Database Management System (CS/IT 4th SEM) unit 3

Codd's 12 Rules
Dr Edgar F. Codd, after his extensive research on the Relational Model of database systems,
came up with twelve rules of his own, which according to him, a database must obey in
order to be regarded as a true relational database.
These rules can be applied on any database system that manages stored data using only its
relational capabilities. This is a foundation rule, which acts as a base for all the other rules.

Rule 1: Information Rule

The data stored in a database, may it be user data or metadata, must be a value of some table
cell. Everything in a database must be stored in a table format.

Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule

Every single data element (value) is guaranteed to be accessible logically with a
combination of table-name, primary-key (row value), and attribute-name (column value). No
other means, such as pointers, can be used to access data.

Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of NULL Values

The NULL values in a database must be given a systematic and uniform treatment. This is a
very important rule because a NULL can be interpreted as one the following − data is
missing, data is not known, or data is not applicable.

Rule 4: Active Online Catalog

The structure description of the entire database must be stored in an online catalog, known
as data dictionary, which can be accessed by authorized users. Users can use the same
query language to access the catalog which they use to access the database itself.

Rule 5: Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule

A database can only be accessed using a language having linear syntax that supports data
definition, data manipulation, and transaction management operations. This language can be
used directly or by means of some application. If the database allows access to data without
any help of this language, then it is considered as a violation.

Rule 6: View Updating Rule

All the views of a database, which can theoretically be updated, must also be updatable by
the system.

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Rule 7: High-Level Insert, Update, and Delete Rule

A database must support high-level insertion, updation, and deletion. This must not be
limited to a single row, that is, it must also support union, intersection and minus operations
to yield sets of data records.

Rule 8: Physical Data Independence

The data stored in a database must be independent of the applications that access the
database. Any change in the physical structure of a database must not have any impact on
how the data is being accessed by external applications.

Rule 9: Logical Data Independence

The logical data in a database must be independent of its user’s view (application). Any
change in logical data must not affect the applications using it. For example, if two tables are
merged or one is split into two different tables, there should be no impact or change on the
user application. This is one of the most difficult rule to apply.

Rule 10: Integrity Independence

A database must be independent of the application that uses it. All its integrity constraints
can be independently modified without the need of any change in the application. This rule
makes a database independent of the front-end application and its interface.

Rule 11: Distribution Independence

The end-user must not be able to see that the data is distributed over various locations. Users
should always get the impression that the data is located at one site only. This rule has been
regarded as the foundation of distributed database systems.

Rule 12: Non-Subversion Rule

If a system has an interface that provides access to low-level records, then the interface must
not be able to subvert the system and bypass security and integrity constraints.

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Relation Data Model

Relational data model is the primary data model, which is used widely around the world for
data storage and processing. This model is simple and it has all the properties and
capabilities required to process data with storage efficiency.

Concepts
Tables − In relational data model, relations are saved in the format of Tables. This format
stores the relation among entities. A table has rows and columns, where rows represents
records and columns represent the attributes.
Tuple − A single row of a table, which contains a single record for that relation is called a
tuple.
Relation instance − A finite set of tuples in the relational database system represents
relation instance. Relation instances do not have duplicate tuples.
Relation schema − A relation schema describes the relation name (table name), attributes,
and their names.
Relation key − Each row has one or more attributes, known as relation key, which can
identify the row in the relation (table) uniquely.
Attribute domain − Every attribute has some pre-defined value scope, known as attribute
domain.

Constraints
Every relation has some conditions that must hold for it to be a valid relation. These
conditions are called Relational Integrity Constraints. There are three main integrity
constraints −

 Key constraints
 Domain constraints
 Referential integrity constraints

Key Constraints
There must be at least one minimal subset of attributes in the relation, which can identify a
tuple uniquely. This minimal subset of attributes is called key for that relation. If there are
more than one such minimal subsets, these are called candidate keys.
Key constraints force that −
 In a relation with a key attribute, no two tuples can have identical values for key attributes.
 A key attribute cannot have NULL values.
Key constraints are also referred to as Entity Constraints.
Domain Constraints
Attributes have specific values in real-world scenario. For example, age can only be a
positive integer. The same constraints have been tried to employ on the attributes of a

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relation. Every attribute is bound to have a specific range of values. For example, age cannot
be less than zero and telephone numbers cannot contain a digit outside 0-9.
Referential integrity Constraints
Referential integrity constraints work on the concept of Foreign Keys. A foreign key is a key
attribute of a relation that can be referred in other relation.
Referential integrity constraint states that if a relation refers to a key attribute of a different
or same relation, then that key element must exist.

