Part A

LINEAR AERODYNAMICS

An aircraft behaviour in a domain of linear form is termed as linear aerodynamics. The

domain is one of the prominent technologies with its own limitations, yet it is in demand.
Linear aerodynamics philosophy involves conditions that can neglect non-linear results. The
scope contains small angles of attack, and Mach numbers are weak enough to ignore
compressibility consequences. Because of its Laplace equation dependency, the Vortex lattice
approach is used in linear aerodynamic methods[ CITATION Mel00 \l 1033 ].

Figure 1: Linear domain, the lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack. Source: [ CITATION
Mel00 \l 1033 ]

Such constraints make it difficult to use linear theory in certain areas of the flight envelope.
Linear theory is, therefore, quite helpful, because any aircraft spends time (and others, quite a
lot) in the linear domain. For eg, all take-off and landing take place at low speeds and ideally
below the stall mark.

Model a Linear Aerodynamic Wing by Using Tornado VLM

Tornado algorithm is an advanced variant of the traditional vortex lattice. Tornado algorithm
deals with moving objects such as heads, fins and ducks. The mathematical model consists of
a series of vortex lines organized in a horseshoe shape. Aerodynamics is evaluated using
VLM on Tornado for the parameters seen in Figure 2 and the NACA 2412 air foil is chosen
at the base and NACA 0012 at the top. The flight configuration shall be set up for a static
state at an altitude of 2000 m at a speed of 50m / sec.
 Figure 2: The Geometry of Aircraft Wing

Below Figure 3 and Figure 4 are the Wing positions for Vortex and Wake Layout and the
Panel Collocation points for regular, respectively. A downwash created by a segment of the
vortex that passes through a collocation point or when it is extended (see Figure 3 and Figure
4). The lime benefit of the downwash power reaches infinite as the distance between the
vortex line and the collocation point is shorter because they are reciprocal of each other.

Figure 3: 3D Wing Configuration Vortex and Wake Layout Figure 4: 3D Panel Collocation points on normal
 Figure 5: Aerodynamic Wings from Different Views

The liner wing configuration is evaluated at a wind speed of 50m / sec at an altitude of 2000
m for the field at an angle of attack of α = 5 o. Figure 6 and Figure 7 display the significance
of the various coefficient values derived from the static steady simulation of the TORNADO.

For angle of attack α = 5o

Figure 6: TORNADO Results Derivative for linear Taper, Sweep and Dihedral Wing Design
 Figure 7: TORNADO Calculation Results for linear Taper, Sweep and Dihedral Wing Design

The pressure center is not in a constant location. When the angle of attack increases, local pressure
varies at any point on the aerofoil. This, in turn, causes pressure center location change. Figure 8
displays the surface-wing pressure coefficient.

Figure 8: CP Distribution over the Wing Surface

The wing is further is tested for different values of the angle of attack and the results of lift,
drag and body forces and their corresponding coefficient are reported in table1.

Table 1: Body Forces and Lift with Drag Forces

Alpha =-2 Alpha =0 Alpha= 2 Alpha =4 Alpha =6
Wind Forces
Drag 11.4946 6.75 18.3608 46.8944 92.1026
Lift -2499.151 1195.3957 4892.0618 8585.9307 12272.069
Side -3.9413e-14 5.1209e-14 -2.0428e-14 -2.0683e-13 -6.5281e-14
Coefficient
Values
CL -0.13243 0.063343 0.25932 0.45496 0.65029
CD 0.000609 0.0003481 0.0009729 0.0024849 0.00488

RESULT

The wing is basically a cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed load over the
surface. Using derived expressions to load the wing to measure bending moment. Start by

integrating total load to determine the shear force: V ( x )=−∫ qr ( x ) dx . Then the bending

moment can be determined by integrating shear force: M ( x )=∫ V ( x ) dx . Graph 1 shows the
shear force value over the wing which is maximum at the base and minimum at the tip.

