Brought to you by: Raha UAV

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Model Aeroplane
Building
sketch by sketcla

PeterHolland

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ARGUSBOOKS

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ArgusBooksLimited
WolseyHouse
WolseyRoad
HemelHempstead
HP24SS
Hertfordshire
England

Firstpublished
byArgusBooks1987
@ Argus BooksLtd 1987
W. P. Holland
@ etfittustrations
Reprinted1988

No part of this publicationmay

All rightsreserued.
reproducedin any form, by print,photography, microfilm
or any other meanswithoutwrittenpermissionfrom the
publisher.

lsBN 0 85242902 9

Phototypesettingby Photocomp Ltd., Birmingham

Printedand bound by LR PrintingServicesLimited
Manor Royal,Crawley,West Sussex,RH102ON
t.

MODELAEROPLANE
BUILDING
SI(ETCHBY SKETGH
Contents

Page
Introduction 6
Chapter1 Whichmaterials, where? 7
Chapter 2 Building withsheet 17
Chapter3 Profilefuselages 30
Chapter4 Openframemodels 35
Chapter5 Mountingtheengine 53
Chapter6 Betterfuselages 60
Chapter7 Aroundtheengine 72
Chqpter8 Hatches, cockpits 81
Chapter9 Betterwingsandtails 89
Chapter10 Hingeingcontrolsurfaces 100
Chapter11 Wingandtailattachment 110
Chapter12 Struts 115
Chapter13 Landinggear(undercarriages) 120
Chapter14 Snowandwater 133
Chapter15 ElectricflightandCOz 138
Chapter16 'Foam'construction 143
Chapter17 Morematerials 150
Chapter18 Coveringandfinishing 156
Chapter19 Propellers for rubberpower 164
Chapter20 Linkagetipsfor R/C,C/LandF/F 170
Chapter21 Riggingandchecking 176
Chapter22 Minorrepairs 181
Chapter23 Workshop tips 185
Introduction

To those who really care,the building stage of a model aircraft is

everybit as interestingand rewardingas its flight perforrnance. Why be
just a flier of models when you can have the pride of creating the
machine from raw materials and accessories?Building model air-
frames (that's everythingbut the engine,wheels and contr:olgear) is
not difficult. The more you build, the easier it gets, so more advanced
projects can be tackled.
This book takes the builder through constructionstage by stage,
coveringthe subjectfrom the various aspectsof aeromodelling,from
free-flight,radio control and control line,via rubberpower, glidersand
power models,includingelectricpower.
It shows the basic"tried and tested forms of construction and
provides hints on the methods used.
The 876 sketch details lead the modeller through from simple to
more elaborate constructional forms, as befits lifferent types of
modelsand the use of differentmaterials. . . The baredescriptionof the
book, written as above, only sounds technical . . . You are invited to
dive in," vh the sketches,and see how traditional aeromodelling
construction has progressedsince the 1930s,when balsa wood was
first used, to the better ways of using that same material today. The
latest techniques have ensured that aeromodelling has grown and
grown, to further improve the art of flying reliably and efficiently.lf you
are not a contest enthusiast,the hints and tips will also help you to
makea betterjob of that next model and later attemptmachineswhich
were apparentlycomplicated.
Whetheryou build from plan designs(thereis a vast rangeavailable
in the Argus SpecialistPublicationsrange)or whetheryou startwith kit
models and progressto own designs,this book should be a constant
reference.lt can also aid a designer in the choice of construction and
guide the unwary through hitherto unfamiliarforms of assembly.
Making things easierfor yourself as you make that next model is
really doing yourself a favour. Read and act upon the proved
techniquesin this book and the model you produceshould do you a
favour too!

6
GHAPTER
1

Which Materials,Where?
Types of model
ldentification
Basicwoodwork

First let us find out what construction is needed for which type of
model, and at the same time see just how many different classesof
model are around for your enjoyment.
Rubberduration (sketch1:1) needs ultra light construction,but the
fuselage has to withstand the pull and twisi of a powerful skein,-of
rubber.1:2 shows a duration glider which could be free flight or radio
controlledand tow-launched.Strongwings with lightnessneededhere.
Power duration is fast and precise in performanceand needs to be
carefullymade; stiff and light (1:3). For fun flying, anything that is
stableand controllable,and takesthe owner's fancy,can be classedas
a sport model. 1:4 shows a pseudo 'jet' liner (actually driven by a
propellerin a slot).

Glider (twline)

Rubber durotim

1:3 p,o
Unorthodox soori models

7
 Slope pylon rocer

Slope oerobotic

Light wind slope smrer

Electric oerobotic

1:11

Radio control is the rule rather than the exceptionin these days of
restrictedareasfor flying.The gliderson this page are for soaringfrom
breezyslopes. 1:5 is a racerand has thin wings for speed,often fully
sheeted over. For more fun, the lighter aerobatic model (1:6) has
rudder, aileron and elevator controls and short wingspan. On less
breezy days, slope enthusiastscan use larger slower models with
d u r a t i o nt h e a i m , a s i n 1 : 7 .
Gliders can be helped aloft from flat fields by use of a fixed or
removable'powerpod'. This carriesa small dieselor glowplug engine,
often above the balancepoint (C.G.)of the model. lts purpose is to
give the glider a gentleclimb, insteadof a tow-launch.Needlessto say,
the model then needs to be fuel proofed properly and strengthened
where the power pod is to be fixed. A hybrid is the electric powered
glider,which needsa light airframeto allow for batteryweight, and the
sportsor aerobaticelectricmodel with similarconstructionalconsider-
ations (1:9).Power modelsflown for sport can be simple sheet knock-
aboutslike 1:10,or largeand carry radio controlfortraining purposes
( 1: 11 ) .

8
 1:12

Rodio control oerobotic ,

Rodio control pylon rocer

1:14

---)

\. Goodymr
Control line combot profile rocer

1:17
Conirol line stunler

When you know how to fly radio control models reallywell, the subject
can be more elaborate. lrrd6e-d,with standard balsa and kindred
: constructional materials,almost any shapecan be built - as building
skills pregress.
A contestaerobaticmachinein the classof 1:12 would
be fully skinned,light, stiff and cleanly shaped, having a retractable
undercarnageand internalsilencersystem.
Sport aerobatic radio control models can be made to look less
functionaland more scale-like,although easy accessto the engine is
often consideredmore importantthan good looks,see 1:13.
Such an airframe might be used for control-line f\ring, if scaled
down. Pylonracerstoo {1:14)needto be reallytough, the popular size
is for .20cu.in. engines. Fully sheeted structuresthese, some with
glassfibrefuselages.
Control-linemodels vary in construction from light open frame
combat models as in 1:15 and elaboratelight structuresfor high
performancestuntsas seenat 1:16,to a simple profilefuselageas seen
in the 'Goodyear'classof controlline racerin 1:17.Beginners'models
can be almost entirelyflat sheet.

9
ldentity parade
Let'snamethe basicpartsof a model,so that what followswill be
clearer.Sketch1:18givesthe basicsfor a radiocontroltrainer,but the
generalarrangement canwell applyto almostanysubject.Reference is
made to the basic airframe;other componentslike undercarriage
(landinggearlwill be dealtwith in laterchapters.
Thisbookdoesnot attemptto describethe designof.amodelfrom an
aerodynamicpoint of view, but the construction,in relatlonto the part
it playsin a particularmodel,is important,so we haveto identify,for
example,wingsthat needstrongconstruction from thosewhichcanbe
lightlymade.1:19showshow to identifythe proportionsof the wing
(ortail).Low aspectratiowould be shortspan,wide chord,highaspect
ratiolong span,narrowchord.
Thewing section(aerofoil)of which a selectionappearsin 1:20may
now be identified

Wing (troiling edge

Toil mmenl

Leoding edge

Nose mmeil

1:1I ,-
r
Cenfre of
Grovity

Proiected side
oreo of wing

Aspect rotio of 5 to I

Combered with undercomber

High lift undercombered

Combered (floi bortm)

10
 1:21

Rodiollycut +-
("Ribsrock") Stiff

eosily-

Tongent cut plonks

-
plonks
:K\s
Elevotor ond
rudder sheel

Strip reinfscment

Troiling edge

Block corling
,d)
1:22 F l e x i b l es t r i p s
Leoding edge

(==z<<
---

Shokestripsevenly
---(]

Timber!
Balsawood is the traditionalmaterial,light, easily worked and
availablefrom modelshopsthat specialise in-modelaiicraftsupplies.
Sketch1:21showshow the basicmaterialin sheetform is cut from
differentareasof a treetrunk. Tange-nt cutsyield sheetswhich
to curl acrosstheir grain,for use in sheei skinningover wings "r" ".ry
and
roffing into tubes.Sheetscut radiatty lacrossthe ririgs oi giouvthlcan
be used for ribs and other parts which need to be-stiffer"across the
width of the sheet.Mostsheetis sold in 36in.lengthsbut someshops
stock48in.sheet.1:22 showsin how many pla-cesbalsa-formsthe
structure.In this-examplemost of it is sheet:thick for the fuselage
gides,thin for the. wing skins which reinforcea sheet and strTp
framework.Often,the tail surfacesare thick sheet,but aieas like the
wingtipsand enginecowlingare soft blocksof batsa,or inicf sheet
laminated.strip balsavariesin.strength, so carefutm6tcrri"g;t;i;ip;
for likeduw is important.1:23showsoneway of testing,uuiLe caretul
in the shop.No shopkeeper wantsbrokenbiis! Chectii at rromefrom
your stockof strip.

11
 M o d e l l i n sk n i f e Merol srroighledge

Soore sheet lo
support stroightedge

Lost strip
tffit I
Edgeof lost sheer
lo be cul

towords siroiglrtedge

Cut holf-woy throgh

Turn sheel over lo cmplele cul

:29
x
Lost sheet being cut Pocking slrip
Edge of lost sheei

Strip from sheet

Anotherway of makingsurestripsaresimilarin strengthis to cutthem
from the samesheetof balsa,with the aid of a metalstraight-edge to
guidethe modellingknifeas seenin 1:24.Do not allowthe bladeto
wanderinto the strip beingcut,but try to follow what is shownin 1:25
and 1:26.As the sheetis usedup, the straight-edge will rockand the
sheet will slip. To avoid this, gfue glass paper patchesunder the
straight-edge to grip the wood and lay a pieceof sheet behindthe
remainsof the one beingcut,to supportit, as in 1:27- a few piecesof
Sellotapehelpto stop movementof the sheetremnant.
Thicksheetwill be difficultto strip accurately.Do not try to cut it in
one strokebut makeseveralpasseswith the bladeupright,turn the
sheetover and cut to meetthe first cut. The strip shouldbe flat on its
cut edge . . . practicemakesperfect(see1:28).
Commercial balsastrippersmay be used,but makesurethattheyare
heldlevel,otherwisethe stripproducedwill be chamfered, as shownin
1:29.However,if a stripof thinnerwood is placedunderthe stripperor
tapedto it, the bladeshouldremainuprightas in 1:30.
Largesectionstrip or sheetcan be planedwith a modellingplane.
Holdit at a slightangleas in 1:31to get a cleanslicingaction.Balsa
sandsso easilythat home-madesandingand shapingtools can be
madeas in 1:32,for workingodd corners.

