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Analog Electronics Circuits

General Amplifiers
 Cascade connection - FET & BJT

 Numerical

 Cascode connection

 Darlington connection

 Packaged Darlington connection

 Dc bias of Darlington connection

 AC equivalent

 ac output impedance of Darlington connection

 AC voltage gain

 Feedback concept

 Feedback connection type

 Practical feedback circuits

 Practical feedback circuits

 Numerical
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Cascade connection – FET

• Cascade connection is a series connection with the output of one stage then
applied as input to the second stage.

• Cascade connection provides a multiplication of the gain of each stage for a

larger overall gain.

• Gain of overall cascade amplifier is the product of stage gains AV1 and AV2

Av = Av1AV2 = (-gmRD1) (-gmRD2)

• The input impedance of the cascade amplifier is that of stage 1,

Zi = RG1

• Output impedance is that of stage 2,

Z0=RD2

• The main function of cascading the stages is the larger overall gain achieved.
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Numerical

Calculate dc bias, voltage gain, input impedance, output impedance,Also

calculate the load voltage if a 10K Ω load is connected across the output

Data for numerical

• C1=C2=C3=0.05uF

• RG1=RG2=3.3 MΩ

• RS1=RS2=680 Ω

• RD1=RD2=2.4 KΩ

• IDSS=10mA; VP=-4V for both stages

Solution

Step 1: from the dc bias details we can find out VGSQ= -1.9V, IDQ=2.8mA
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Step 2: both transistors have

gmo=2 IDSS/ Vp =2(10mA)/4 =5mS

At dc bias point, gm=gmo(1-VGS/VP)

gm =5m(1-(-1.9)/(-4) = 2.6mS

Step 3: the voltage gain of each stage

AV1=AV2=-gm RD=-2.6m x 2.4K = -6.2

• Step 4: Overall gain of cascaded stage is

Av=Av1Av2=-6.2 x -6.2 = 38.4

(output is in phase with input)

• Step 5: output voltage is Vo=Av Vi =384 mV

• Cascade amplifier input impedance is

Zi=RG= 3.3 MΩ

• Output impedance (with rd=very high)

Zo=RD= 2.4 KΩ

• Load voltage if load resistance is 10 KΩ

VL= [RL/(RL+Zo)] Vo

=[10K/(10K+2.4)] 384mV=310mV
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Cascade amplifier – BJT

• RC coupled cascade amplifier is taken here for example

• Advantage of cascading is increase in the overall voltage gain.

• Dc bias is obtained by procedure followed for single stage amplifier.

• Gain of each stage: AV= -(RC ‫ װ‬RL )/re

• Amplifier input impedance is that of

stage 1: Zi= R1 ‫ װ‬R2 ‫ װ‬βre

• Output impedance is that of stage 2 :

Zo=Rc ‫ װ‬ro
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Numerical

Calculate voltage gain, output impedance, input impedance for cascaded BJT
amplifier of fig above. Calculate output voltage resulting if 10K ohms load is
connected to load.

Given,

 R1=15KΩ; R2=4.7KΩ;Rc=2.2KΩ;RE=1KΩ

• C1=C2=C3=10uF

• β=200 for both transistors

• Input voltage vi= 25uV

Solution:

• Dc analysis yields
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• VB=4.7V;VE=4.0V;VC=11V; IE=4.0mA

• At bias point, re=VT/IE=26m/4.0m=6.5 Ω

• Voltage gain of stage 1 is then,

• AV1= -{RC ‫( װ‬R1 ‫ װ‬R2 ‫ װ‬βre)}/re

= -665.2/6.5=-102.3

• AV2= -Rc/re = -2.2K/6.5 =-338.46

• Overall gain of AV=AV1AV2

=-102.3 x -338.46

=34,624

• Output voltage is : Vo=AV Vi=34624 x 25u

=0.866V

• Amplifier input impedance is

• Zi= R1 ‫ װ‬R2 ‫ װ‬βre =4.7K ‫ װ‬15 K ‫ װ‬200x6.5

=953.6 ohms.

• VL= {RL/Zo+RL} Vo

={10K/2.2K+10K}0.866 = 0.71 V
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Cascode connection

• A cascode connection has one transistor on top in series with another.

