the electric
field vector at the field point 𝑥 = 1.2 𝑚, 𝑦 = −1.6 𝑚.

Plot the point charge in an x-y plane as you write the given from the problem.

Given: Req’d:
𝑞 = −8.0 𝑛𝐶 = −8.0 × 10 𝐶
𝐸 (Electric field vector)

Equation:
𝑞
𝐸=𝑘
𝑟

29
 Sample Problem 4:
Electric-field vector for a point charge
Sol’n:

Solve for 𝒓 using 𝑟= 1.2 𝑚 + −1.6 𝑚

Pythagorean Theorem 𝑟 = 2.0 𝑚
𝑞
Write the formula for 𝑬 𝐸=𝑘
𝑟
𝑁 𝑚 −8.0 × 10 𝐶
Substitute values and 𝐸 = 9.0 × 10
𝐶 2.0 𝑚
compute
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟖 𝑵/𝑪
1.6
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
Solve for the angle 𝜽 1.2
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟏° (from negative x-axis)

Answer:

or
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 Challenge yourself : Field of an electric dipole
Point charges 𝑞 = +12 𝑛𝐶 and
𝑞 = +12 𝑛𝐶 are 0.100 𝑚 apart as
shown in the figure. (Such pairs
of point charges with equal
magnitude and opposite sign are
called electric dipoles) Compute
the electric field caused by 𝑞 ,
the field cause by 𝑞 , and the
total field
(a) at point a 𝐸
(b) at point b 𝐸
(c) at point c 𝐸

Equations:
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸
Answers:
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸 𝑁
𝐸 = 9.8 × 10 , 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸 𝑁
𝐸 = 6.2 × 10 , 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝑞 𝐶
𝐸=𝑘 𝑁
𝑟 𝐸 = 4.9 × 10 , 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
31 𝐶
 Electric Field Lines
an imaginary line drawn through a
region of space so that, at every point,
it is tangent to the direction of the
electric field vector at that point.

Characteristics
1.At every point in space, the electric field vector 𝐸 at that point is tangent to the
electric field line through that point.
2.Electric field lines are close together in regions where the magnitude of 𝐸 is
large, farther apart where it is small.
3.Field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges.

32
 Gauss’s Law and Electric Flux
• an alternative formulation of the principles of electrostatics.
• It is logically equivalent to Coulomb’s law, but for some problems it
provides a useful alternative approach to calculating electric fields

Electric Flux (flux of the electric field, denoted by Φ )

• we define the electric flux Φ through the area 𝐴 to be the
product of the magnitude 𝐸 of the electric field and the area 𝐴:

𝑵 𝒎𝟐 (if the area is inclined (if the area is perpendicular

(unit is ) with an angle of phi 𝜑)
𝑪 to the direction of 𝐸)

33
 Gauss’s Law and Electric Flux
• an alternative formulation of the principles of electrostatics.
• It is logically equivalent to Coulomb’s law, but for some problems it
provides a useful alternative approach to calculating electric fields

Electric Flux Analogy to Liquid Flow

The volume flow rate of water through the rectangular frame is

𝑣𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑,
just as the electric flux through an area 𝐴 is
𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑.
34
 Sample Problem 5:
Electric-field magnitude for a point charge
A disk with radius 0.10 𝑚 is oriented with its axis (the line though the center,
perpendicular to the disk’s surface) at an angle of 30° to a uniform electric
field 𝐸 with magnitude 2.0 × 10 𝑁/𝐶 (as shown I the figure below).

(a) What is the total electric flux through the

disk?
(b) What is the total flux through the disk if it
is turned so that its plane is parallel to 𝐸?
(c) What is the total flux through the disk if it
is turned so that its axis (marked by the
dashed line perpendicular to the disk in
the figure) is parallel to 𝐸?