Relational Algebra
Relational database systems are expected to be equipped with a query language that can
assist its users to query the database instances. There are two kinds of query languages −
relational algebra and relational calculus.

Relational Algebra
Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes instances of relations as input
and yields instances of relations as output. It uses operators to perform queries. An operator
can be either unary or binary. They accept relations as their input and yield relations as
their output. Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and intermediate
results are also considered relations.
The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as follows −

 Select
 Project
 Union
 Set different
 Cartesian product
 Rename
We will discuss all these operations in the following sections.

Select Operation (σ)

It selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate from a relation.

Notation − σp(r)
Where σ stands for selection predicate and r stands for relation. p is prepositional logic
formula which may use connectors like and, or, and not. These terms may use relational
operators like − =, ≠, ≥, < ,  >,  ≤.
For example −

σsubject = "database"(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database'.

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σsubject = "database" and price = "450"(Books)

Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and 'price' is 450.

σsubject = "database" and price = "450" or year > "2010"(Books)

Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and 'price' is 450 or those
books published after 2010.

Project Operation (∏)

It projects column(s) that satisfy a given predicate.
Notation − ∏A , A , A  (r)
1 2 n

Where A , A  , A  are attribute names of relation r.

1 2 n

Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated, as relation is a set.

For example −

∏subject, author (Books)

Selects and projects columns named as subject and author from the relation Books.

Union Operation (∪)

It performs binary union between two given relations and is defined as −
r ∪ s = { t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
Notation − r U s
Where r and s are either database relations or relation result set (temporary relation).
For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold −

 r, and s must have the same number of attributes.

 Attribute domains must be compatible.
 Duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated.

∏ author (Books) ∪ ∏ author (Articles)

Output − Projects the names of the authors who have either written a book or an article or
both.

Set Difference (−)

The result of set difference operation is tuples, which are present in one relation but are not
in the second relation.
Notation − r − s
Finds all the tuples that are present in r but not in s.

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∏ author (Books) − ∏ author (Articles)

Output − Provides the name of authors who have written books but not articles.

Cartesian Product (Χ)

Combines information of two different relations into one.
Notation − r Χ s
Where r and s are relations and their output will be defined as −
r Χ s = { q t | q ∈ r and t ∈ s}

σauthor = 'xyz'(Books Χ Articles)

Output − Yields a relation, which shows all the books and articles written by xyz.

Rename Operation (ρ)

The results of relational algebra are also relations but without any name. The rename
operation allows us to rename the output relation. 'rename' operation is denoted with small
Greek letter rho ρ.
Notation − ρ x (E)
Where the result of expression E is saved with name of x.
Additional operations are −

 Set intersection
 Assignment
 Natural join

ER Model to Relational Model

ER Model, when conceptualized into diagrams, gives a good overview of entity-
relationship, which is easier to understand. ER diagrams can be mapped to relational
schema, that is, it is possible to create relational schema using ER diagram. We cannot
import all the ER constraints into relational model, but an approximate schema can be
generated.
There are several processes and algorithms available to convert ER Diagrams into Relational
Schema. Some of them are automated and some of them are manual. We may focus here on
the mapping diagram contents to relational basics.
ER diagrams mainly comprise of −

 Entity and its attributes

 Relationship, which is association among entities.

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Mapping Entity
An entity is a real-world object with some attributes.

Mapping Process (Algorithm)

 Create table for each entity.

 Entity's attributes should become fields of tables with their respective data types.
 Declare primary key.

Mapping Relationship
A relationship is an association among entities.

Mapping Process

 Create table for a relationship.

 Add the primary keys of all participating Entities as fields of table with their respective data types.
 If relationship has any attribute, add each attribute as field of table.
 Declare a primary key composing all the primary keys of participating entities.
 Declare all foreign key constraints.

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Mapping Weak Entity Sets

A weak entity set is one which does not have any primary key associated with it.

Mapping Process

 Create table for weak entity set.

 Add all its attributes to table as field.
 Add the primary key of identifying entity set.
 Declare all foreign key constraints.

Mapping Hierarchical Entities

ER specialization or generalization comes in the form of hierarchical entity sets.

Mapping Process
 Create tables for all higher-level entities.
 Create tables for lower-level entities.
 Add primary keys of higher-level entities in the table of lower-level entities.
 In lower-level tables, add all other attributes of lower-level entities.
 Declare primary key of higher-level table and the primary key for lower-level table.
 Declare foreign key constraints.