Graph 1: Shear Forces on main Wing

Graph 2 shows the bending moment over the wing surface it is minimum at the edges and maximum
at the base of the wing. The bending moment increases with the sweep of α.

Graph 2: Bending Moment on Main Wing

The graph 3 below shows the normalized value of lift coefficient Vs normalized spanstation
which shows the change in characteristics of curve at the negative value of Alpha. It is
mainly due to negative lift. The maximum value is reported at the base at α=0o

Graph 3: Normalization CL and Normalized Span Station

The graph 4 shows the Lift coefficient has a direct relation with the attack angle the maximum value
of lit coefficient is 0.65029 for the α=6o.
 Graph 4: Local CL on main wing and span station

The Graph 5 shows the force acting on the wing which is the resultant lift force and the
weight of aircraft. The maximum value is 832 kN at the α=6o.

Graph 5: Spanload on Main Wing Vs SpanStation

The linear wing design is tested for the steady conditions and static flight conditions at the
altitude of 2000 mts and the velocity of 50m/s. The coefficient obtained are reported in the
Graphs 6,7, and 8 with the sweep of α from -2o to 5o
Graph 6: The effect of swing of α (-2o to 5o) on CL, CD, CY, Cl, CM and Cn

Graph 7: The variation of CD Vs CL for swing of α (-2o to 5o)

 Graph 8: The variation of CL Vs CD, swing of α (-2o to 5o) and Cn

Use of a vortex lattice system, such as Tornado, to achieve aerodynamic strength in real-time
environments. The aircraft simulator can deliver very flexible simulations with very little
time to be used for evolving models. Personal computers today are not fast enough to
maintain the frame rate needed for effective visual simulation. However, the goal of real-time
simulation can be achieved with a few generations of faster computers.

THE VORTEX LATTICE METHOD SOLVING LINEAR AERODYNAMIC WING

DESIGN APPLICATIONS BOING B747.

The specification is also applicable to the boing B747-200 aircraft with the same altitude of
2000mts and the static wind speed of 50m / sec. The results obtained are shown in Figures 9
below for the value of the angle of attack = 5o.
 Figure 9: The aerodynamic Wing Design of Boing B747_200 Wing Aircraft

Traditionally, to build a full plane, one requires more than one wing. The two wings often
frequently in the design are the stabilizer and the tail, but certain elements are also necessary.
Such consecutive wings can be as complex as the main wing. Figures below demonstrate the
configuration of the Boing 747 200 aircraft in Tornado with three different wings, a bit like a
large ship.
 Figure 10: 3D Wing Configuration of Boing B747 200 Wing Aircraft

Figure 11: Boing B747 200 Wing Aircraft

By introducing a twist to the form, this means that the geometric angle of attack differs with
the distance, the template is no longer a flat board, but a subtly bent sheet. The twist would
allow the two outgoing vortex legs of the panel to be no longer parallel, see Figure 11.
 Figure 12: The pressure coefficient distribution over the surface of Boing B747_200 Wing Aircraft

The values of the various motion, drag and body forces and their corresponding coefficients
are derived from the measurement at the static state at wind speeds of 50m / and 5 o as shown
in Figures 13 and 14 below.

Figure 13: TORNADO Calculation Derivatives Results for Boing B747_200 wing design.
 Figure 14: TORNADO Calculation Results for Boing B747_200 wing design

The Boing B747_200 wing design is further tested for the steady conditions and static flight
conditions at the altitude of 2000 mts and the velocity of 50m/s. The coefficient obtained are
reported in the graphs 9,10 and 11 with the sweep of α from -2o to 5o

Graph 9: The effect of swing of α (-2o to 5o) on CL, CD, CY, Cl, CM
 Graph 10: Induce drag polar plot of CD Vs CL at a sweep of α from -2o to 5o (Boing B747_200 wing).

Graph 11: Figure 25. The variation of CL Vs CD, swing of α (-2o to 5o) and Cn (Boing B747_200 wing).

Table 2: Body Forces due to wind and the corresponding coefficients.