Given: Req’d: Equations:

𝑟 = 0.10 𝑚 if
𝐸 = 2.0 × 10 𝑁/𝐶

(area of circle)
35
 Sample Problem 5:
Electric-field magnitude for a point charge
Sol’n:

Write the equation for electric Φ = 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

flux and insert the formula for
area of the circle Φ = 𝐸 (𝜋𝑟 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

(a) Φ = 2.0 × 10 𝜋 0.10 𝑚 cos 30°

𝑵 𝒎𝟐
𝜱𝑬 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
𝑪

(a) Φ = 2.0 × 10 𝜋 0.10 𝑚 cos 0°

Substitute values and solve
𝑵 𝒎𝟐
𝜱𝑬 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟗
𝑪

(a) Φ = 2.0 × 10 𝜋 0.10 𝑚 cos 90°

𝜱𝑬 = 𝟎

Answers:
𝑵 𝒎𝟐 𝑵 𝒎𝟐
(a) 𝑬 (b) 𝑬 (c) 𝑬
𝑪 𝑪
36
 Sample Problem 6: Electric flux through a sphere
A positive point charge with magnitude
3.0 𝜇𝐶 is placed at the center of a sphere with
radius 0.20 𝑚 (as shown in the figure). Find
the electric flux through the sphere due to
this charge.

Given: Req’d:
𝑞 = 3.0 𝜇𝐶
𝑟 = 0.20 𝑚

Equations:
Φ = 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 Φ = 𝐸𝐴
𝑞 (since the electric field lines are
𝐸=𝑘 perpendicular to the surface of sphere)
𝑟

𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 (surface area of a sphere)

37
 Sample Problem 6: Electric flux through a sphere
Sol’n:

Write the equation for electric flux Φ = 𝐸𝐴

and insert the formula for electric 𝑞
field and surface area of the sphere Φ = 𝑘 4𝜋𝑟
𝑟

𝑁 𝑚 3.0 × 10 𝐶
Φ = 9.0 × 10 4𝜋 0.20 𝑚
𝐶 0.20 𝑚
Substitute values then compute
𝑵 𝒎𝟐
𝜱𝑬 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝑪

Answer:

𝑵 𝒎𝟐
𝜱𝑬 = 𝟑. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝑪

 Notice that in the simplification of  We can further simplify this equation by

the formula in our solution, we can
just cancel 𝒓𝟐 and get an equation of replacing 𝑘 with

where 𝜖 = 8.854 × 10
38
 Gauss’s Law
• an alternative to Coulomb’s law for expressing the
relationship between electric charge and electric field
• formulated by Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), one
of the greatest mathematicians of all time.

It states that:

The total electric flux 𝑬 coming out of any

closed surface (that is, a surface enclosing a
definitive volume) is proportional to the total
(net) electric charge inside the surface,
according to the relation

• The flux is independent of the radius R of the sphere.

 The sum on the left side of this equation represents the operations
of dividing the enclosing surface into small elements of area ∆𝐴,
39 computing 𝐸 ∆A for each one, and adding all these products
 Gauss’s Law
Gaussian surface around positive Gaussian surface around negative
charge: positive (outward) flux charge: negative (inward) flux

∆𝑨 ∆𝑨

If the surface encloses not just one point charge 𝒒,

but several charges 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , 𝒒𝟑 , … ,
then the total (resultant) electric field 𝑬 at any point is the vector sum
of the fields of the individual charges.
Let 𝑄 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 + …, then

or
40
 Electric and Gravitational Potential Energy
Remember the equation for work
𝒂
and energy:

→ Object moving in a
uniform gravitational
field:
Thus, for Gravitational Potential 𝒃
Energy: 𝑊 = −∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

, →

𝑬
For Electric Potential Energy, same 𝒅
procedure follows:
Charge moving in
, → 𝒃 a uniform electric
field:

𝑊 = −∆𝑈 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
41
 Work Done by a Uniform Electric Field

Work done by an 𝐸 on a positive

charge moving
(a) in the direction of and
(b) opposite to the electric field

Work done by an 𝐸 on a negative

charge moving
(a) in the direction of and
(b) opposite to the electric field

42
 Electric Potential (V) / Potential Difference ( )
• describes as potential energy on a
“potential energy per unit charge” basis,
just as the electric field describes the force
on a charged particle in the field on a “force
per unit charge” basis.
• scalar quantity with an SI unit of 𝟏 𝑱/𝑪 or
𝟏 𝑽 (𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕) in honor of Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827)