• Figure below shows CE stage feeding a CB stage.

• This arrangement is designed to provide a high input impedance with low

voltage gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is at a minimum with
the CB stage providing good high frequency operation.

Cascade connection configuration fig:1

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Cascade connection configuration fig:2

Numerical

Calculate the voltage gain for the cascode amplifier of fig above..

Solution:

Dc analysis: VB1=4.9V ; VB2=10.8V;

IC1=Ic2=3.8mA

Dynamic resistance of each transistor is then re=26/3.8=6.8 ohms

• Voltage gain of stage 1 is

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Av1= -Rc/re= -re/re = -1

• Voltage gain of stage 2 is

Av2=Rc/re =1.8K/6.8 = 265

• Resulting in an overall cascode amplifier gain of Av=Av1 x Av2 =-1 x 265

=-265

• CE stage with a gain of -1 provides the higher input impedance of CE stage.

• With gain of -1, miller capacitance is kept very small.

• A large gain is then provided by the CB stage, resulting in large overall gain
of -265.

Darlington connection

Popular connection operates as “super beta” transistor is Darlington connection.

• Main feature of the Darlington connection is that the composite acts as a

single unit with a current gains of individual transistors.

• Darlington connection provides a current gain of βo= β1+ β2

• If β1= β2= β then βo= β2

• This configuration provides a transistor having a very large current gain,

typically a few thousands.
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Packaged Darlington transistor

• Specification information of 2N999 Darlington transistor package

DC bias of Darlington circuits

Vcc  VBE
IB 
RB   D RE
I E  ( D  1) I B   D I B
Voltages
VE  I E RE
VB  VE  VBE
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Numerical

Calculate dc bias voltages and currents for the Darlington connection. Given
RB=3.3MΩ;RE=390 Ω;βd=8000;VCC=18V;VBE=1.6V

Vcc  VBE 18  1.6

IB    2.56uA
RB   D RE 3.3M  8000(390)
I E  (  D  1) I B   D I B  8000(2.56u )  20.48mA
Voltages
VE  I E RE  20.48m(390)  8V
VB  VE  VBE  8  1.6  9.6V
VC  18V
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AC equivalent circuit

Equivalent model
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Input impedance

• The ac base current through ri is

Ib=Vi-Vo/ri

• Since Vo=(Ib+βDIb)RE

• Substituting Ib in Vo expression,

Ibri=Vi-Vo=Vi-Ib(1+ βD)RE

solving for Vi,

Vi=Ib[ri+(1+ βD)RE]=Ib(ri+ βDRE)

• Ac input impedance looking into the transistor base is then

Vi/Ib= ri+ βDRE

Zi=RB ‫( װ‬ri+ βDRE)

ac output impedance of Darlington connection

This can be determined for ac circuit shown in fig below

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Output impedance

• The output impedance can be determined by applying a voltage Vo and

measuring the current Io with Vs setting to zero.

• Solution for Io yields..

Vo Vo V V V
Io    DIB  o  o  D o
RE ri RE ri ri
 1 1 D 
I o     Vo
 E i
R r ri 

Vo 1
Zo  
I o 1 / RE  1 / ri   D / ri

Zo= RE ‫ װ‬ri ‫ װ‬ri/βD

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ac voltage gain

Gain expression

Vo  ( I b   D I b ) RE  I b ( RE   D RE )
Vi  Ibri  ( Ib   D I b ) RE
On simplification

Vi  I b (ri  RE   D RE )
Vi
Vo  ( RE   D RE )
ri  ( RE   D RE )
Vo RE   DRE
Av   1
Vi ri  ( RE   DRE )

Numerical

For the Darlington pair, given RE=390 ohms and β=8000. Calculate gain if
ri=5KΩ
390  8000 x390
Av   0.998
5 K  [390  8000 x390]
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Feedback concepts

• Depending on the relative polarity of fed back signal in to the circuit, there
are two types of feedback

> Negative feedback

> Positive feedback

Negative feedback results in Reduced gain

Positive feedback are used in oscillators.