12
 >((('-\
?-;--
Wor kpiece

1:31

U ndercorrioge
beorers
'> >> 4
!
f R",nf-.*.n, o,
>/ ,l_-rconrrol horn positions

v.
Fuseloge side doublers

6ry
Rib reinforcement

I n s e rw i n g r i p ,

_->'
\

\9 \-/
Hardwood
The correctbotanicalterm for balsa is 'hardwood',although it is
anythingbut hard. Conversely,what the woodyard salesmancalls
'softwood'is,to us, hard.lt hasbeenthusfor manyyears,so we must
continuein this book.
Hardwood,as far as the model is concerned,is spruceor pine for
light strongsparsand cther strip structure.'Proper'hardwoodslike
beechareusedfor rnounting'the engineandat otherpointswherehigh
stresses arepresent,andwherecomponents may be boltedon. lt is too
heavyfor usein largequantities.Sketch1:33showswhere it may be
needed,togetherwith sprucefor thosespars.

Plyrarood
The lightest'gaboon'plywood (from woodyards)is fine for areas
wherethin ply is specified,
suchas somefuselageformers,but a high
quality birch ply is best for highly stressedparts like an engine
bulkheadon a larger model, wing braces and in thin sheets for

13
strengthening(doublers).Model shops selt ply down to 1/anin.thick
-uied - it
may . be. rolled into tubular fuselages or spdringly on ,light-
weights'. Some ply has a thickercentie lamination:choos6ihis wheie a
part has to be equallystiff in both directions(compare1:3s and l:36,
which shows the latter).

Gutting ply
. Thin ply is best cut with a knife on a pieceof hardwood or hardboard
(1:37).Thickerqly ca_nbe sawri,provided the edge is supportect
closeto
the sawcut,ds in 1:38,otherwiseit may have iragged edge.
cut into, or out of holes, at the corners.when re-rioving-areasfrom
the centreof, say, a former. A weak point occursif knife-cu[scrois. l:3g
shows the method and 1:40 an alternativeif you have woodworking
'chiselsand gouges.Just presshard with a sideways
rockingactionto
help the chisel to cut. Generallyspeaking,pty up to and inclu-dingliain.
thick can be cut with a knife and l/sz aid-y*in can be cut with-sharp
scissors,provided the shapes are not intricate.
. .Thicker shapes are best sawn with a fine-tooth saw or a hacksaw
blade, or on a fretsaw (if the shapes are compfex).

Ben& eosily ocrcs groin

Tin lid used os lemplote

Support neor sowcut line

Drill c puncir cornero

Goge to cut curves

14
 Tidying up cut edgesis best done by strokingfrom edge to centreof
edge as in 1:41,using a file or glasspaperon a block.A really sharp
plane set fine is permissiblefor thick ply on straight runs.

Stock balsa sestions

Your model shop may have a wide range of pre-cut strip balsa, in
some cases more than those shown in sketch 1:42. These typical
sectionsare the most popular;strip is cut in sizesfrom 1Aain. squareup
to t/zin. square, and rectangular strip from Vtein.x 1/ein.and in like
proportionsup to 1in.x1/zin..Dowel (round)is not alwaysavailablebut
is not so widely used.The pre-shapedleading and trailing edges are
sofd in sizesfrom %in. to s/ein.and trailing edge from l/ein.x %in. up to
2in. x %in. Sheet comes in thicknessesfrom l/ezin.up to %in. and in
widths of 2in., 3in., 4in., and even 6in.. lf a component is to be of
uniform strength,avoid sheet which is soft on one edge and hard on
the oppositeone. Such wood is best reservedfor small components,
when they may be placed where the sheet offers the appropriate
density.

Adhesives
PVA white glue is most popular, but the standard woodworking
variety does leaV€a rubbery ridge at the joint edge when sanded,so
choosea 'sandable'typefor the exposedareas.Small bottlesare easier
to handle,but fill them up from the economy size bottle. lf the spout is
too large,givinglargeglobulesof glue,add a smalltube to the tip as in
1:43.Balsacement,much favouredsome yearsago, is a solvent based
adhesive,dries quickly and sands easily.lt is still used on the lighter
free-flight models by some. Cyanoacrylate(Superglue) is fast for

Direction of ploning or filing strokes

I
'^','ry*_,il
Silicone rubber tube

)
Long spdt on
smoll bottle

15
 :h
Ploslic rod

Keep upright
when not in use
Coffee stirrer

\_ -arr
| --)72/
v///-
,-,--//'-
Y

Cordbord box
support for epoxy boilles

Fine glue l;ne -st.ong

Thick glue line - weok
rae 1/
constructionand may be consideredworth the extra cost (look at the
time saved).Placecomponentstogether and spot the glue on to be
drawn in by capillaryaction.lf the cap gets clogged,makea new one as
in 1:M.
Plywood doublers and even large areas of sheet,used for this
purpose are best fixed with contact adhesive.Spreadingthis can be
wasteful,so use a fine serratededge like a discardedpiecl of hacksaw
blade in a wood block(1:45).
F-a9tepoxy (five minute working time) is arso popular, but adds
yveigfrt.The type in twin bottlesis convenient,with long spouts,but the
liquidstend to be sluggish in reachingthe spout,when invertingthem
for use. Provided the caps are secure, they can be kept inlverted
between use by propping them up in a cut-down cardboardbox, as
shown in 1:46. The adhesivecan be spread or transferredwith any
scrap of balsa, lolly stick or spill of card, but old plasticstirrersfrom
coffee machines have a groove in the handle, which holds extra
a.dhes.ive.Th" epoxy can be mixed on a few strips of maskingtape on
the edge of the work table.The tape can be discardedwhen it-becomes
coveredwith cured epoxy. Never mix up more than can be applied in
five minutes.In hot weather,it paysto have a few quarrytiles or other
thick ceramic or metal blocks in the refrigerator.Seilotapingtheir
surfacebeforecoolingthem makesa mixing irea and the coolinj effect
p_revents-the epox! settingtoo quickly,beforeit gets to the joint. (1:47}
lf gnoxv is warmed rn the joint, it will flow easily. . . Mat<ethat glue line
thin! (1:48)
In the following chapters you can get 'stuck into' some actual
b u i l d i n g. . .

16
CHAPTER
2

Buifdingwith shedt
Cutting out
Doublecrutchfuselages
Wings Seealso
Tails Ghapters1,5 and6

This is the start of actually putting models together. Sheet balsa

constructionis examined as the basis for further details in following
chapters.
Firstto mark out shapesof componentsonto the wood, a favourite
method, in the absenceof stick-ontemplates or printed wood, is to
carbondown from the drawing,or prickaroundthe outlinewith a blunt
pin,as in sketch2:1.why blunt?Balsais so softthatthe grainclosesup
easily,so a blunt pin leavesa better mark. For straightedges,it is only
necessaryto mark at the corners,then with the plan removed,place a
steel rule from point to point and cut.
curvescan be drawn,usingthe pinholesas a guide,then cut so that
the grain tendsto draw the knife bladeaway from the componentas in
2:2.lt the knifeis usedin the oppositedirection,it may accidentallyrun
into the componentand split it, as 2:3 shows.

Blunt pin morkingoullines

Cul between
morks \
Drow oround morks Pin finds edge of wood
2:1 P lon

2:2 2:3
e Cmpo^enr-a-.--
uroln

Component -- =-<l*11'.r_2

s
t Itb e*f iil 17
jlll't*Efll
 LI
t'-'!=l
l-

1-=l

JI
>-
For sho Wide curves ond stroight

2:4

Doublers o fomers with

1--r"r"

Fillers fit between

overlopped strips

Afthough complicatedshapeslike those in 2:4 may not be dealt with

in this chapter,the arrows indicbtethe better direction in which to cut.
Sharp curvesare best dealt with by using a sharp pointed blade,long
straight cuts with a curved one (for long blade life) and gentle curves
with a less pointed blade
By laying part shapesout carefully,they can sometimesbe cut using
a common line, leavingvery little waste wood. Takecare,though, that
the parts all lie with the correctgrain direction.See the fictional layout
of 2:5.
In connectionwith the constructionof fuselages,our first exercisein
this chapter, some formers will be needed. These may be plain
rectanglesof sheet, or reinforcedas in 2:6 by adding strips_ofbalsa
along the short grain edges. They may also be assembled from
rectangularstrips as in 2:7,leavingan accesshole in the centre.lt is of
little importancethat the top and bottom are not flush, in fact it makes

18
the cornersstrong and providesmore joint area for other parts of the
structure.Fillerscan be addedas in 2:8.

Gross crutch
Thesimplafuselagejn2:9 usesa lside profilel shapedsheetof balsa,
say %oin.thick for small models,up to 3/'rein.
thick for those of say, 5ft.
wingspan.
The profileis made rigid by a secondone in plan view, cut to fit each
side,and small gussetshapedformers,all as seenin2:10. The resultant
crosssectionatthe wing is as 2:11 and further aft as 2:12.
The fuselagedependson the covering(dopedtissue,nylon or shrink
film) to resisftorsionalmovement(twisting),but the edgesof the sheet
can be cappedas in 2:13,to aid coveringand stiffenthe edges.
Normally,the coveringwill shrink in to produceinterestingconcave
shapesat the front and rear of the wing mount or pylon, but soft balsa
block can be placedhere as in 2:14 and near the nose to reinforcethe
enginemounting.Alternativelythe blockscan be restrictedto the more
sharply curved areas and sheet bent to fill-in or support an acetate
windscreen,as seen in sketch2:15.

Verticol orofile

2:9 T y p i c oI .-."J
J \T
K
Horizontol profile

Line of covering

2:13
2;11
2;12

Windscreen

Block
 Check formers wilh set squore Guide lines

Formersflush *irh edgei

=>< /a,---
-
Polythene over Plon

- '-'----'-
Sides glued lo edges
Doublersinserted(clip of botfonr

'\-/

2:16

2:17

2:18

Side flot on boord

2:19

Box fuselages
lf the fuselagehas a flat bottom, that sheet, cut and pinned to a flat
board,can be the basisof construction. Mark the positionsof each
formerand pin and gluethem in placevertically,checkingwith a small
triangleof cardor a matchbox(2:16)Thepinsarewithdriwn whenthe
glue is set,then sidesadded,as 2:17.lf the sidesoverlapthe bottom
sheet,thgy shouldbe setdown ontothe polythenecoveringthe board
or plan.lf thereareany reinforcing stripsor 'doublers'theygo in at this
time.A fuselagewith a flat top canbe built in an invertedposition.The
foregoingpre-supposes that the formersare at g0" to the top in the
latterexample,or bottomin the formerdescription.
lf the sides are the prime structuralmembers,position them
verticallyabouta centreline,checking thatthe formersareverticaland
at 90" to that line. See sketch2:19. lf the formers are addedto one
fuselagesidelaidflat on the board,beware. . . thistemptingmethodis
onlygoodfor thosepartswhich area straighttaperto thetail or paraltel

20
 all the way. Use a card templateshapedto the true angle between
f o r m e ra n ds i d ea s i n 2 : 1 9 .
lf sides are assembledas in 2:20, placingthe formersverticalin
relationto oneside,theywill all be at the wrongangle.As a precaution,
--rnark both sides whifsllhev are clipped together-at each former
positionas seenin 2:21.Thenthey canbe assembled whilethe glue is
still softandthe formerscheckedat eachposition,on bothsheetias in
2:22.
Carryingthis systemfurther, notchesmay be cut in the top and
bottomedgesof the sides,to acceptsmall lugs in eachformer,thus
effectively lockingthem in the correctposition,as in 2:23.Thefuselage
can be assembledupright,or on its side with packingblocksat nose
and tail to keepit true.lt is best,howeverto markcentrelinesin each
formerand alignthem on one drawnon the board.
Thegraindirectionon the formersshouldreallybe from sideto side,
so that the lugs are strong,os in 2:24,otherwisethey may breakoff
eitherwhile cuttingthem,or on assemblywith the sides(2:251.