Electric Potential of a Point Charge

• When a test charge 𝑞 is at a distance from
point charge 𝑞, the potential 𝑉 is 𝟎

where k is the same constant in

Coulomb’s Law

Electric Potential due to

several Point Charge
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑞
43
 Electric Potential (V) / Potential Difference ( )

𝒂→𝒃

𝒂→𝒃 𝒃 𝒂

𝒃 𝒂

𝒂 𝒃

𝑽𝒂 is the potential at 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒂

𝑽𝒃 is the potential at 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐛
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 is the potential of 𝒂 with respect to 𝒃
44 * also 𝑽𝒂𝒃
 Electric Potential (V) / Potential Difference ( )
• often called voltage (in the context
of electric circuits)

A 9V battery has a difference in electric

potential (potential difference) of 9V
between the two terminals

A 20,000 V power line has a potential

difference of 20,000 V between itself
and the ground.

45
 Sample Problem : Work in a uniform electric field
Two large conducting plates separated by 6.36 𝑚𝑚 carry charges of equal
magnitude and opposite sign, creating a uniform electric field with magnitude
2.80 × 10 𝑁/𝐶 between the plates. An electron moves from the negatively
charged plate to the positively charged plate. How much work does the
electric field do on the electron?
Sketch/graph as you write
the given of the problem Given:

𝐸 = 2.80 × 10 𝑁/𝐶

𝑑 = 6.36 𝑚𝑚
𝑞 = 1.6022 × 10 𝐶

Req’d:
𝑊

Equation:
𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑

46
 Sample Problem : Work in a uniform electric field
Solution:
Write the equation for
work done by an 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
electric field
Substitute values
𝑊 = (1.6022 × 10 𝐶)(2.80 × 10 𝑁/𝐶)(6.36 × 10 𝑚)

Compute 𝟏𝟖
𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑱

Answer:

𝟏𝟖
𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑱

47
 Sample Problem : Parallel plates and conservation of energy
A 9.0 𝑉 battery is connected across two large parallel plates that are separated
by 4.5 𝑚𝑚 of air, creating a potential difference of 9.0 𝑉 between the plates.
(a) What is the electric field in the region between the plates?
(b) An electron is released from rest at the negative plate. If the only force on
the electron is the electric force exerted by the electric field of the plates,
what is the speed of the electron as it reaches the positive plate? (mass of
electron s 𝑚 = 9.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔)
Sketch/graph as you write
the given of the problem Given:
𝑉 = 9.0 𝑉 𝑑 = 4.5 𝑚𝑚

𝑣 = 0 𝑚/𝑠

𝑚 = 9.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔
𝑞 = 1.6022 × 10 𝐶

Req’d:
𝐸 𝑣

48
 Sample Problem : Parallel plates and conservation of energy
Equations:
𝑈 1
𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉= 𝑊 =𝑈 −𝑈 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑈 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑞 2
𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 𝐾𝐸 − 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑈 − 𝑈
(from conservation of
mechanical energy)
Solution:
𝑉=𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉
𝑈 𝑈
𝑉= −
Equate the 1st and 2nd 𝑞 𝑞
equations 𝑈 −𝑈
𝑉=
𝑞
𝑞𝑉 = 𝑈 − 𝑈
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉 and 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝐷
But 𝑊 = 𝑈 − 𝑈 and 𝑞𝑉 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑

49
 Sample Problem : Parallel plates and conservation of energy
Solution:

9.0 𝑉
Substitute values and compute 𝐸= = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵/𝑪
4.5 × 10 𝑚

𝐾𝐸 − 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑈 − 𝑈
1 1
Use the equation of 𝑚 𝑣 − 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑞𝑉
2 2
conservation of mechanical
energy to solve for 𝑣 1
𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑞𝑉
2
(remember: 𝑞𝑉 = 𝑈 − 𝑈 ) 2𝑞𝑉
𝑣 =
Note: 𝐾𝐸 = 0 because 𝑣 = 0 𝑚