Alpha =-2 Alpha =0 Alpha= 2 Alpha =4 Alpha =6
Wind Forces
Drag 3308.0572 3514.7075 4950.699 7598.8198 11415.8462
Lift -9539.8008 73677.6832 156943.3239 240312.8781 324311.1147
Side 0.002202 0.00065703 -0.00083461 -0.0022655 -0.36147
Coefficients
CL -0.01467 0.11332 0.24139 0.36961 0.49881
CD 0.005088 0.00540 0.0076144 0.011687 0.017558

The maximum value of shear force is at the base of the wing and it is maximum for the α=-2 o as
shown in graph 12. As the lift force is minimum and the weight of aircraft is acting in downward
direction.
 Graph 12: Shear Forces on main wing of Boing B747_200

Below Graph 13 shows the force acting on the wing which is the resultant lift force and the
weight of aircraft. The maximum value is 8.2kN at the α=6o

Graph 13: Spanload on mail Wing of B747_200 Vs Spanstation.

The graph 14 below shows the normalized value of lift coefficient and the spanstation which
shows the change in characteristics of curve at the negative value of Alpha. It is mainly due
to negative lift.
 Graph 14: Normalized CL Vs Normalized spanstation of B747_200 for the sweep of α from -2o to 6o.

The aeroplane wing is a cantilever beam and the bending moment is due to load distribution
at the wing span. It is maximum at the base and minimum at the tip. The maximum value of
the bending moment is at the sweep α=-2o as reported in graph 15.

Graph 15: Bending moment on the main wing of B747_200 Vs Spanstation for the α from -2o to 6o.

The graph 16 shows the variation of lift coefficient over the B747 wing at the different angle
of attack. The maximum lift reported is 0.49681 at the value of α=6o
 Graph 16: Local CL on the main wing Vs Spanstation for the sweep of the α from -2o to 6o.

Applications of the unsteady vortex-lattice method in aircraft aeroelasticity

and flight dynamics for flapping wings.

Production of artificial wings capable of reproducing chambers and rotating deformations.

The artificial wing was able to imitate the two important features of the insect wings: the
spinning and camber process. It introduces a new law for Micro Air Vehicles (FWMAVs)
bio-inspired wings imitating insect wings. The wing was observed to have a higher lift /
power output in the flapping wing configuration [ CITATION Mel00 \l 1033 ].

UNSTEADY AERODYNAMICS

More sophisticated aerodynamic modelling can be used to precisely estimate aerodynamic

forces dependence and moments on dynamic motion time information. Wagner's and Theodor
's characteristics are the attributes of Wagner and Theodor. Precise effects from sudden flight
motions or short-term harmonic changes must be obtained. The most important difference in
this situation with approximate effect of wake on aerodynamics [ CITATION Fri04 \l 1033 ].

V ( t ) =(u ( t ) , v ( t ) , w ( t ) ) Eq.1

Ω=¿ Eq. 2
The kinematic parameters for unsteady aerodynamics in general motion analysis are shown in
Equations with V as Straight velocity and the angular velocity with Ω which changes over the
time.

Deflected Flap tested in TORNADO

The tapered flapped wing is checked under steady conditions with the back swept A = 35.
The flaps redirect an angle of 5.73o symmetrically. The wing was split into 10 panels as
shown in graph 15.

Figure 15:Flat plate wing with swept back A = 35o

 Graph 16: Pressure distribution for a deflection of 5.73°

The Figure 16 pressure distribution for the deflection of 5.73 as shows the plane shaped wing.
The indication with dash line shows the section of distribution of pressure which is calculated
in Figure. It illustrates the pressure distribution in the described portion of the wing at the
time of flap deflection. It is calculated that the three sets of tests have the same propensity.
The experimental pressure is smaller in about any level of the chord than the theoretical one.