Perpendiculor lo centre I ine

\ Fqmer
\_

B u i l d i n gb o r d

Mork for formers

2:2O
2:21
Referencemorks
2:22
Centre line
\
B u i l d i n gb o o r d

Fomers with
lugs into slots

2:23 Verticol I
Sroin
$

x 2:25
 Doubler strips can also serve as lugs for this type of construction,
resuftingin a strongerformer, as 2:26.
As a generalrule, sheetfuselages,which haveall four facessolid,fall
into two categories:the first of which have thicker sheeton the sides
than on top and bottom, as seenin sketchsection2:27.In this case,the
top and bottom sheet can have the grain running acrossthe fuselage,
to add strength to the sides,or lengthwise.Alternativelythe top and
bottom sheetcan be thickerthan the sides as in 2:28, in which caseall
sheetshave lengthwisegrain.The top and bottom may be roundedoff
slightly to improve the appearance,but excessthinning at the edges
may occur, unless a referenceline is drawn on the edge of the thick
sheet,as 2:29.This will show up as the sandingproceeds,whereupon
the sandingis halted.Cornersmay be reinforcedwith a squarestrip as
in 2:30. This increasesgluing area,so thinner sheet may be chosen
{note the cross grain top.)
On a glider, the sides can be terminatedin a laminatednoseblock;
2:31 shows grain direction.lt can be steppedto take the sides as in
2:32,or the sidesoverlappedand blendedin as in 2:33.

l
Sides

\
Verti col Thin sheet ocross
Strip ocros lo
gro in
form lugs
fomer

2:26 I
*
Guide line
2:28

A
Qverlop required
ofter sonding
Cenlre lominotion fore
ond oft io toke
Strip for exlro gluing oreo
ond corner reinforcment

1'2;
,/
Norched ft.r..)*2:3O ourer lomimiionin noich

2:32
Alternotive - overlop side ioinl

22
 lf long thin fuselagesor tail booms are bound to securethem while
the glue sets, avoid making a single binding as seen in z:34. Two
bindingsdonealternately for a coupleof turns eachshouldequalisethe
twisting force as in 2:35.

Solid wings
The smallestof models can be allowed to get away with thin flat
unshapedwing crosssection,but for a betterperformancegive it some
camber,by sandingthe top surfaceas in 2:36. Largermodels can use
thickersheet,preferablywith a joint, so that the leading edge is hard
and the rest soft.This is strong and light and seen in 2:37.Conversely,
sport modelsstill fty quite well with plain flat sheetwings, roundedoff
slightly at the edges. lt is the need for strength that dictatesthicker
material,which in turn will be better if shapedto a reasonableaerofoil
section.More accuracycan be achievedby laminatingtwo sheets of
balsa,eachsandedas seenin 2:38for a camberedsectionor as 2:3gfor
a symmetricalone. The dimensionsare only for comparisonas are the
sectionsresultingin 2:40.The edges of a sheet can be marked clearly
as a guideto sanding,first on a flat board,then on packingwhen turned
over for the secondsanding 12:41and 421.

Medium or soft
2:38
-t
t_ ffi
-:j^
Join ofter sonding a'te"
Join ofter sonding _-l_
[ffi r;lz
l- Eq"ol

+ffi No comber
T
2:39
2;4

| ) sond on flot surfoce

invert cn pocking ond fmm

23
Gurved sheet
Lightweight wings can be cambered by curling the sheet over
temforary;forme' r]bs,as seen in2;43.This is afar cry from the chunky
conirol line wing just described.The camberedsheetwill needspacing
ribs to enableitio seatin the fuselagewithout losing its camber.These
ribs are glued to the wing and dihedralis incorporatedby sandingthe
centreends, beforejoining with tape over the glue. Sketch2:44 shows
this in section. 'Jedelski'wing,
One form of sheet constructionis known as the
which is not the name of the aerofoil section, but the method of
constructionitself.A thick,hard,shapedleadingedge is proppedup on
wedqe shaped ribs, as seen in 2;45, butt joined by its rear edge to a
curleOthin sheet.The ribs hold it in shapeand remainexposed.lt helps
if the joint line is markedin the ribs as shown.
Avoid highly arched sections when choosing this method. This
means that less rigidity is available,and wire bracing may be needed
on towline gliders.Sketch2:46 suggestsreinforcementat the attach-
ment point of the bracing.The sectionin 2:47 is taken spanwise.
Edges curl do*n

l/16" or 3/32" sheet

Dope botim surfoce

Sond ond butl ioin,

odd tope or nylon
strips

Temporory ribs
Do not glue lo wing

2:43 2:44
2:45
(4 Locotion mork for ioint

Open rib syslm Exposedribs support

Hord leoding edge Thin curved sheel t r o i l i n ge d g e
shoped on lop surfoce
Ply plote glued on top
Sew with threod or *ir
to ply rib below

D e e pp l y r i b

24
 Double skin wings
By adding a secondskin to the wing, with space and ribs between
12:48and 49) a marked improvement results.Webs betweenthe ribs
I
locateand strengthenboth ribs and skinsas in 2:50,so thatfor a little
extra effort--strong, warp resistant wings result. They can be flat
l

bottomed, which are easy to assemble on the lower sheet, sym-

metrical,or nearsymmetrical{for control line or radio control).Packing
i s n e e d e du n d e r t h el o w e r s k i na s s e e ni n 2 : 5 1 , t h i ss k i n b e i n gp i n n e d
down, so that it partly conforms to the shape before being held
accuratelyby the ribs. So now we come to the ribs themselvesfor the
first time.
Whetherthe wing is to rely on the skinsalonefor strength,or to haye
spars,is not importantat the cutting-outstage.A ply or metal template
should ensurethat a parallelchord wing has identicalribs. Cut in the
directionof the arrowsshown in 2:52.This ensuresthat the blade does
not dig into the rib or template.
Flat bottom ribs can share a common bottom edge line, or the edge
of a sheet,as shown in 2:53.This is economicin wood and ensuresthat
the grain directionis right.

a / Thicker sheet
'

2:49 Thinseoion
2:5O R.r.,"n..,,6f
2:51 Guide lines

Loding edge srrip

Bottomskin
Webs or spor
P o c k i n gs t r i p

Cut from edge

Position nexf set of ribs
to sove wood ond ensure Cut with metol stroight
correcl groin direclion edge to guide blo'!

--.--Ri; olrody cul

25
 Bolts or studding Sonded surfoce

holes cleor of sPors

Stop from hordwood

Use to check wing

2:57 900
-- Finol cut

Direction of culs

2:59
cuts

Alternatively,the ribs may be cut by the 'sandwichmethod'.Two

templatesclamp a set of rectangularbalsa'blanks',using lengthsof
screwedrod (studding)and nuts.lf thereare not manyribs,use bolts
or evenpin them togetherand clampthem in a vice,seesketch2:54.
The whole blockof blanksis then glasspapered down to the levelof
the templates,using a sandingblock.Spar positions are marked,if
required,and the finishedblockwill appearas in 2:55.Ribscan be
checkedfor length by shufflingthem and placingtogetheragainon a
squared-off pieceof ply as in 2:56.Notchesmaythenbe cut by pinning
the ribs togetheraccuratelyand makingcutswith a razorsaw or iunior
hacksawas in 2:57,finishingoff with a flat file of the correctthickness
(orthinner),as in 2:58.Notethe anglednotchat the leadingedgein this
example,for a squarestripof wood seton edgefor that purpose(more
aboutthis in laterchapters)
Forknife-cutnotcheson ribswhichareadditionally notched,or when
there are only a few, adopt the cutting directionsin sketch 2:59,
otherwisethe cornersof the notchesmay breakoff. Usea pointedknife
bladefor the job.

26
 . A good type of constructionfor sheetskinnedwings terminatesat the
l_egling gdgewith a false'leadingedge'strip,in theiequenceshown in
2:60. lt is particularlyeffectivewhere the leading edge is blunt and
deep.
- -Iailing edges can be made by chamfering onrcheet to aeeept the
second.The ribs taper right down to the front of this chamfer,as seen
in 2:61.A strongeredge resultswhen a wedge sectionedstrip is placed
inside,as in 2:62,when the ribs should beihoBped to fittire sirip. A
sharp trailing edge resultswhen the second sheet overlapsthe lower
one (work right on the edge of the building board).Then the overlap is
sandedfrom the other side.
Where sheetis too narrow to go from leadingto trailing edge in one
piece, it should be butt joined on a flat surface before iiis titteO.The
techniqueshown in 2:63 makesthis easy.Be sure the glue is dry before
peelingoff the tape.

Washout
Takingthe 'Jedelski'wing first; beneficialwashout can be introduced
by trimming the trailing edge backat the tips to producea slight taper

Folse loding Chmfer in situ Add leoding edge

edge strip
ond shope

2:60 Qverlop ond

Ribs end ot chomfer
r \ Top skin

Hinge open ond oPPl

ght down on flot surfoce

Woshout produced

2:64 Troiling edge cut

bock ol lips
edge is cut bock too

27
as seen in 2:64.Do not trim the leadingedgetoo, as in 2:65,which
nullifiesthe washouteffect.
Solidwingsmusthavewashoutincorporated (shouldthis be needed)
at the first stageof sandingto section.Markthe washoutline required
on the sheetedgeas in 2;66,andsandthe bottomcornerup to this line
beforeshapingthe top to a curve Singleskin (curvedsheet)wings
may be cut backas was donewith the Jedelskitype,or warpedduring
the shapingprocessas in 2:67,by useof a speciallyshapedend rib or
temporaryrib.

Tips for tips

In the sameorder,a wingtip may be strengthened and made more
attractivein appearanceby addingsoft balsablocks,or sheetwith grain
runningfrom L.E.to T.E.,or by fitting a ply plate to maintainthe
camber,all asin 2:68.Solidflat bottomedor symmetrical sectionwings
are easierto deal with, becausethe tip pieces do not have to be
hollowedbelow,aswasdonein the previousexample.2:69showsthat
the shapingis doneaftergluingin place.Thedoubleskinwing,being
lighter,deservesa spot of laminatingat the tips, usingtwo soft blocks
with the innerone hollowedout as in 2:70,whichis fairlyblunt,or in
2:71,whereit is morerounded.
/kor^ol ribs or forme

Mork woshot on troiling edge, --'/

-€.a'ft.a
corve owoy rgwel lurroce tg meet ,/

Tip rib or

// ---,

Alternotive strip tip

{ Medium
Ply focing Note groin sheet
,/
sheet iip j
Sond to mofch
Chordrrise 9 r o r n wing seclion

Wide hollow lominorions

2:71

28
 Hord sheel leoding
272 edge ond insert

Hord strip ot en*

.-l

2:74 Poper covered

wire lis
I rrm loo

Tails
Tailplanesand fins may be made from solid sheet shaped to the
profileof the component.lf the shapeis more complexthan a simple
rectangle,triangle or oval, it pays to butt join reinforcing pieces in
place, or inset reinforcementwith appropriate grain direction - see
sketch2:72.The fin can be treatedin a similarmannerto tailplanesor
made up from severalpiecesof sheet,cut so that the grain direction
foflows nearlyparallelto the principaledge,as seen in 2:73.
On free flight models, a rudder or trim tab will most probably be
neededto obtainthe desiredflight pattern.For small models,plant ties
of the wire-in-papertype are useful here, but rememberthat once set,
the tab is best glued, to avoid accidentalchange of angle. Hinges
proper will be dealt with later on, where they have a chapter to
themselves.