2𝑞𝑉
𝑣 =
𝑚

2(1.6022 × 10 𝐶)(9.0 𝑉)
𝑣 =
Substitute values then compute (9.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔)

𝒗𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

Answers:
50 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵/𝑪 𝒗𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
 Capacitors
• a device that stores electric potential
energy and electric charge
• represented by these symbols:

An assortment or practical capacitors

Capacitance of a Capacitor
The capacitance 𝑪 of a capacitor
is the ratio of the magnitude of
the charge 𝑸 on either
conductor to the magnitude of
the potential difference 𝑽𝒂𝒃
between the conductors:

𝒂𝒃

• SI unit is called 1 farad (𝟏 𝑭) in Any two conductors separated by a

honor of Michael Faraday and vacuum or an insulating material
51 is equal to 𝟏 𝑪/𝑽 form a capacitor.
 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
• Capacitors are manufactured with certain standard capacitances and
working voltages.
• However, these standard values may not be the ones you actually
need in a particular circuit.
• You can obtain the values you need by combining capacitors; the
simplest combinations are a series connection and a parallel
connection.

Series Connection

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑

Parallel Connection

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑

52
 Capacitors in Series
• The magnitude of the charge on all of the plates is the
same (because of conservation of charge)

𝑄=𝑄 =𝑄 =⋯

• The total potential difference across all of the capacitors

is the sum of the individual potential differences.

𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 +⋯

• Thus, 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 =𝑉 = 𝑉 =𝑉 =
𝐶 𝐶
1 1
𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 =𝑄 +
𝐶 𝐶
𝑉 1 1
= +
𝑄 𝐶 𝐶
Hence the equivalent 1 1 1
𝑄 capacitance of = + +⋯
But 𝐶= capacitors in series
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
𝑉
is:
53
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in series
𝒂
Two capacitors, one with 𝐶 = 6.0 𝜇𝐹
and the other with 𝐶 = 3.0 𝜇𝐹 , are 𝐶 = 6.0 𝜇𝐹
connected to a potential difference
of 𝑉 = 18 𝑉 as shown in the figure.
Find the (a) equivalent capacitance
and (b) find the charge and potential
difference for each capacitors.
(c) Draw the equivalent circuit.

We start by identifying what are 𝐶 = 3.0 𝜇𝐹

required in the problem since the
given are already in the figure: 𝒃

Req’d: Equations:
(a) 1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
(b) , , , ,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉

54
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in series
Solution:

1 1 1
Write the formula for 𝐶 = +
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
1 1 1
= +
𝐶 6.0 𝜇𝐹 3.0 𝜇𝐹
Substitute values and
compute 1
= 0.50 𝜇𝐹
𝐶

Take the inverse to get the

𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝝁𝑭
value of 𝐶

Draw the equivalent

diagram of the 2 𝑉 = 18 𝑉 𝐶 = 2.0 𝜇𝐹
capacitors

55
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in series
Solution:

𝑄=𝐶 𝑉
Solve for the charge 𝑄 using the
𝑄 = (2.0𝑥10 𝐹)(18 𝑉)
equation 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄 = 3.6 × 10 𝐶 or 36 𝜇𝐶

Since in a series connection 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟓

𝑪 or 𝟑𝟔 𝝁𝑪
of capacitors,
𝑄=𝑄 =𝑄 =⋯ 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟓
𝑪 or 𝟑𝟔 𝝁𝑪
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑉 =
𝐶 𝐶
Solve for 𝑉 and 𝑉 with the
36 𝜇𝐶 36 𝜇𝐶
equation 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝑉 =
6 𝜇𝐹 3 𝜇𝐹

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟔. 𝟎 𝑽 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽
You can check your answer by
using the equation 18 𝑉 = 6.0 𝑉 + 12 𝑉 (satisfied)
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 +⋯