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Functional Dependency
The functional dependency is a relationship that exists between two attributes. It typically
exists between the primary key and non-key attribute within a table.

X   →   Y  

The left side of FD is known as a determinant, the right side of the production is known as a
dependent.

For example:

Assume we have an employee table with attributes: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Emp_Address.

Here Emp_Id attribute can uniquely identify the Emp_Name attribute of employee table
because if we know the Emp_Id, we can tell that employee name associated with it.

Functional dependency can be written as:

Emp_Id → Emp_Name   

We can say that Emp_Name is functionally dependent on Emp_Id.

Types of Functional dependency

1. Trivial functional dependency

 A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.
 The following dependencies are also trivial like: A → A, B → B

Example:

Consider a table with two columns Employee_Id and Employee_Name.  

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{Employee_id, Employee_Name}   →    Employee_Id is a trivial functional dependency as   
Employee_Id is a subset of {Employee_Id, Employee_Name}.  
Also, Employee_Id → Employee_Id and Employee_Name   →    Employee_Name are trivial 
dependencies too.  

2. Non-trivial functional dependency

 A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is not a subset of A.
 When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called as complete non-trivial.

Example:

1. ID   →    Name,  
2. Name   →    DOB  
Inference Rule (IR):
 The Armstrong's axioms are the basic inference rule.
 Armstrong's axioms are used to conclude functional dependencies on a relational
database.
 The inference rule is a type of assertion. It can apply to a set of FD(functional
dependency) to derive other FD.
 Using the inference rule, we can derive additional functional dependency from the
initial set.

The Functional dependency has 6 types of inference rule:

1. Reflexive Rule (IR1)

In the reflexive rule, if Y is a subset of X, then X determines Y.

1. If X ⊇ Y then X  →    Y  

Example:

1. X = {a, b, c, d, e}  
2. Y = {a, b, c}  

2. Augmentation Rule (IR2)

The augmentation is also called as a partial dependency. In augmentation, if X determines Y,
then XZ determines YZ for any Z.

1. If X    →  Y then XZ   →   YZ   

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Example:

For R(ABCD),  if A   →   B then AC  →   BC  

3. Transitive Rule (IR3)

In the transitive rule, if X determines Y and Y determine Z, then X must also determine Z.

1. If X   →   Y and Y  →  Z then X  →   Z    

4. Union Rule (IR4)

Union rule says, if X determines Y and X determines Z, then X must also determine Y and Z.

1. If X    →  Y and X   →  Z then X  →    YZ     

Proof:

1. X → Y (given)
2. X → Z (given)
3. X → XY (using IR2 on 1 by augmentation with X. Where XX = X)
4. XY → YZ (using IR2 on 2 by augmentation with Y)
5. X → YZ (using IR3 on 3 and 4)

5. Decomposition Rule (IR5)

Decomposition rule is also known as project rule. It is the reverse of union rule.

This Rule says, if X determines Y and Z, then X determines Y and X determines Z

separately.

1. If X   →   YZ then X   →   Y and X  →    Z   

Proof:

1. X → YZ (given)
2. YZ → Y (using IR1 Rule)
3. X → Y (using IR3 on 1 and 2)

6. Pseudo transitive Rule (IR6)

In Pseudo transitive Rule, if X determines Y and YZ determines W, then XZ determines W.

1. If X   →   Y and YZ   →   W then XZ   →   W   

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Proof:

1. X → Y (given)
2. WY → Z (given)
3. WX → WY (using IR2 on 1 by augmenting with W)
4. WX → Z (using IR3 on 3 and 2)
Normalization
 Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
 Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations.
It is also used to eliminate the undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and
Deletion Anomalies.
 Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using
relationship.
 The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

If a database design is not perfect, it may contain anomalies, which are like a bad dream for
any database administrator. Managing a database with anomalies is next to impossible.

 Update anomalies − If data items are scattered and are not linked to each other
properly, then it could lead to strange situations. For example, when we try to update
one data item having its copies scattered over several places, a few instances get
updated properly while a few others are left with old values. Such instances leave the
database in an inconsistent state.

 Deletion anomalies − We tried to delete a record, but parts of it was left undeleted
because of unawareness, the data is also saved somewhere else.

 Insert anomalies − We tried to insert data in a record that does not exist at all.