29
CHAPTER3

Profilefuselages
Glider
Fun rubber power
Gontrol-line
Free-flight SeealsoGhapters
RadioControl 2,4and5

Profilefuselagesmay be simplesheetcut-outs,laminated,or built-up

structures.The elementarychuck glider and rubber powered junior
model are simply cut from sheetbalsato the desiredprofile,but left like
that, they may quickly deteriorate.Take the simple sheet glider
fuselagefor example;that in sketch3:1 has a simple slit for the wing,
but the ends of that housingwill soon break as the wing is slewed on
landing.Far betterto have a strip of balsaeach side to seat the wing,
which may then be firmly glued in place {if it is a small model) or
retained with rubber bands over short dowels. The top part of the
3:1 Possible f rocture ooinls

Posible f roclure Points

Trim to clmr
Add l,/32"o( l/64" PIY motor ond Plug
doublers eoch side
Hord sheet spocers eoch
Hord sheet eoch side
side ol noseond molor peg 3:5t
I
I
Cmmerciol nose
beoring plug
Gop for rubber motor
3:4

30
fuselagecan then be cut off and fixed to the wing. The rakishfuselage
in 3:2 is too sharp for practicabilityand has another weak point aft of
the wing. lf you must have shapeslike this, add thin ply each side to
reinforcethe weak areasas in 3:3. Note how they taper off gradually:if
![eye4ded sqddenly,lhe UteakpaintwouLdbe movedf_unheralong.A-
simple junior rubber powered model is shown in 3:4, with the cross
sectionsin 3:5. %in. sheet is about right for this fuselageof say 8in.
length.
fn a control line model, that simple sheet,even 1/zin.thick, will not
support the engine.The type of laminatedfuselageis safer,as in 3:6.
The main load of engine and wing can be supported by I/ain.ply (for
say, a 1 to 2.5ccenginemodel).The rest of the fuselagedepth is made
up by /ain. balsa sheet. Larger engines will need proper hardwood
bearers (see chapter 5), in this case beech, and they are tapered to
blend into a balsafuselageof the samethickness(say%in.).The balsa
can be medium soft, becausethe bearersare covered with t/gzin.ply
both sidesto act as doublersright backto the wing. See 3:7.
Larger, sleeker models with bigger engines will demand extra
reinforcementin the form of full length hardwood (spruce) strips
laminatedwith the balsa,for examplel/zin.square beechbearers,lZin.
x1/ein.spruceand %in. sheetbalsa.,/szin.ply doublersare also used as
before,all as seen in 3:8.

Beorers

3:7

T h i np l y d o b l e r s o t s i d e
Hord'rood striPs Bolso striPs
ra

3:9 Open frome fobric covered

31
 3:11

3:10 SquoreJJrtine

Side dwblers'
ond tT;t"t tttit'
3:12
Outline strip

3:13

Oull ine ond brocing strips

Thin ply or sheet bolso doblers outside

Engine bmrers

3:15

For free flight power,the smallermodel can havea simple ladder-like

frame which serves as a fuselagewhen tissue covered.This 'fabric'
providesrigidityand a pieceof thick sheetfills the nose bay for a motor
mount to be added., see 3:9. 3/tain.square strip should be strong
enough for small models(up to 0.5cc)24in.long,providedthe strip for
the outline is hard, otherwiseI/nin.squaremight do.
The nosedetailfor this type of smalfmodel appearsin 3:10.The front
fuselagebay is filled in with sheetof the samethickness,and a plywood
plate,to which the motor will be bolted,supportedwith shapedbalsa
blocks,grain fore and aft to give support againsttwisting.
The fuselageframe itselfcan be madefrom squaresectionstrip,with
or without sheet balsaskinning.However,some weight can be saved
by using rectangularstrip as in 3:12.With a wider fuselageprofile,this
will be more rigid, but sheet skins are neededto preventthe outline
buckling.
A combined example of profile constructionis used in the power
model fuselageof 3:13. Intendedfor largerengines,beechbearersare
bonded in with thin ply or sheetbalsaskinspartwayback,then Warren
type bracing {diagonalspacBrs)hefps to keep the outline in shape,
relying less on the covering itself. The wing seat is reinforcedand
provision is made for rubber band fixing onto dowels.

32
Wrt'!

Wing seot

Thick iop for seoi supporl Block shoped

//,
(rlOSSllDre Or

)l;l*;,'.1";'
' llrill
rl '
shopedborfm-..-ll
f,
l,l
lb.Jl 3:17
M
*,,,
".,*":t:::),
Solid sheet to noe
piaced for R/C 9or
Holes for rodio systm

--.-\
3:18 Doublers to reinforce edges of holes
S p o c e r so n d o u t l i n e o f t o f w i n g
sheet sk inned

3:19 Removoble cover

Cul hole for R/C geor

Beorers
ur"*l'y

s k e t c h3 : 1 4 s h o w sa p y l o nm p d e lw i t h f u l l ys h e e t e ds i d e s . . . o n e
sidehasbeenremovedto showfhe structure, whichon smallermodels
can be simpleverticalstrip.rh/t wing seatdetailappearsin 3:15.
. A smallglideris seenin 3:16.trris hasa'pod-and-boom'layout, the
boombeingsolidhardwooddowelor glassfibre tube,whichis blended
into a profilefuselage'pod',sheetor tly covered.As the strengthlies
mainlyin this skin,the spacersand outlineaid rigidity.Thereii a gap
for addingballastto balancethe moderand a b-oxtb accepta flight
timer.Thethickness of this itemoftendictatesthe thicknessof the p6d,
for it is recommended thatonlyonesideis cut out.Theboomis located
by thicker_stnp shapedat the bottomand overlappingside panels,as
s h o w ni n 3 : 1 7 .

Radiocontrol
_ lt mightbe thoughtthat radiosystemscouldnot be fittedinto profile
fuselages.Well,true, some modellersmanageto packit all into the
wing, but this may leadto linkagedifficultiel.lt tlre model is large,
miniatureradiomay be droppedinto a slot in an otherwisesolidfr6nt
fuselage,p-er3:18.

33
 Servosbolted through Rmovoble foiring

v,?,-r'
'r"D,
Profile fuseloge
1/2-3/4in. wide
/C system on side

3:2O of solid profile

Cycle spoke loop to restroin model

when stretching lounch bungee
3:22 S o f t s h e e ti n f i l l
I in. wide is odequote
for mini seruoa
Hord block infill to roke lounch lug

PLAN VIEW

Towhookbolted throughply plote inside

with a largercut-out,the edgesof the hole needhardwoodstrips,let

into a solidsheetprofile(remember 3:8).Herethis modelis smallerand
usesa solidwing.The R/Cgearneedsa lightcoveras indicatedin 3:19.
A typicalsectionof this fuselageis seenin 3:20.only the servoarm
sideof the coversneedbe removable.Largermodelswith smallservos
can have a solid or built-upprofilefuselagewithout openings,or at
most,one for a deepreceiver;the systemhidesin a plasticbubbleon
onesideof the fuselage. . . a largebubblecanopymightfit, or partsof
oneadaptedwith thin ply between.Thefueltank,clampedon the other
side,can also be fairedwith soft block(3:21).
Miniatureservosare so thin that they can sometimesbe accom-
modated in line betweenthe side skins of a profile fuselage;for
example,the catapultlaunchedmodel seenin plan view at 3:22.An
importantfeatureof thesecatapultmodelsis the restraininglug at the
tail end.lt hasto be madefrom strongwire (cyclespoke)and heldwith
nuts througha solid block.All the pull of the bungeeis exertedhere
beforerelease. Thesideview in 3:23showsthe extentof the sideskins.
That towhook needsto be firmly fixed too. Screwit to ply inside.
catapultR/c modelsare fast and needto be built accurately;they
also needto be flown by pilotswho havegainedexperience on more
docilemachines.

34
CHAPTER
4

Open frame models

Fuselages, wings and
tails for rubber,sport SeealsoChapters
powerandglider 9,10and11

- Lightnessis the key and reason for making airframes in an ,open

frame'form. A bonus is the wood saved and a s-fight penafty is ifre extra
time it takesto build such a model.
Traditionalrubberpowereddurationmodelsusuallyemploy simple
box frameworkfor the fuselage.The basicshape need not'necessaiily
be given sweepinglines,but formed as a seriesof straightlines,which
are representedby four stripsgoing lengthwise,knowrias ,longerons,.
Verticalstrips called 'spacers'lieepltrem apart and produce iad-der-like
side framesas shown in 4:1. The anglesof the top form a suiiibfe seat
for the wing on top and a tail below-,aft.
. A strongermethod,requiringmore patience,is seenin 4:2,wherethe
longeronsform smooth curves.
In order to ma,intainthe shapewithout compfexbracing,the spacers
becomewhat is known as 'wairen bracing'as in 4:3. The iiames bo not
now rely so much on the tissue covering for rigidity. For the sake of

Stroight kinked longerons

Curved lmgerons

Worren brcced

35
 4:4

Worren ond spocers

l, Sides deform to this line

-

\.-J_.

4:8 4:g 4:10

V
#
clarityallthese sketchesshow a gap betweenlongeronsand spacersor
bracing. In reality the joints need to be made carefully, as will be
explainedlater.
The spacersand bracingcan be combinedas in 4:4. Wing seat strips
may be added as shown dotted.
Sport models may be given a cabin by re-arrangingthe longerons
and spacersand the tailplanecan have a recessedseat.In its simplest
form, it could look like 4:5, which returnsto the straightline form, or as
4:6, where curvesare introduced.
Go easy on those curveswhen the frame is not braced.The chances
are that the sharplycurved longeronsmay force eachother to adopt a "
mean line as seen in 4:7. In this example it will be noted that the top
longeron is concave and not balanced by the convex lower one. The
shaiply curved lower nose longeronpulls the flattertop nose longeron
down, distortingthe nose spacers.Diagonalbracingwould avoid this.

Joints
Spacer-to-longeronjoints needto be cut to match, both at the correct
angleand without gap or beingover-tight(4:8).lf force is usedthe next
spicerwill drop out. Avoid longeronjoints unlessneededas in 4:1,5,6
'superglue'joint helps,so does a sliver of 1/sznd
ply as 4:9, not a
or 7 . A
p l a i nb u t t a n d g l u e a s 4 : 1 0 .