56
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in series

Answers:
Equivalent Circuit
𝒆𝒒
𝒂

𝟏 𝟏

𝟐 𝟐 𝑉 = 18 𝑉 𝐶 = 2.0 𝜇𝐹

57
 Capacitors in Parallel
• In a parallel connection, the potential difference is the
same for both capacitors

𝑉 =𝑉=𝑉 =𝑉 =⋯

• The total charge is the sum of the individual

charges

𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄 +⋯

• Thus,
𝑄 =𝐶 𝑉 𝑄 =𝐶 𝑉

𝑄 = 𝑄 + 𝑄 = 𝑉(𝐶 + 𝐶 )

𝑄
=𝐶 +𝐶
𝑉
𝑄 Hence the equivalent
But 𝐶= capacitance of
𝑉 𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶 +⋯
capacitors in parallel
is:
58
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in parallel

Two capacitors, one with 𝐶 = 6.0 𝜇𝐹 We start by identifying what are

and the other with 𝐶 = 3.0 𝜇𝐹 , are required in the problem since the
connected to a potential difference given are already in the figure:
of 𝑉 = 18 𝑉 as shown in the figure.
Find the (a) equivalent capacitance Req’d:
and (b) find the charge and potential (a)
difference for each capacitors.
(c) Draw the equivalent circuit. (b) , , , ,
𝒂
Equations:
𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶 +⋯
𝐶
= 6.0 𝜇𝐹 𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉 = 18 𝑉 𝑉
𝐶
= 3.0 𝜇𝐹

𝒃
59
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in parallel
Solution:
Write the formula for 𝐶 𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶

Substitute values and 𝐶 = 6.0 𝜇𝐹 + 3.0 𝜇𝐹

compute 𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝟗. 𝟎 𝝁𝑭

Draw the equivalent

diagram of the 2 𝑉 = 18 𝑉 𝐶 = 9.0 𝜇𝐹
capacitors

Since in a parallel
connection of capacitors, 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖 𝑽
𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 =⋯

𝑄 =𝐶 𝑉 𝑄 =𝐶 𝑉
Solve for 𝑄 and 𝑄 with 𝑄 = 6.0 × 10 𝐹 18 𝑉 𝑄 = 3.0 × 10 𝐹 18 𝑉
the equation 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 𝟔 𝟔
𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑪
or 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝁𝑪 or 𝟓𝟒 𝝁𝑪
60
 Sample Problem : Capacitors in parallel
Solution:

𝑄=𝐶 𝑉
To check, solve for the 𝑄 = 9.0 × 10 𝐹 18 𝑉
total charge using the
equivalent circuit then 𝑄 = 162 × 10 𝐶 or 162 𝜇𝐶
use the equation
𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄 +⋯ 𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄
162 𝜇𝐶 = 108 𝜇𝐶 + 54 𝜇𝐶 (satisfied)

Answers: Equivalent Circuit

𝒂
𝒆𝒒

𝟏 𝟏
𝑉 = 18 𝑉 𝐶 = 9.0 𝜇𝐹
𝟐 𝟐

61
 Current (Electric Current, )
• is any motion of charge from one
region of a conductor to another
• amount of charge that moves
through a given cross section of
conductor per unit time.
• By convention, we let positive
charges flow from positive to
negative terminal. But in reality,
it is the electron (negative Electric current is a scalar quantity.
charge) is moving.
𝒂

When a net charge passes through a cross section of

conductor during time , the current is
𝒃

unit: 1 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏 𝑨

This unit is named in honor of the French scientist

André Marie Ampère (1775–1836)

62
 Sample Problem : How many electrons?
One of the circuits in a small portable CD player operates on a current of
2.5 𝑚𝐴. How many electrons enter and leave this part of the player in 1.0 𝑠?