FLAPPING FLAP

In this scenario, the hinge moment for a full-span flap of 40 percent on a rectangular wing is
determined. The rigid flap oscillates at a decreased frequency k = 0.47. The ABSOLUT
solver fits the Doublet-Lattice method while having a small gap. The graph 17 shows the
variation Chβ with an oscillating flap, the results are compared with the Hedman program for
the validation.
 Graph 17: Chβ for a wing with an oscillatory flap

Table 3: Parameters used for the test.

Variable Value

AR 4
nx 4
Ny(b/2) 12
α 0o
nstep 80

The general opinion is that the VLM is suitable for flapping flight simulations in situations
where no significant flow separation is needed. During the slowdown, the two most popular
load estimating techniques, i.e. Katz and Joukowski methods produce very similar results,
although certain differences occur over the chaos. The Leishman – Beddoes approach may
provide better drag predictions for different cases than the other two approaches, but may
also feature a constant negative offset in its history of time, which may sometimes be
important.
Proposed Modification in TORANDO MALTAL Code.

 Supersonic vortex lattice method

The supersonic vortex lattice method can be applied in such a way that the influence of each
vortex between the panels can be treated correctly.

 Time dependent factor can

Time-dependent factor could be implemented, which would mean that the lattice would
continue some distance after the trailing edge. Tornado could be made in order to
accommodate these changes, as it already features a segmented vortex sling. The solution
would be to model the starting vortex of each vortex sling and thus close every vortex path.

 Vortex potential.

Consider each panel's quarter chord points. A vortex runs from one point to the other, it could
be defined as a function of a vortex potential. In the example of electrical current, it’s the
voltage.

 The model to be added in TORNADO code for the Unsteady Vortex-Lattice Method
for Insect Flapping Wings.

The VLM approach is defined as Laplace equations workaround for a wing undergoing
general motion using vortex rings as a basic solution. The rings are mounted on the quarter
chord on the camber surface of the wing (bound vortex rings) as well as on the wedge (wake
vortex rings). Kutta allows the flow to detach smoothly from the trailing edge by eliminating
the vorticity of the bound trailing edge panels in the wake at each stage.

Where, the total aerodynamic is given as:

T

U mij U mij
Pij =I − Eq. 3
−|U mij |❑2

Pij n ij the projection being in orthogonal fashion which in flow direction is normal for the
panel. The ij th induced force of aerodynamics is given as:

U mij
F ij=D ij + Lij Pij nij Eq. 4
|U mij|
Lij Pij n ij is the Katz method which is perpendicular always with respect to airspeed and due to

wing’s motion where as Dij U ijm /|U mij | is in parallel fashion always; considering the
rectangular, static and symmetric angle of wing attacks the free stream horizontally.

CONCLUSION

The common perception is that the VLM is ideal for flapping flight simulations in cases not
requiring major flow separation. The Tornado program is tested for the linear wing design for
the different values of angle of attack and the results are validated. The same solver is used
for the Boing B474 and the capacity of the solver is explored for the steady and unsteady
states and static flight conditions. The modified method is proposed for the flapping wings
simulation which is to be further implemented in the solver part of the code. The two most
popular methods of load estimation at the time of downstroke, i.e. Katz and Joukowski
techniques yield predictions quite similar, although certain variations can exist over the
upstroke.

References
Fritz, Tracy, Long & Lyle, 2004. A Parallel, Object-Oriented Unsteady Vortex Lattice Method for
Flapping Flight. Journal of Aircraft - J AIRCRAFT, pp. 1275-1290.

Melin, T., 2000. A Vortex Lattice MATLAB Implementation for Linear Aerodynamic Wing Applications,
s.l.: s.n.

Melin, T. et al., 2018. Melin, Tomas & Zhang, Mengmeng & Gastaldi, Alessandro. (2018).
Implementation Of A Vortex Lattice Method In A Heterogeneous Programming Language
Environment, s.l.: s.n.

Roccia, et al., 2013. Modified Unsteady Vortex-Lattice Method to Study Flapping Wings in Hover
Flight. AIAA Journal., pp. 2628-2642.