36
 Where bracing meets uprights, the ideal shape for the diagonal
bracingends is seen at4:-11.lttakes patienceto get it just right, but is
well worth it.4:12 showsthat Warrenbracingcan be simply chamfered,
becausethere is plenty of longeron in contactwith the ends.
With all-those short strips tocuhtrfalittle eutting iigiike that in 4J3;
A fuselagewith a rectangularcross section needs pairs of spacers,so
that a second identical side frame may be made. lf the fuselage is
squarein section,then four spacersare neededat eachstation.lmagine
how many identicalspacersare neededfor parallelsided parts of the
fuselage.

Tail seats
The anglesof the longeronsdo not always position the tailplaneat
the correctangle,so a suitablestep may be createdby re-arrangingthe
longerons and adding filler pieces and gussets as sketchedat 4:14,
makingprovisionif needed,fora hardwooddowelto takerubberbands
to retainthe tailplane.
lf the tailplaneis below and has a camberedtop surface,shaped
sheetseatsare neededto continuethe longeronsaft as shown in 4:15.

S t r i pt o b e c u t

4: 13

4:14

Gusselssomethicknessos frome

To fit toilplone
Crosspiece or
former 4:15

37
 Wing seats on low wing models need a similar treatment; those
sheetseat piecesshould be of the same thicknessas the longeronsas
shown in 4:16.The deeperthe camberof the wing, the deeperthe seat
needsto be, so that it does not have a weak point at the mid camber.
Deep cross spacersalso help to reinforcethe fuselage fore and aft of
the wing.
Continuingthe theme of local reinforcement,we have a typical nose
treatment in 4:17, where the nose of a typical rubber powered model
receivesreinforcementand a strong ply former, little more than a frame
itself,to keepthe nose squareor rectangularas requiredand providea
hard wearing surfacefor the nose block. Furtherback,the pull of the
rubber motor on its retainingpeg needsgussetsand an areaof sheetto
hold it, as seenat 4:18.The fuselagegets a lot of handlinghere,as the
helpergraspsthe model whilst it is wound. Models intendedfor higher
performanceoften havea lighterbut hardly lessstrong detailhereas in
sketch4:19.
Just how far can one go in keepingthe airframe light and rigid (so
that there is a better performance)can be seen in 4:20 : a high
performancerubberpoweredmodel'sfuselage.In order to give rigidity
the longeronsare angledat 45oto resistcrushingand the spacershave

4:16 To fit wing

Medium sheel

Leove open belor

4:17 418 for motor occess

419

38
 Longerons ot 45o
l/l6"squore brocing

Spocers wilh
45o en&

Pocking

-_;
Toper io toil

SQUARE - STDEANDpLAN
4:24
SECTION
4:25

CABIN SE
ECCTTI O
I ONN

to be cut to this angle to maintain the longerons accurately,see the

sectionin 4:21.
Specialtricks are often used to make the side frames. Look at sketch
4.:22;triangularjigging strips hold the rongeronsand packingunder
the spacers ensure that they do not protiude past the edgd of the
longerons.
Suchf-uselages are often slim and nearparallel,so that the fongerons
are not forced to bend acrosstheir less flexible axis. 4:23 shoils the
generalside view of such a fuselage.
Thereare many combinationsand permutationson the basicsguare
longeron fuselage as applied to rubber powered models (even
lightweightgliders have adopted some versions).Take the following
sectionsand outlines-for e-xampl_e - square as in 4:24 and rectangula-r
to form a simplecabinas in 4:25.
Tu.rnthe squareon edge for a regurardiamond, as 4:26. The wing
needsto be braced if it is to perch on the top edge, but a streamlined
fairing can be built onto the basicdiamond sectio-n,'byadding it .t
""t
 DIAMOND (wirh pylon)

Exho foiring stringersot nose

OCTAGONAT (m squore)

428

the top to meet the wing and spacersbelow to meet the corner
longerons as seenin 4:27.
Ouiteelaborate versionscan be createdby placingthin stripsdown
the centreof the spacersto makean octagonal mainsectionas seenin
'stringers'
(stripsthat give shape
4:28.In this caseextrashortfairing
withoutcontributingin a majorway to the strength)are addedat the
noseto fair it into a noseblock or spinner.
At the otherextreme;4:29showsa triangularfuselage,economicin
weight and in timber, but ratherrestrictiveinsidewhen it comesto
paclingin lotsof rubberfor poweringthe beast.The triangle.can have
its apei uppermostor below,depending on how it is to
intended fix the
wing andtail.
Aii theseexamplescanemployspacerand bracingmethodsalready
described andapartfromthetriangularjob,startlifeastwo sideframes
assembled flat on the buildingboardoverthe plan,heldthereby pins
aroundthe outside(notthroughlthe longerons.Completedsidesare
thenjoinedby crosspieceswhile beingheldbetweensuitableblocksof
wood or smallboxesto makea simpleiig.- More aboutthis later. . .

40
 lr':iit
, :',ti
:;
,i.,1
, rii
irr
iri
'rrl
j,i'i

Triongulor foi ring

HEXAGONAL ( with double triongulor fromes)

line of covering
4:31

4:32
Sheet fillers wirh
verticol or diogoml
groin,some thickness
os frome

A lternotive rhin fil ler flush

with ouler foce of fiome

Carryingthe triangularframe to extremes,4:30 suggestsa 'fun'type

rubberpoweredlow wing model,where the fuselagebecomesa fin. No
doubt owners of small internalcombustionenginesmay adopt it for a
lightweightsport machine!
one of the author's experimentalrubber powered models used a
doubletriangularcombinationto bring the crosssectionto hexagonal,
while still leaving spacefor the motor. The basic triangular fuselage
was built, then extra spacersglued to the existing ones to make very
rigid formers.A secondset of longeronswere added.The result was
not twice the weight of a simple fuselage,becausethe wood was of
smaller section.

Power model fuselages

Backto basicsagain; sheet infill panelsmay be addedto strengthen
the basiclongeronand spacerframes,where there is much handling,
point loads of landing gear and the need to provide rigidity wheh
startingthe engine.4:32 is a generalindicationof the infill pattern in a
simplecabinsport model.You only haveto experiencethe shakingthat
a fuselagereceiveswhen you try to start your first model engine, to
realisethe importanceof this sheetfilling.

41
 2 Fir fo-.o 4 Crt ctoss pieces to fit
ond glue in ploce
Add tronsverse sheet or
or block ond corling
side sheet

Join ot toil
end

I Assmble longerons, uprights

und verticol groin infill pieces

To oid bending , thse infill pieces

4:33 moy be odded ofter f itting fomers

Glue in thin PIY striPs

lo fit swcuts

Avoid loose

4:35 fit here

Ribs thrmded onto soor

4:36
Troiling edge

Clearlya certainorder of assemblyis desirableand sketch4:33

explainsthe sequence for a typicalsportpowermodelfuselage. A this
stageno commentsare made in respectof enginemounting {thesewill
appearin the nextchapter).lt is rarefor the sequenceto be varied,but
bearin mind that those parts which form sub assembliesneedto be
firm and handlablebeforegoingfurther.Formerswill keepthe sides
uprightin correctrelationto eachother,but just to be certain,a small
right-angledpiece of card can be usedto-chaqk that the formers
themselves arebothuprightandat 90oto the fuselagecentrelineon the
planview.
Sometimesthe fuselagehas to be assembledupsidedown, for
exampleif it has a flat top and curvedunderside.lt is a good planto
markcentrelineson the formersand spacers,so that a checkcan be
made,not only on the plan,but with a metalstraightedgealongthe
top.
Wherelongeronshaveto be bent in sharplyat the nose,they may
needto be preformedto the curveeitherby steamingor, in the caseof
fargemodels,slit and laminatedwith slipsof ply as in 4:34.

Openframe wings
Oneof the simplestarrangements appearsin 4:35,but needscareful
piercingof the ribs.Whengluingin the spar,eitherusecyanoadhesive
or positionthe sparslightlyto oneend,applyglueto eachrib whereit
meetsthe spar,thenslidethe sparhometo dragthe glueintothe ioints
of all ribs.

42
 ii
II -F
il'***;l
I- -
Cop strips

Rib doubler

Rib voriolions on
one drowing

4:4O - Cut bock io redrce chord

----- (olso mkes rib more
J _.-
compotible wirh woshrut)
I=r
4:41
Although rib and spar systems have been dealt with in their most
elementaryform in chapter2, open structuresput a greateremphasis
on detail. In sketch 4:37 can be seen some oi the main spar
arrangementsin singlesparwings. To half notchthe spar into ribs as at
'A' reduces
the sparstrength,yet rib strengthsuffersin the centralspar
at'B' (describedearlier).'C' is the most often used method,twin spars
take care of compressionand tension and, often, a linking web aids
rigidity.At 'D', all the spar materialis at the surface;so it contributes
more strength. The webs are essential,for such spars will buckle
without them. A box spar is a double webbed version and appearsat
'D'. This is
one of the strongesttypes of spar but sometimes needs the
ribs to be strengthened, for as seenin 4:38 the spar takesa largechunk
out of the rib. Sketch4:39 shows how stiffenersand cap strips restore
the strength.

Rib shapes
Quite often, a drawing will indicatea variety of rib details on one
basicoutline as in 4:40.lt is easyto chop out the wrong notcheswhen
making ribs from such a detail,so trace eachversion and check it with
referenceto the wing plan view. Sketch4:41 shows how a standardrib
can be slicedto suit smallerchordsat wingtips.

43
Leadingand trailing edges
Pre-shaped stripwoodis availablefor leadingedges.However,not all
wings wili matchup to the sectionof the strip and transitionbetween
the ltrip and rib needsto be smooth 1442 explainsl.The practiceof
usinga squarestripon edgeis goodonly so longasthe stripis largeor
smaii enoughto blend in when it is sandedin situ as sednin 4:43.
tdeallythe cbrnersof the strip shouldbe in linewith the camberlineof
'a' a symmetricalsection with its straight
the wing section.ln 4:44 'b'
datum (io camber)hasthe strip at 45o,but at a cambered section
requiresthe strip to be tilted down slightly.

Trailing edges
HerJagain,readyshapedstrip may be used,with the sameproviso
that the rlbs will matchup to it; otherwiseit may needsandingdown,
whenthe stripmightjustaswell havebeenshapedby the builderin the
first place.
tf ihe ribs are let into notchesin the trailing edge, they form a
strongerjoint and are held accuratelyuprightand correctlyspaced.
nememberthat the ribs haveto be measuredbackinto the notch,not
just to the front of the trailing edge strip as explailed i1 a:a5 Partly
iaperedtrailingedgestripwith notchedribsasseenin 4:46carrieswith
it the chancethat the coveringwill not be even.