Given: Req’d: # 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐼 = 2.5 𝑚𝐴 Equations:
∆𝑡 = 1.0 𝑠 ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
𝐼= # 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 =
𝑒 = −1.6022 × 10 𝐶 ∆𝑡 𝑒

Solution:

∆𝑄 = 𝐼∆𝑡 Answer:
Solve ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄 = (2.5 × 10 𝐴)(1.0 𝑠)
∆𝑄 = 2.5 × 10 𝐶 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10
∆𝑄
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 =
𝑒
Solve for
# of 2.5 × 10 𝐶
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 =
electrons −1.6022 × 10 𝐶
# 𝒐𝒇 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
63
 Resistance ( )
• a measure of the opposition to current
flow in an electrical circuit.
• measured in ohms, symbolized
by the Greek letter omega (Ω),
named after Georg Simon Ohm
(1784-1854), a German physicist
who studied the relationship A resistor is a passive electrical
component with the primary
between voltage, current and
function to limit the flow of
resistance electric current.
𝒂
All materials resist current flow to some degree. Schematic symbol:
They fall into one of two broad categories:

Conductors
Materials that offer very little resistance
where electrons can move easily.
Examples: silver, copper, gold and
aluminum
Gold wire serves as an
Insulators excellent conductor
Materials that present high resistance
and restrict the flow of electrons.
Examples: Rubber, paper, glass, wood
64 and plastic.
https://www.fluke.com/en-us/learn/best-
practices/measurement-basics/electricity/what-is-resistance
 Resistance ( )
Commercial resistors use
a colored bands to
indicate their resistance.
Ex.
1. Resistor above (4 bands)
1st band: Brown = 1
2nd band: Red = 2
Multiplier: Brown = × 10
𝒂 = 5%
Tolerance: Gold
Resistance: 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝜴 or 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝜴, 𝟓%

2. Resistor below (5 bands)

1st band: Yellow = 4
2nd band: Violet = 7
3rd band: Black = 0
Multiplier: Red = × 10
Tolerance: Brown = 1%
Resistance: 470× 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝜴 or 𝟒. 𝟕 𝒌𝜴, 𝟏%
65
 Resistance ( )
For a conductor in the form of a uniform cylinder (such as a wire with uniform
cross section), the resistance 𝑹 is found to be proportional to the length 𝑳 of
the conductor and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area 𝑨.

(𝒎𝟐 ) (𝒎)

(𝜴 𝒎) (𝜴)

Resistivities at room temperature

66
 Sample Problem : Resistance in your stereo system
Suppose you’re hooking up a pair of stereo speakers.
(a) You happen to have on hand some 20-m-long pieces of 16-gauge
copper wire (diameter 1.3 𝑚𝑚); you use them to connect the speakers
to the amplifier. These wires are longer than needed, but you just coil
up the excess length instead of cutting them. What is the resistance of
one of these wires?
(b) To improve the performance of the system, you purchase 3.0-m-long
speaker cables that are made with 8-gauge copper wire (diameter
3.3 𝑚𝑚). What is the resistance of one of these cables?

Given: Req’d:
(a) 𝐿 = 20 𝑚 (b) 𝐿 = 3.0 𝑚 𝑅
𝑑 = 1.3 𝑚𝑚 𝑑 = 3.3 𝑚𝑚 Equations:
= 1.3 × 10 𝑚 = 3.3 × 10 𝑚
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
resistivity of copper: 𝐴
𝜌 = 1.72 × 10 Ω 𝑚 𝜋𝑑
𝐴=
4
(area of a circle)
67
 Sample Problem : Resistance in your stereo system
Solution:

𝐿 𝜋𝑑
Write the equation of 𝑅=𝜌 ; 𝐴=
𝐴 4
𝑅 then insert the
formula or the area of 𝐿 4𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 =𝜌
the circle 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
4

Substitute variables (a) 𝑅 = 1.72 × 10 Ω 𝑚

. ×
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝜴
then compute
(b) 𝑅 = 1.72 × 10 Ω 𝑚 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟑
𝜴
. ×

Answers:

(a) 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝜴

(b) 𝑹 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 𝜴

68
 Ohm’s Law

The potential difference between the

ends of a conductor is proportional to
the current through the conductor; the
proportionality factor is the resistance .

𝒂
+

−
𝒃

69
 Sample Problem : Electrical hazards in heart surgery
A patient is undergoing open-heart surgery. A
sustained current as small as 25 𝜇𝐴 passing through
the heart can be fatal. Assume that the heart has a
constant resistance of 250 Ω; determine the minimum
voltage that poses a danger to the patient.