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Types of Normal Forms

There are the four types of normal forms:

Normal Form Description

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

2NF A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully
functional dependent on the primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-
valued dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and
joining should be lossless.

First Normal Form (1NF)

 A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
 It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only
single-valued attribute.
 First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their
combinations.

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Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute

EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385, 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389, 8589830302 Punjab

The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Second Normal Form (2NF)

 In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.
 In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the
primary key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In
a school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

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TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38

In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID

which is a proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

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TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

83 Computer

Third Normal Form (3NF)

 A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial
dependency.
 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.
 If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be
in third normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every
non-trivial function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

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EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicago

555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwich

666 John 462007 MP Bhopal

Super key in the table above:

1. {EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}.
...so on  

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-
prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent

on EMP_ID. The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively
dependent on super key(EMP_ID). It violates the rule of third normal form.

That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new
<EMPLOYEE_ZIP> table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP

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222 Harry 201010

333 Stephan 02228

444 Lan 60007

555 Katharine 06389

666 John 462007

EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:

EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

201010 UP Noida

02228 US Boston

60007 US Chicago

06389 UK Norwich

462007 MP Bhopal

Boyce Codd normal form (BCNF)

 BCNF is the advance version of 3NF. It is stricter than 3NF.
 A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X → Y, X is the super key of the
table.
 For BCNF, the table should be in 3NF, and for every FD, LHS is super key.

Example: Let's assume there is a company where employees work in more than one
department.

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EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

264 India Designing D394 283

264 India Testing D394 300

364 UK Stores D283 232

364 UK Developing D283 549

In the above table Functional dependencies are as follows:

1. EMP_ID  →  EMP_COUNTRY  
2. EMP_DEPT  →   {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}  

Candidate key: {EMP-ID, EMP-DEPT}

The table is not in BCNF because neither EMP_DEPT nor EMP_ID alone are keys.

To convert the given table into BCNF, we decompose it into three tables:

EMP_COUNTRY table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY

264 India

264 India

EMP_DEPT table:

EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

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Designing D394 283

Testing D394 300

Stores D283 232

Developing D283 549

EMP_DEPT_MAPPING table:

EMP_ID EMP_DEPT

D394 283

D394 300

D283 232

D283 549

Functional dependencies:

1. EMP_ID   →    EMP_COUNTRY  
2. EMP_DEPT   →   {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}  

Candidate keys:

For the first table: EMP_ID

For the second table: EMP_DEPT
For the third table: {EMP_ID, EMP_DEPT}

Now, this is in BCNF because left side part of both the functional dependencies is a key.

Fourth normal form (4NF)

 A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued
dependency.
 For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists, then
the relation will be a multi-valued dependency.
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Example

STUDENT

STU_ID COURSE HOBBY

21 Computer Dancing

21 Math Singing

34 Chemistry Dancing

74 Biology Cricket

59 Physics Hockey

The given STUDENT table is in 3NF, but the COURSE and HOBBY are two independent
entity. Hence, there is no relationship between COURSE and HOBBY.

In the STUDENT relation, a student with STU_ID, 21 contains two

courses, Computer and Math and two hobbies, Dancing and Singing. So there is a Multi-
valued dependency on STU_ID, which leads to unnecessary repetition of data.

So to make the above table into 4NF, we can decompose it into two tables:

STUDENT_COURSE

STU_ID COURSE

21 Computer

21 Math

34 Chemistry

74 Biology

59 Physics

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STUDENT_HOBBY

STU_ID HOBBY

21 Dancing

21 Singing

34 Dancing

74 Cricket

59 Hockey

Fifth normal form (5NF)

 A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and joining
should be lossless.
 5NF is satisfied when all the tables are broken into as many tables as possible in order
to avoid redundancy.
 5NF is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).

Example
SUBJECT LECTURER SEMESTER

Computer Anshika Semester 1

Computer John Semester 1

Math John Semester 1

Math Akash Semester 2

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Chemistry Praveen Semester 1

In the above table, John takes both Computer and Math class for Semester 1 but he doesn't
take Math class for Semester 2. In this case, combination of all these fields required to
identify a valid data.

Suppose we add a new Semester as Semester 3 but do not know about the subject and who
will be taking that subject so we leave Lecturer and Subject as NULL. But all three columns
together acts as a primary key, so we can't leave other two columns blank.