WM ffi
,/{

sondoff Sond off

ft f3

Meosurerib to end of notch,

nol to troiling edge foce
Ribs notched over troiling edge

44
 Lightrigid trailingedgescan be built up from thin sheet,usingthe
ribs as angularspacers,and webs to stiffenthe forwardedges,as in
4:47.The lowerstripis usuallychamferedto form a seatfor the upper
one.Thisis bestdonealongthe edgeof the benchor suitablestraight
edgrcdbase;with the aid ofa sandingrbfock.A line canbe markedto
indicatethe limit of the chamferas in 4:48.Do not useheavypressure
or the strip may curl up; Shouldthis happen,turn it over and strokeit
firmly with a plain blockof wood to restoreit.
Ribspacingshouldnot be morethana coupleof inchesaparton,say
a 6in. wing chord,particularlyif the surfaceis intendedto be well
cambered. 4:49showshowtissue,film or fabriccoveringshrinksdown
to form a seriesof flats,so spoilingthe correctaerofoilsection.
Smallribsknownas ribletscanbe introducedbetweenthe main ri,bs
at the leadingedgeto supportthe coveringas shown in 4:50,which
alsoindicates the normalsequence of assemblyof an openframewing.
Coveringsagcausesthe aerofoilsectionto changeto a smoothbut
thinnerform,whenthe wing is as sectioned in 4:51(ourold friendthe
singlecentralspartype).
Upper troiling edge strip Noich ribr for troiling

Cmpleted section

lvlork chomfer line

Troiling
edge strip Sonding block

Covering
so9

il9
4:8 Work bcord
Chomfered lower
troiling edge strip

Add ribs
ond ribleh

SECTION
Lmding edge

45
lriLtii'
$rIl+

lr{i:
ii,$
liiir
i,*i;,
 I Leodingedge
Lwer leoding
edge sheel

6:5;:"|*ir"'
1 1r"., Jop sttipt $ Webs (verticol groin) 7 Upp", cop srrips

1 Tro;ling
edse
4:53
Leoding edge sheet

- - Trim lo fit loding edge strip \

A- l,- Lwer lJain-g eagesr,eet Cop strip Lower froi ling t
edge I

Seilotopehol& Pocking down

ond prevents glue fixing it to
4:54 '
Afternofive chomfer under ioP slriP 7
the leoding edge or rheet

Gap strips
Ribs may be made more rigid by the additionof strips of balsaalong
top and bottom edgesas seen in 4:52. The strips bend smoothly over
the gentle curyes of the rib and provide more surface for the
attachmentof the coveringmaterial.Eachrib becomesan 'l' beam and
the coveringis lifted clear of supplementaryspars.Sketch4:53 shows
the order of assembly and identificationof the various parts of this
typical sports model wing. lt has been given a sheet coveredleading
edge part, which convertsthe whole of the wing forward of the spars
into a rigid 'D' shaped box. The sheet also supportsthe coveringand
affords a smooth accurateaerofoil sectionwhere it is important to have
a 'clean' airflow.
Now, a tip for buildingon the lower sheetwhen it sweepsup to meet
the feadingedge . . . Try the method in 4:54,which is usefulwhere the
lower leadingedge sheet butts up to the leadingedge strip. Glue will
probably run out of the joint and leave gaps so a strip of Sellotape
restrainsit and keepsit off the packing,to which it might adhere.
However,if the leadingedge is laid on top of the sheet,which is cut

46
oversaze , the job is a little easierduring the gluing stage.Referbackto
chapter2 tor sheetto leadingedge joints.
The order of assembly inevitably brings a distinctly 'hedgehog'
appearance,as the necessarypins are used to hold things while the I
gtussets. 4:55 may tretp irrdeciding wtTich pins go-nTo the building i
board and which into adjacent components. Never pin close to an
edge; if the pin is to passthroughthe wood . . . a split will result.Pins
can be usedto pressagainstthe edgesof parts,as in the fixing of cap
strips,for example.
Alwayswithdraw pins,which go through a glue joint itself,beforethe
glue has hardened.lf they are therejust longerthan the time it takesfor
the joint to remainundisturbedwithout partingit is long enough.lf they
are left in too long,they will stickand may breakthe wood surrounding
them as they are withdrawn. Stubborn ones may respondto twisting
axiallywith pliers,but if they are glass headed,grip the shaft, not the
head!
Spar webs may be sprung into place by archingthem gently, so as
not to wipe the glue off their ends (4:56).

Taperedwings
The ribs haveto be progressivelysmallerto match the taper and if a
'sandwich' block method of rib production is used, (chapter
2) they
must be equallyspaced.Sketch4:57 explains.

Pins holding Pins to hold sheet

pocking
o n d L .E ,

Angled pins ro hoid

en& of cop strips

Pins into bord

bend webs to insert

withoul smoring
off glue

Intemediote ribs Produced by sonding o blonk lf rib is incorrectly spoced

All ribs equol spoced
between two odiocenl moin ribs ii will not fit

47 iriii
,
i$i;
i;l
lll'
il"u,
;l-ii;
 Supposethe wing panelis longerthan a standardlength of balsa. . .
The inevitablejoints in leading,trailing edges and spars need to be
staggeredand as nearthe wingtip ends as possible.This is to avoid the
highly stressedinboard areas.Make sure that two splicejoints do not
coincideon the spars,all as shorivnin 4:58.
The methods of forming splice joints is seen in 4:59. This 'V'
requiresthat the knife cuts are verticaland matching.Using one piece
to act as a guide helps here. Rememberto allow slightly more length
than the joint occupies,so that any correctivetrimming and fitting still
leavesadequatelengthfor the job. Neveruse a plain butt joint on spars,
unless there are other forms of local reinforcement.A simple single
splicemay be madewherethere is lessstrainon the joint. This appears
in 4:60. The flatter the angle of splice,the stronger it will be, so as a
guide length should be at leasttwice the width. One accuratesawcut
will automaticallyalign both meeting faces when one strip is turned
round to form the joint. The strips have to be rectangularor squarein
sectionand the cut vertical.
Pre-shapedtrailing edge strips need to be turned so that both their
forward facesare verticalbefore making a single verticalsawcutas in

Leoding ecige splice

U p p e r s p o r s pI i c e

Stondordstrip length
Lower spor splice I Troiling edge splice

Cuts should motch

Use cut edges

os guide

Verticol cut
4:60

l\'
Two strips ioped together

48
 Verticol ioint foces

'/-)

[rciling edge shopedstrips

Mork lower strip

4:61. Failureto do this will result in the meeting faces being out of
verticaland not matchingwhen the stripsare raidflat again.

Tip tips
.Th_eextraspan can be the excusefor changingthe shapeof the wing
planform at the tips, so trailing edge strip becomesangled to reduc6
the chord.To makethis joint lay the secondstrip underth]efirst and use
it as a guide to cut a chamfer in the new piece,then when joined and
set, trim off the excessof the first strip - see sketch 4:62.
Tips do not haveto be elaborateto be attractive.Choosethe angleto
pleasethe eye, within the practicalnecessityof having the intended
wing.areaand tip chord.Just one angledtrailing edge stiip and a sheet
panelat the extremetip as shown in sketch4:63 will do nicely.On small
models few ribs will needto be trimmed or specialones cui. A gusset
supports the top panel and unless there is a deeply undercamibered
Iing section,it works for a variety of models.A good version for flat
bottomed or symmetricalwings, this.
Sketch4:64 shows a more subtleversionwith severalstripsforming
the tip outline.Trim backto the requiredoutline edge after assembly-.
 ,m
S E C T I O NA - A
S E C T I O NB - B

466
Tips lominoted oround cord
forme or row of pins
Sond ofier ossembly

Trim spors
M
Gussets clor of covering

*{ ro,o*rffiililp sr,;p
"^a,n"",
Scrop block
4:68 sEcTroN

Sond flush with existing sheet

,N Conpleted ongled
winsrip
Rub tip on rcndpooer 4Sg
ot oppropiote ongle

Lightweight models can be given laminatedstrip tips as shown in

4:65.The sectionof each strip will depend on the type of model i.e. a
fight rubber powered model could have l/szin.x l/sin. deep strips,
whereasa radio controlledor control line model with a chord of over
8in. might need 1/tain.x 3/ein.
Note how the tip laminationsare blended
into the trailing edge. lt avoidstoo sharp a radius near the end of the
laminations.Put those strips together one at a time. Another tip is to
make a double depth tip and carefullydivide it down the centrewith a
razor saw to make a pair.
Parallelchord or tapered wings can be given a simple shaped tip
made from sheet,suitablygussetedas in 4:66. Those gussetsmay be
cut backto just clear the coveringline, which gives a smooth finish.
lf the wing is chamferedat the tip, it will form a curvedwingtip . . . a
product of the aerofoil sectionexaggeratedas in 4:68. Run the spars
and leading edge sheet past the intendedtip line and sand it at the
requiredangle,faceit with sheetand trim . . . Result,a simple,attractive
and practicalwingtip as seen in 4:69.
Many duration (free-flightor radio control) models have polyhedral
wings to aid stability;such a wing is shown in 4:70.The anglesof each
panelwill vary from model to model dependingon its type, low angles

50
 4:7O

Doble width notched rib

Spors overlopped ond glued

-27-
Tip ribs hove
nolches furlher
PLAN foryord or off
of moin ponel

Use lorge sonding blck

to spon severol ribs Turn over onto pocking
ond sond oppoite edges

Flot strip struclure

SECTION
PLAN

for radio control,steepfor free flight, steeperstill for sport free flight,
-is
where efficiencyis not the prime motive, but ease of handling
desirable.
Spars can be overlappedat the joint to form a sound ioint without
further reinforcement.This meansthat the rib or ribs at the joint need
wide slots to take the spar joint and those ribs outboard have to be
notchedto suit the tip spar, ratherthen the inner panel spar. Sketches
4;71 and 4:72 show this detail.

Tailplanesand fins
The averagemodel can managewith a tail surfacesectionwhich is
often lesscarefullycontrivedthan the wing. In the pastthe tail areawas
much largerthan nowadays(in relationto a givenwing area).Then one
had to use an efficientlifting section . . . often to the detriment of the
model if it becamemore efficientthan the wing and put the nose down
'for keeps'!
Sketch4:73showshow to makea simplebuilt-uptail (tailplaneor fin)
. . . Be sure to use firm packingunder the alreadyshaped ribs when
LIGHTLYsanding the other side. A flat strip framework can have
external spars which give it a rough approximation of a bi-convex
section.You can use it on control line wings too. lt appearsin 4:74.

51
 Itrlork rib or
brocing en&
Tronsferto cutting bmrd
withoui moving knife ot
Pin down flot of contoct, then cul

4:75 SECTION
:

4:76 so^adf,*'""'oni'lo'
rib blonksofter ossmblY

4:77 Wide bose slriP

to oid coveri
Leoding edge ond / or
Troiling edge extend
inlo fuseloge

Forsomethinglighter;stripwoodflat platetailsare satisfactory, but

in
takecare covering them,they are prone to warps. Diagonal bracing
makesthem morerigid.Cuttingthosestripsaccurately canbe a chore,
but a tiny portablechopping board can be helpful.Lay the knifein the
stripwhereit crossesthe intendedjoint andtransferit to be cut asseen
in 4:75,alongwith ggneraltips on assembly.
Deep'rib'ordiagonalstripscanbe used,havingproppedup leading
andtrailingedgesto makea frameworkas in 4:76,then sandeddown
foreandaft to makea smoothaerofoil.Alwaysusea sandingblockthat
spansthree or four rib bays,which enablesthe ribs to be shaped
evenly.Sparsprovidea guidewhen sanding,but avoidthinningthem
in the process.
Small,light modelscan haveopenframefins of very simpleshape,
but theyaregenerallyfixedpermanently to the fuselage,for consistent
flight performance.
This meansthat a deep basestrip is desirableto aid the covering
process.The fin can derivesupportfrom the fuselageby runningits
leadingand trailing edgesdown to meet the bottom or a suitable
. former as seenin 4:77.Wherefins haveto be fixedto the tailplane,the
extensionsof L.E.andT.E.can go betweentwo ribs.
Thetriangularshapeis twistfree,but morerectangular or rhomboid
forms can be bracedas in 4:78.