Given: Req’d:
𝐼 = 25 𝜇𝐴 = 25 × 10 𝐴 𝑉
𝑅 = 250 Ω Equation:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Solution: Answer:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉 = 6.25 × 10 𝑉
Substitute
values to the 𝑉 = (25 × 10 𝐴)(250 Ω)
= 6.25 𝑚𝑉
equation of 𝑉 𝟑
𝑽 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

70
 Resistors in Series and Parallel
Series Connection Parallel Connection
𝑰𝑻
𝒂 𝒂
+ +
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
− −
𝒃 𝒃

• Current follows only one path. • Current is divided into two or more path.
• The total potential difference across • The potential difference is the same for
all the resistors is the sum of the all the resistors
individual potential differences.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 +𝑰𝟑 + ⋯
𝑰 = 𝑰 𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 𝟐 = 𝑰 𝟑 = ⋯
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = ⋯
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯
1 1 1 1
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = ⋯ = + + +⋯
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
71
 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Determine which resistors are connected in series and which are

connected in parallel.

R1

R2
All resistors are connected in
R3
parallel: R1||R2||R3||R4

R4

R2 R2 and R3 are connected

R1
in parallel: R2||R3

R4
R1, R2||R3 (the combination of
R2 and R3), and R4 are
R3
connected in series.

72
 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Determine which resistors are connected in series and which are

connected in parallel.

R2
R6
R1

R3 R4 R8

R7
R5

R3 and R4 are connected in R6 and R7 are connected in

series: R3+R4 parallel: R6||R7

R2, R3+R4 (combination of R3 R1 and R8 are connected in series.

and R4), and R5 are connected in with R2||(R3+R4)||R5
parallel: R2||(R3+R4)||R5 and R6||R7 are also
connected to them in
series.

73
 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Determine which resistors are connected in series and which are

connected in parallel.

R1, R2, and R3 are connected in

R1 R4 series: R1+R2+R3
R2
R1+R2+R3 (combination of the 3
resistors) are connected in parallel with
R5 R4: (R1+R2+R3)||R4
R3

The combination of R1 to R4 are

connected in series with R5:
[(R1+R2+R3)||R4]+R5

74
 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Calculate the 𝑅 for each circuit.

𝑅 = 𝑅1 𝑅2R2 𝑅3||𝑅4

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 R4
1 1 1 1
= + + +
25 Ω 12 Ω 5.0 Ω 45 Ω

𝑅 = 2.9 Ω

75
 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Calculate the 𝑅 for each circuit.

Get the combination

R2 of R2||R3:
R1
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 || 𝑅 𝑅
1 1
= +
75 Ω 25 Ω

𝑅 || = 18.75 Ω

We can now add them because

they are all on series connection:
𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅 || +𝑅

𝑅 = 9.0 Ω+ 18.75 Ω+ 18 Ω

𝑅 = 46 Ω
76
 Challenge yourself

Calculate the 𝑅 for each circuit.

R2
R6
R1

R3 R4 R8

R7
R5

Answers:
(c) 𝑅 = 78 Ω
(d) 𝑅 = 25 Ω

77
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Series

(a) Solve for the equivalent 𝑅

resistance of the circuit. 15 Ω 𝑅
20 Ω
(b) Calculate the current and 𝑅
voltage in each resistor. 10 Ω

(c) Draw the equivalent 𝑅

25 Ω
circuit.

𝑅
We start by identifying what are 30 Ω
required in the problem since the 𝑅
given are already in the figure: 40 Ω

𝑅
Req’d: 35 Ω

The resistors are all

(a) connected in series.