So to make the above table into 5NF, we can decompose it into three relations P1, P2 & P3:

P1

SEMESTER SUBJECT

Semester 1 Computer

Semester 1 Math

Semester 1 Chemistry

Semester 2 Math

P2

SUBJECT LECTURER

Computer Anshika

Computer John

Math John

Math Akash

Chemistry Praveen

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P3

SEMSTER LECTURER

Semester 1 Anshika

Semester 1 John

Semester 1 John

Semester 2 Akash

Semester 1 Praveen

Relational Decomposition
 When a relation in the relational model is not in appropriate normal form then the
decomposition of a relation is required.
 In a database, it breaks the table into multiple tables.
 If the relation has no proper decomposition, then it may lead to problems like loss of
information.
 Decomposition is used to eliminate some of the problems of bad design like
anomalies, inconsistencies, and redundancy.

Types of Decomposition

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Lossless Decomposition
 If the information is not lost from the relation that is decomposed, then the
decomposition will be lossless.
 The lossless decomposition guarantees that the join of relations will result in the same
relation as it was decomposed.
 The relation is said to be lossless decomposition if natural joins of all the
decomposition give the original relation.
Example:
EMPLOYEE_DEPARTMENT table:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

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The above relation is decomposed into two relations EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY

22 Denim 28 Mumbai

33 Alina 25 Delhi

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai

60 Jack 40 Noida

DEPARTMENT table

DEPT_ID EMP_ID DEPT_NAME

827 22 Sales

438 33 Marketing

869 46 Finance

575 52 Production

678 60 Testing

Now, when these two relations are joined on the common column "EMP_ID", then the
resultant relation will look like:

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Employee ⋈ Department

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

Hence, the decomposition is Lossless join decomposition.

Dependency Preserving
 It is an important constraint of the database.
 In the dependency preservation, at least one decomposed table must satisfy every
dependency.
 If a relation R is decomposed into relation R1 and R2, then the dependencies of R
either must be a part of R1 or R2 or must be derivable from the combination of
functional dependencies of R1 and R2.
 For example, suppose there is a relation R (A, B, C, D) with functional dependency
set (A->BC). The relational R is decomposed into R1(ABC) and R2(AD) which is
dependency preserving because FD A->BC is a part of relation R1(ABC).

Multivalued Dependency
 Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each
other but, both depend on a third attribute.
 A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a
third attribute that's why it always requires at least three attributes.

Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces two colors(white

and black) of each model every year.

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 Database Management System (CS/IT 4th SEM) unit 3

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Here columns COLOR and MANUF_YEAR are dependent on BIKE_MODEL and

independent of each other.

In this case, these two columns can be called as multivalued dependent on BIKE_MODEL.
The representation of these dependencies is shown below:

1. BIKE_MODEL   →  →  MANUF_YEAR  
2. BIKE_MODEL   →  →  COLOR  

This can be read as "BIKE_MODEL multidetermined MANUF_YEAR" and

"BIKE_MODEL multidetermined COLOR".

Join Dependency
 Join decomposition is a further generalization of Multivalued dependencies.
 If the join of R1 and R2 over C is equal to relation R, then we can say that a join
dependency (JD) exists.
 Where R1 and R2 are the decompositions R1(A, B, C) and R2(C, D) of a given
relations R (A, B, C, D).
 Alternatively, R1 and R2 are a lossless decomposition of R.
 A JD ⋈ {R1, R2,..., Rn} is said to hold over a relation R if R1, R2,....., Rn is a
lossless-join decomposition.
 The *(A, B, C, D), (C, D) will be a JD of R if the join of join's attribute is equal to the
relation R.

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Database Management System (CS/IT 4th SEM) unit 3

 Here, *(R1, R2, R3) is used to indicate that relation R1, R2, R3 and so on are a JD of
R.

Inclusion Dependency
 Multivalued dependency and join dependency can be used to guide database design
although they both are less common than functional dependencies.
 Inclusion dependencies are quite common. They typically show little influence on
designing of the database.
 The inclusion dependency is a statement in which some columns of a relation are
contained in other columns.
 The example of inclusion dependency is a foreign key. In one relation, the referring
relation is contained in the primary key column(s) of the referenced relation.
 Suppose we have two relations R and S which was obtained by translating two entity
sets such that every R entity is also an S entity.
 Inclusion dependency would be happen if projecting R on its key attributes yields a
relation that is contained in the relation obtained by projecting S on its key attributes.
 In inclusion dependency, we should not split groups of attributes that participate in an
inclusion dependency.
 In practice, most inclusion dependencies are key-based that is involved only keys.

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