52
CHAPTER
5

Mounting the engine

Profiles
Bolt locking
Pylons
Plate mounts
Bearers
Twins
Radialmounts SeealsoGhapters
Tankinstallations 2,3,4and6

.. Simplicityis the keyfor profilemodels,whetherfree-ftight,controt-

lineor evenradiocontrol.Thebearerscontributeto the structureof the
fuselageand are reinforcedwith ply doublersas in 5:1. Normallythe
arerSaredeepenoughto accommodate
.b.,e-. the crankcase,but wherever
possiblethe doublerunderthe engineshouldgo rightacross,evenif it
meansinterposinga packingstrip underthe bearers.

Bolts
Slot-headboltscanbe damagedto a pointwhereit becomesdifficult
to tightenor slackenthem.Theculpritis oftenthe wrongsizedor badly
Hordwood beorers os
Bolso fuseloge profile long os poasible

Li n e s - s i d e It,,ll''
full doubler
lmm. ply , r _:

Hordwood spocer

lncorrect iip shoPe

promote slip

Blode too smoll Blode ioo thin

53
ground screwdriver.5:2 shows four of the little blighters.Pleasemake
sure that the blade fits properly in the screw head.
Insteadof relying on tightening the bolts, or where they are to be
made inaccessiblewithin a cowling,nuts do the clampingand the bolts
are locked.Sketch5:3 suggestshard solderingthem to a brass strip.
This is fine for smaller engines,but for a more substantialjob, try that
shown in 5:4, which also works with hexagonalhead bolts.

Profile pod
Contiol line combat models may have no more than a couple of
bearersstickingout of the wing. By opting for a pre-assembledbearer/
doubler/fillerunit, the engineshouldbe more rigidlysecuredand as a
result,run better.Such a unit is shown in 5:5 and would be epoxiedto
Bross or tinplote
drilled for bolts
5:4

Tinplole or bross
beni to chonnel
s*tion ond drilled
File f lois on hods for engine bolts

Bolt hock soldered

Dri ll to c-l
nul shoul
Plone ond sond to shoPe
toP ond boltm
l/16"min
I
Drill ond epoxy glue
nuts on bock ol l/16" 1lY

Spikes on
Cut out centre to fil
wing ofter shoPing
ond drilling
€-
Bolso nose block
smeor with ePoxY

Plone ond sond to .4

shoPe toP ond botlm
E. E
\r.rJ / Soft block
Rodiol PYlon mont
extends from wing \ ,# for rigidity

T. E. copping Drill ofter ossembly

Mount extends to
{orm winq broce

Bolso frome

5:7 L.E. coPPing

Slot to fit over wing spor

or fuseloge former

54
 Vertico I former
5:9 Yvosherson rsr bolts
under engine lugs

5:10
R oi s e b a r e r u n i t l o b r i n g
Cmrnerciol motor mounl end of cronkshofi lo
correct pcilion --j
Cootive nut s

Plenty of depth here

5:11 lo mointoin strengih

Extro triongulor striP

if spoce permils

Motor plcte frm

Engine bulkheod(f irewo I l) Tufnol s oluminium
frm good quolity plywood

5:13 Hordrryood berer

Plote moy be '

token to edge' Recss cul lo clmr Metol doubler
of cowling

thick centrerib and short sectionof leadingedge sheetor gussets.This

exampleshowscaptivenuts (sometimescalled'btind'nuiil.They bite
into the wood and can be additionallysecuredwith epoxy.
Makesurethat the boltsare greasedso that any epoxy cieepingonto
the threadsdoes not lockthem. lf they are then t6 ub locked,o"-jr"rr"
them and use thread locking compound. sketch b:6 shows htw to
recessthe captivenuts.

Pylons
Power assistedgliders sometimes have a smail engine mounted
abovethe wing on a pylon.There are commerciafpyfoni and bind-on
metal ones, but two wood designs are shown ih-b:7 and 5:g. The
former is for beam mount enginesand the latterfor radialmount types.
Both key into the wing or fuselageformer.

Radial mounts
commercial radial mounts are available in many sizes for beam
mount engines.They can be bolted to a thick ply former or ,firewall,
with captive nuts. Downthrust can be incorporiteO by fitting washers
under the rear lug of the engine (5:9) but a better meihod ijto mount
the radial mount on wedge shaped hardwood plate, or angle the
.a
firewall itself.Rememberto raisethe mount to keepthe engin" Jhaft in
line with the spinnerposition(5:10).
 5:15 Ply brockets glued
- - , ond screwed

5:16

Hordwood bmren
notched ond glued
Hordwood uprights into firewoll
glued ond screwed
to firewoll
5:181
5:17

C o w l s i d eb l o c k s Thick dogblers

There is a powerfultwisting force at the firewall due to the overhang

of a radial mount, so add reinforcementwhere the firewall meets the
fuselageas in 5:11. One or both side sheetscan be extendedto form
cowf sides and there is plenty of room for a fuel tank.

Bearer plates
Where the fuselageis wide enough,the engine may be bolted to a
flat plate of Paxolin,Tufnol (which is stronger) or aluminium. In a
mishap, this plate breaks,thus saving damage to the engine and
(hopefully)fuselage.Different size engines may be substituted and
sidethrustcan be alteredby using different plates,see 5:12.
The plate can follow the fuselagesides as in 5:13, but may need a
metal doubler strip should it haveto be notcheddeeply around a rear
positionedcarburettor(5:141.
lf bearershave to be short, add ply gussets as in 5:15. Hardwood
strips on the firewall offer gluing area and take woodscrewsto make
those bracketsreally secure.on small models, such bracketscan be

56
 G l o s s fi b r e r e i n f o r c m e n l

Ply dobled ribs

o n k I Ply doublers
fl oor bock to spor
Engine mornl
Nocelle sides.u
formei (firewoll)
form cowling

This former canbe extende(

to support cui leoding edge

5:23 Sheel cover

ond inbmrd
w ing in oreo of nocelles
to give rigidity

notchedinto the firewall as shown in 5:16.Wide bearerscan be glued

to the fuselagesidesor their doublersas seen in 5:17.The front ends
can be shapJdto meet the cowl front or spinnerand offer support for
the cowl side blocks.lnset bearersneed a secondformer aft and derive
support at the front via filler blocks in the extended sides of the
fuselage(5:18).lf the bearerstaper off, they gain supportfrom doubler/
filler blocksbehindthe firewallas well, as 5:19.
Providedthere is adequatespaceto install and servicethe engine,
the fuselagesidesmay extendwell forward as part of the cowling and
to support tne bearers.While discussingaccessibility,rememberthat
the engine need not be upright, side mounted or inverted. . . Angle it
just enbugh to allow the silencerto clear the side as in sketch 5:20.
hadial molrntspermitthis angleto be adjustedif the engineis changed.

Glassfibrebonding
When bearers are bonded onto fuselage sides or doublers with
epoxy, it is a worthwhilejob to lay in some glassfibre cloth with more
epoxy to gusset the joint as seen in 5:21. Rememberthat polyester
resin, as uied in mosi glassfibrerepair kits, doeSnot bond properly to
epoxy and vice versa.Eitherput the bearersin with polyesterresinfirst

57
or keepit all epoxy.However,if no epoxy is smearedon the exposed
surfaceof the bearersor firewall,the polyesterresinwill be unaffected
and will bond onto the wood.
Firewallscan be treatedin this manneras in 5:22,very usefulwhen
thereis lackof spacein the tank area.

Twins
Twin engined models may use commercialradial mounts on
firewallsspacedout on nacelles(likeshortfuselages), thesebeingbuilt
onto the wings by takingthe sidesbackagainststrengthened ribs or
onto the spar system.Sketch5:23 illustratesthe generalidea.Refer
backto 5:1 and 5:5 for profilenacelleson controlline machines.
Hardwoodbearerscantie the nacellesin to the sparsas seenin 5:24
for upright or invertedengines.The nacellesidesaid rigidityand a
formerfixesto the wing leadingedge.The loadcanbe spreadwell into
the spars,evenif the bearersarearrangedfor sidemountor upright,by
useof the detailin 5:25.Thisis particularfy
usefulif the thrustlineis not
in linewith the spars.

Tanks
Beforeleavingtwin layouts,rememberthat eachnacelleneedsits
own tank, so make room for it. The prime featuresof jood tank
Hordwood bmrers Former exiended to
5:24 spreod lood onto spors

Dwbley'pocking if
sporsdo oot meet toft Beorer holes
qnd boltm of borers

Avoid crimping piPes

58
 \-'t!

Angled bung rconvenrent

convenient
5:3O 5:3 1
Nylonrubeheo,edro bend " C h iicken
c k e n hopper"
hopper"
5:32 Control line lonk
"Uniflow'Vent
Self top screws

Wedge type
conlrol line tonk
Gop
forrishrenins
Gop for tightening
5:33 liT;".ITl"':n*1"ili,'J,T,,
installationare (1) the fuel level when full should be fevel with the
actual spray bar hole in the carburettorfor radio control or sport free
flight models(5:26).On controlline modelsthe centreof the fuel pick-
up point has to be in line with the carburettor,as in S:27.(2)The tank
should be accessible for cleaningor replacement.(3) lt should not be
loose in the model.
For radiocontrolmodels,it will be seenthat the tank bung can partly
supportthe tank,and the end of the tank held in a piercedfoimer (b:29i.
More accessibleis the bay in s:29,where a removablelid clampsthe
tank onto saddles.Siliconerubber caulkingaround the pipes where
the_yemergethrough the firewall stops fuel seepage.
Some round tanks tend to rotate with engine vi-bration,kinking the
!r?gg in the process,so bind them to a ply plate roosein the tanlibay,
held by the lid as seenin 5:30.Rectangular tanksare availablefor radio
control with the same 'clunk' action,and some have angled bungs
yrhich permit better accesswhen installingin a bay with Jtop hatcl.
facli_ngcan be added below tanks to bring them to the correct level,
but if the floor of a tank bay is too high, the tank cannot be lowered
sufficientlyby takingout packing,see 5:31.

Gontrol line tank mounts

A profile model can have its tank strappedto the side with a pieceof
nylon tube heatedto bend and securedwith setftap screwsas in sketch
5:32. Those tanks with their own lugs benefit from an extra layer of
metalto reinforcelhe lugs and resistthe load on the tank sealingsolder
joints, see 5:33,which illustratesa 'chickenhopper'type of tanli.These
methodsof mounting can be used,where the tank position allows, on
an internalinstallation.The bolts or screwspassthrough the fuselage
side and doubler.