(b) , ,…,
, ,…, Equations:

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = ⋯

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
78
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Series
Solution:
Write the formula for 𝑅 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅

Substitute values and 𝑅 = 10 Ω + 15 Ω + 20 Ω + 25 Ω + 30 Ω + 35 Ω + 40 Ω

compute 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝛀

𝑉 =9𝑉
Draw the equivalent
𝑅 = 175 𝛺
circuit

Use Ohm’s Law to solve 𝑉 9𝑉

𝐼 = = = 0.0514 𝐴
for the total current 𝐼 𝑅 175 Ω

Since current is the same

in a series connection
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 =… = 𝑰𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟒 𝑨

79
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Series
Solution:

𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 10 Ω = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟒 𝑽
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 15 Ω = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏 𝑽
Using the obtained current for 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 20 Ω = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝑽
every resistor, use Ohm’s law to
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 25 Ω = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝑽
calculate the voltage for each of
them 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 30 Ω = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 𝑽
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 35 Ω = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗𝟗 𝑽
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 0.0514 𝐴 40 Ω = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝑽

Check your answers by adding all

the voltages across every resistor.
𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝟕 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝟓 𝑽 ≈ 𝟗 𝑽
Sum must be equal (almost equal)
to voltage source (9𝑉)

80
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Series
Answers:

𝒆𝒒

𝟏 , 𝟐 ,…, 𝟕

𝑉 𝑅 𝟏
9𝑉 175 𝛺 𝟐
𝐼
51.4 𝑚𝐴 𝟑

𝟒
Equivalent Circuit
𝟓

81
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Parallel

(a) Solve for the equivalent

resistance of the circuit.
(b) Calculate the current and
voltage in each resistor. 𝑉 𝑅 𝑅
(c) Draw the equivalent 12 𝑉
𝑅
1 𝑘Ω
𝑅
2 𝑘Ω
3 𝑘Ω 4 𝑘Ω
circuit.

We start by identifying what are

required in the problem since the
given are already in the figure: The resistors are all
connected in parallel.
Req’d:

(a)

(b) , ,
, , , Equations:
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
82
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Parallel
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
Write the formula for 𝑅 = + + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
Substitute values and 𝑅 1 𝑘Ω 2 𝑘Ω 3 𝑘Ω 4 𝑘Ω
compute
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝛀

𝑉 = 12 𝑉
Draw the equivalent
𝑅 = 480 𝛺
circuit

Since voltage is the same

in a parallel connection, 𝑉 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑽𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽
all

83
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Parallel
Solution:

𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼 = = = 0.012 𝐴 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝑨
𝑅 1000 Ω

Using the obtained voltage across 𝑉 12 𝑉

𝐼 = = = 0.006 𝐴 = 𝟔 𝒎𝑨
every resistor, use Ohm’s law to 𝑅 2000 Ω
calculate the current flowing 𝑉 12 𝑉
through each of them 𝐼 = = = 0.004 𝐴 = 𝟒 𝒎𝑨
𝑅 3000 Ω
𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼 = = = 0.003 𝐴 = 𝟑 𝒎𝑨
𝑅 4000 Ω

Check your answers by adding all 12 𝑉

the current in every resistor. Sum 𝐼 = = 0.025 𝐴 = 25 𝑚𝐴
480 Ω
must be equal (almost equal) to the
total current (𝐼 = ) 𝐼 = 12 𝑚𝐴 + 6 𝑚𝐴 + 4 𝑚𝐴 + 3𝑚𝐴 = 25 𝑚𝐴

84
 Sample Problem : Resistors in Series
Answers:

𝒆𝒒

𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒

𝑅 𝟏
𝑉
12 𝑉 480 𝛺 𝟐
𝐼
25 𝑚𝐴 𝟑

𝟒
Equivalent Circuit

85
 • Caintic, H. E. (n.d.). GENERAL PHYSICS 1 FOR SENIOR
HIGH SCHOOL. Quezon City, Philippines: C & E
Publishing.
• Young, H. D., Geller, R. M., & Sears, F. W. (2007). College
physics. San Francisco: Pearson/Addison Wesley.
• Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L., & Sears, F. W.
(2016). Sears & Zemanskys University physics. Boston:
Pearson.
• Zitzewitz, P. W. et.al. (2005). PHYSICS Principles and
Problems. Ohio: The McGraw-Hill Companies.

86