Feedback amplifier

Negative feedback circuits

• Reduces the gain

• Increases input impedance

• Better stabilized frequency response

• Lower output impedance

• Reduced noise
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• More linear operation

Feedback connection types

• Voltage series feedback

• Voltage shunt feedback

• Current series feedback

• Current shunt feedback

 Here voltage refers to small part of voltage as input to the feedback network

 Current refers to tapping some part of output current through feedback

network.

 Series refers to connecting feedback signal in series with the input signal
voltage.

 Shunt refers to connecting feedback signal in shunt with the input signal
voltage

 Series feedback connections increases the input resistance

 Shunt feedback connections decreases the input resistance.

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Voltage series feedback Af=Vo/Vs

Voltage shunt feedback Af=Vo/Is

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Current series feedback Af=Io/Vs

Current shunt feedback Af=Io/Is

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Gain with feedback

• Gain without feedback is A

• Feedback factor β

• Gain with feedback is (1+A β)

Voltage Voltage Current Current

Parameter
series shunt series shunt

Gain with
A Vo/Vi Vo/Ii Io/Vi Io/Ii
feedback

Feedback factor β Vf/vo If/Vo Vf/Io If/Io

Gain with
Af Vo/Vs Vo/Is Io/Vs Io/Is
feedback

Voltage series feedback

• With zero feedback then Vf=0 the voltage gain of amplifier stage is

A=Vo/Vs=Vo/Vi

• If feedback of Vf is connected then,

Vi=Vs-Vf

Vo=AVi=A(Vs-Vf)=AVs-AVf=A(Vs-A(βVo)

Then, (1+ βA)Vo=AVs

Overall gain with feedback is

Af=Vo/Vi=A/(1+A β)

This shows that gain of feedback has reduced by factor (1+A β)

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Voltage shunt feedback

• Af=Vo/Is=A Ii / (Ii+If)=AIi/(Ii+ βAIi)

• Af=A/(1+ βA)

Input impedance with FB

• Ref to fig(1)

Ii=Vi/Zi=(Vs-Vf) / Zi = (Vs- βVo) / Zi

Ii Zi= Vs- βAVi

Vs=Ii Zi+ β A Vi = Ii Zi+ β A Ii Zi

Zif = Vs/Ii=Zi+(βA)Zi=Zi(1+ βA)

Improved circuit features of feedback

• Reduction in frequency distortion

When Aβ» 1, then Af=A/(1+A β)≈1/ β

• Here feedback is completely resistive and thus frequency distortion arising

because of varying gain with frequency is considerably reduced.

• Bandwidth variation

• When Aβ» 1, then Af=A/(1+A β)≈1/ β

• Therefore, here we can see that, practical circuits, open loop gain drops at
high frequencies.

• Therefore Aβ no longer » 1, hence Af=1/ β

No longer holds good.

• Here reduction in gain has provided improvement in the Bandwidth.

Product of gain and Bandwidth remains same it’s a tradeoff between gain and BW

• Gain stability for Aβ»1,

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Af  1  A
dA f 1 dA

dA A A
• This shows that magnitude of relative change in dAf/A is reduced by the
factor Aβ compared to that without feedback dA/A

Numerical

If a amplifier with gain of -1000 and feedback of β=-0.1 has a gain change of 20%
due to temperature, calculate the change in gain of the feedback amplifier.

Solution:

dAf 1 dA 1
  20%
Af A A  0.1(1000)
........  0.2%

Practical feedback circuits

• Voltage series feedback

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• Here part of output voltage (Vo) is obtained using a feedback network of

resistors R1 and R2.

• The feedback voltage Vf is connected in series with the source signal Vs.
their difference being the input signal Vi.

• Gain without feedback A=Vo/Vi=-gmRL

Where RL=parallel combination of RD,Ro,(R1+R2)

• The feedback network provides a feedback factor or β=Vf/Vo = -R2/R1+R2

• Using values of A and β in above equation, Af is

A  g m RL
Af  
1  A 1  R2 RL /( R1  R2 )g m
if .. A  1, then
1 R  R2
Af    1
 R2

Numerical:

Calculate the gain without and with feedback for the FET amplifier shown in fig.
circuit values are given to be R1=80KΩ,R2=20KΩ,RD=10KΩ and gm=4000uS

Solution :

RL=5K Ω

A=-20

β=-0.2 and Af=-4

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Series feedback connection

• Here gain of op-amp is reduced by factor β=R2/R1+R2

Numerical

If open loop gain of op-amp is 100,000 and feedback resistors are R1=1.8K Ω and
R2=200 Ω then calculate the gain with feedback .

Solution

• β=0.1

• Af=9.9999

• Here Aβ>>1, Af=1/ β=1/0.1=10

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Emitter follower circuit

• The output voltage Vo is also the feedback voltage in series with the input
voltage.

• Operation of the circuit without the feedback Vf=0 then,

Vo h fe I b RE h fe RE (Vs / hie ) h fe RE
A   
Vi Vs Vs Vs
Vf
 1
Vo
• The operation with feedback then provides that,

Vo A h fe RE / hie
Af   
Vs 1  A 1  (1)(h fe RE / hie )
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h fe RE

hie  h fe RE
hfeRE  1,
Af  1

Current series feedback

• Feedback technique is to sample the output current (Io) and return a

proportional voltage in series with the input.

• It stabilizes the amplifier gain, the current series feedback connection

increases the input resistance.

• In this circuit, emitter of this stage has an un bypassed emitter, it effectively

has current-series feedback.

• The current through RE results in feedback voltage that opposes the source
signal applied so that the output voltage Vo is reduced.

• To remove the current-series feedback, the emitter resistor must be either

removed or bypassed by a capacitor (as is done in most of the amplifiers)
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The fig below shows the equivalent circuit for current series feedback

Gain, input and output impedance for this condition is,

Io A  h fe / hie
Af   
Vs 1  A   h fe 
1  ( RE ) 
 hie  RE 
 h fe RE 
Z if  Z i (1  A )  hie 1  
 h ie 
 h fe RE 
Z of  Z o (1  A )  Rc 1  
 hie 
with  feedback .. A;
Vo I o Rc  I o   h fe RC
Avf    
   Rc  A f RC 
Vs Vs  Vs  hie  h fe RE

Numerical

Calculate the voltage gain of the circuit..

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With RB=470Ω,RC=2.2KΩ,RE=510 Ω, hfe=120,hie=900Ω.

Solution:
Io  hfe  120
A    0.085
Vi hie  RE 900  510
Vf
   RE  510
Io

• The factor (1+Aβ) is then,

1+(-0.085)(-510) =44.35

• The gain with feedback is

Af=Vo/vi=A/(1+A β)

=-.085/44.35 = -1.92x10e-3

• Voltage gain with feedback is

Avf=Vo/Vs=AfRC=(-1.92x10e-3)(2.2x10e3)=4.2

• Without feedback (RE=0) the voltage gain is

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Av=-RC/re=-2.2x10e3/7.5= -293.3

Voltage shunt feedback

• Constant gain op-amp circuit provides voltage shunt feedback.

• Ref to fig below. The input impedance of a ideal op-amp is taken to be

infinite. Hence Ii=0,vi=0 and voltage gain is infinity.

• Ie., A=Vo/Ii=infinity

• And β=If/Vo= -1/Ro

• This is transfer resistance gain.

Voltage shunt negative feedback amplifier

1.Constant gain circuit

2.Equivalent circuit

• Voltage gain with feedback ,

Vo Is 1  R0
Avf   ( Ro) 
Is V 1 R1 R1
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Voltage shunt feedback using FET

Equivalent circuit

• With no feedback A=Vo/Ii=-gmRDRS

• The feedback factor is β=If/Vo= -1/RF

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• With feedback, gain of the circuit is,

Vo A  g m RD RS
Af   
I s 1  A 1  (1 / RF )( g m RD RS )
voltage  gain  withfeedback ..is,
Vo I s  g m RD RS RF   1
Avf   
I s Vs RF  g m RD RS   RS
 g m RD RF RF
  ( g m RD )
RF  g m RD RS RF  g m RD RS

Numerical

Calculate voltage gain with and without feedback for the circuit of FET f/b. With
the values, gm=5mS, RD=5.1KΩ, Rs=1KΩ, RF=20KΩ

Solution :

Use above formulae

• Av=-gmRD=-25.5

• Feedback gain Avf=-11.2