59
CHAPTER6

Betterfuselages
lmproved box fuselage
Shapeddecking
Doublers
Guruedskins
Stringers
Planking SeealsoGhapters
Rolledconstrustion 4,5,7,8and20
Basicboxlikefuselagescan be dressedup by changingthe shapeof
the outlineand/orfittings,addingcowlingsand canopyof attractive
shape and even modifyingthe colour scheme.Comparethe plain
'planein 6:1 with that in 6:2; the basicbox
has not beenchanged.
Gompositebox
Now let'stry mixedconstruction:
ply at the front whereit takesthe
roughhandlingand balsaaft whereit hasto be light (6:3).The joint
fin shope
Chonsed
e1 6:2

Conopy odded

Cowling odded

Foiringoor &mmy door

Doublerwith groin lengthwise

6:4

60
betweenthe balsaand ply needsa reinforcingpiecebehindas shown,
but small models can be strong enough with a carefullymade splice
joint as in 6:4.

Strengfttrwhere it isteeffi
Although the more basic fuselageneeds reinforcementas earlier
noted,changingthe shapemay bring with it the need to pay special
attentionto localareas.6:5 for exampleindicatesthat becausethere is
a shapedtop 'decking',balsatop parts are added to the strong main
formers and along the rear fuselageto preservethe shape- these are
'secondaryformers'.

Doublers
lf the basicfuselageis cut to accommodatethe wing, or becomesthin
wherethere is an areaof stress,'doublers'are neededon the inside.6:6
gives a generalidea but eachfuselagewill have its own requirements,
for examplethat rear doublercould be balsaand the front one %oin.
ply' Balsamay be used on light models as in 6:7 with verticalgrain to
resistside splits,_ordiagonal as in 6:8 for more lengthwisestrength.
Contactglue is often used for fixing ply doublers,so either hinge one
edgewith tape (6:9)or use pins (6:10)to ensurethat the doublei sticks
in the right place. . . . You only get one chancewith traditionalcontact

Lod bmring fomer

Il Secondory fomers @t

fhin ply doubler inside

Bolsodoublerlnside

6:7

Verticol groin bolso doubler

6:9

Sellotope hinge
Pins to guide dobler
 ExternoI doubler

Foiring fillel

6:16

Thin edge striP Triongulor striP

the
of paperbe-tween
glueso do it right.Anotherideais to slip a pi9-c9
gir"O
- surfaceiwhenreadyto contact,then slide it out carefully.
Sorn" modelshavea thin ply doubleroutside,leavinga step in the
just
surface- fair this in to avoida suddenridgein the covering, in the
(or
ionj"rons of open frame structuresas in 6:11 or by a full depth
wiOttr)strip on sheetedfuselages(6:12).

Beefedup box
Conteniwith plain rectangulartubes? See how to improve the
strengthand appearance of thosein chapter2. Thegluejoint between
iop.iO sides*ltO part,so a squareor rectangular stripof balsacanbe
rdd"O to extend the gluing area (6:13).Becausethey need not be
'longeronsT the! can be as small as Tezin'squareand
classedas
rlOirr-soft. Aliernatively,ihe side sheetcan be thin and a structure
.OO"Oto the insidefaceio makea strongpanelwhich will hold its
rtr.p" while makingthe fuselageproper- -s.ee 6:14.The resultis much
ligti"r than thicks6eeton its own and well worth the extratrouble.

Roundingthe corners
lf trianlularcornerstripsareadded,the cornerscanbe sandeddown
to meetihem as seenin 6:15. This hasthe advantageof reducingthe
'corner',becausethe wood is nearlythe
.tran."r of splittingnearthe

62
 Stiffener strips
reclongulor lo
sove weight

6:2O

Curved sheet
over lopped
6:24
I Thick side chomfered

6:22 lt
same thicknessright round the joint. The triangularstrip can also be
added to a thin bracedsheet,provided the lengthwisestrips are thin
(6:16).

Lightness
Those reinforcingpiecescan be even thinner in lighter models as
seenin 6:17,and supplemented with diagonalbracingon thin sheetas
in 6:18.

Ghunky corners
By contrast,soft thick sidesteamed with thin top or bottom can be
nicely rounded even with a ply doubler (6:19)providedthe transition
between the sheet is not sudden. In any case, all corners should be
initially sharp to ensure accuracy,even if a fair amount of sheet is
sandedaway.
A large sectioncorner strip or triangle section is neededfor large
radius corners shown in 6:20; alternatively,weight can be saved by
makingthat soft sidefrom steppedpiecesof thinner sheet.Sketch6:21
shows this variation.

Raiseddecking
Thin curvedsheetcan be supportedon formersto shapethe top, but
be carefulthat the ioint to the side panel is sound. lt will be weak if
made as per 6:22. Betterallow a nice chamferto provide gluing area,

63
then sand off as seen in 6:23.lt is easierto makethe formers as in 6:24
for this detail.
Perhapsthe structuredoes not lend itself to the foregoing.details?
Makessurethat the joint is pinnedwell whilethe gluedries:a blockand
tape also helps as in 6:25.Won't the sheet bend sharplyenough?Use
two thin sheetswhich will bend easilyas in 6:26.
ls it enough to have a simple triangulartop deckingto the fuselage?
You can ptiy tfris trick on an existingUox shape.Retainthe top sheet
and add a verticalweb and gussetsas in 6:21,which shows both fabric
or sheet covering.A new box fuselageneedsthat top sheetfirst'

Stringered top
ffrG is a variationon the last idea.The strong box with a sheet top
has light formers and stringersadded as in 6:28 for a fabric decking.

Gurved sides
Ouitethin side sheetcan be given extra rigidityfor no weight penalty
if it is curved in cross section- try it out now with a piece of paper, as
sketch6:29.Yes,the fuselagehasto taper straightfrom the firewall aft,
aft of.the wing in conventionalmanner, has a short
or, if bent to taper'b'.
uncurvedarea at A iormer and small doubler is neededhere.
Thin sheet decking
bent over

6:25
6:26
Two ihin sheets bent
over formers

S t r i n g e r ss e t h o l f
Alternolive sheel inlo formers
covering

Former ot top only

6:28
Top of box fuseloge

Section floi here

to bend in Plon I t, )
c

64
 Wide cop strip ol
skin ioinh
.-.--
-----
Curved sub formers

i i Z r u ST o m e r t o
lo occmmodote cop gtriP

Sub cop strip

(9roin ocross)

Self odhesive
poper or fope
6:31

Groin ocross
fuseloge

where more strengthis neededor very thin sheet is used,try detail

6:30. Take a basicopen frame structureand add curved sub formers,
then sheet in sections to accommodate a lengthwise curye, or
semblancethereof.Where end-to-endsheet joints occur, skim down
the former and add a sheetdoublerwith grain acrossits width so that it
forms a cap strip.

Notes on formers
Now that formers which are more complex in shape are called for,
the following tips may be found helpful.Strips of sticky paper or tape
may be laid acrossboth sidesof the sheetfrom which formers are to be
cut, so that the cuts acrossthe grain do not weaken them (6:31)or if
doublersare to be used,they can be fixed beforecutting out the former
(6:32).
The size and position of the doublers,which give great strength to
quite thin formers, may be judged from 6:33 where most strength
comesfrom the sidesof the fuselage,6:34where the top aids the sides
in the job, and in 6:35 where the centre cut-out would otherwise
weakenthe sidesnearthe top. In fact, any former which is particularly
thin in its cross-grainregions benefits from a doubler strip, which
carriesthe grainwisestrength acrossthe short grain areas.

65
c
 Dividing wood

I
-t--I
I
I
Use centre lines to locole
second loyer of strips
6:37
6:36

Wider stringers ot cenlre

Ling.r-,
form sme
"str i ngers"

Pocking blocks moy be used

e39 6:40

To ensurethat the grain reallyfollows the edge of a former, it may be

built up from severallaminationsas in 6:36,which is fine for circularor
ellipticalcross-sectionfuselages.

Fiddly formers
Who has not had the tail end former break up becausestringer
notchesare closetogether?The answerlies in the detailsin 6:37 group.
The alternatestringersreinforcethe former, then when the glue is dry,
chop out the remainingnotchesfor the rest of the stringers.
Supposea former has to be made in plywood . . . what a fiddly job
fretting those little notches! Drill holes instead at each notch position,
before cutting out the former outline, as in 6:38 group, and tidy it up
with a file againstold pliers.

Stringered sides
A box structurecan have severalstrips placedlengthwiseto form a
curve as in 6:39.The box cornersor longeronsform four'stringers'and
the restare graduatedin width. A properstringeredfinishto a plain box
frame needssub formers as in 6:40 but providedthe formers are close

66
 Sheet crutch

Slock of formers

Stringer Notched stringers

6:45
, I Formerfor skin
illl_
I Nolched doubler former
;

togetherand good joints are made,they need not all be notched.In any
case notchesmust not be as deep as the stringers,so that the fabric
does not touch the former edge.

All-stringered fuselages
A relativelycomplexjob, this . . . so try making the fuselagein two
halves {port and starboard)over a crutch laid on the plan as seen in
6:41.Turn it over when most of the stringersare in place and support
this half on packingpiecesso that the remaininghalf formers and
stringerscan be built on as in 6:42.There may be a tendencyforthe
half fuselageto spring up at the ends,so pin or tape that crutch down
well, beforethe secondstage.

Spacing stringers
In order to get eachstringerevenlyspacedfrom its fellows on every
former, mark the edge of each former by first laying them over each
other as in 6:43 and ruling radiatinglines over the stack.lf you have
forgotten to do this, take a strip of paper and wind it round the
offendingformer,fold it into as many pleatsas there are stringers- do
it evenly- then stretchit roundthe former againto mark at eachcrease
l6:Ml.

67
Stringers to sheet
This junction needsa notchedsub-formerto carnTthe stringersand a
full one for the sheet as in 6:45,or the stringerscan be notchedfor the
sheet,but put them in first as on 6:46 or the glue will blockthe notches.
The stringersmay even be notchedinto the sheet and former if you
have the patience(or forgot about it!). A nice detail is the scolloped
fillets between stringers where they meet the sheeted area. Often
uneven and ill-fitting when done in an unplannedway, these fiddly
shapedpiecescan be formed in pairsby punchingholeswith an X-Acto
punch or piece of sharpenedmetal tube. Sketch6:48 shows how and
6:49 where.

Planking
The mysteries of planking reveal themselves as you work - it is
mainly practice,althoughthere are severalbasicrules.Rule1 is to have
the formers closeenoughtogetherto supportthe planks,thus avoiding
a 'starvedhorse' appearance- say 31/z-4in.max. Rule 2 is to shapethe
planksfor perfect results.Sketch6:50 helps here.Treat those formers
like sketch 6:43, but in this case the widths are transferredto the
Slringers sel into noiches
6:47 cul in situ in skin

l_'t
1-
6:49
t Cut in holf to moke two fillets

Spocer to stop tanplote Widths tronsferred to olonks ot former stotions

conting ot sheet edge

6:51
GlosspoPergriP
".V" gopt

t 6:s2
(weok)

68
stringerstrip, From this information a ply cutting guide can be made
and used as in 6:51. Note that spacingpieceof balsato preventthe
guidetilting as the edge of the sheetis approached.
Thickplankson smallradiusleaveugly'V'jointsandofferpooredge-
lg:gdge glq'ng alga: lqt[,q
''n Qa!9, { Wqqld tretpj tl1q p]enks were
chbmfered, as competed 6:52.The plankCmaiUe cut Uiuiing the
cuttingguide (or steelrule)and knife but anglethe bladeas in 6153.
Parallelplanksmay also be used and if they needto be chamfered,a
bafsa strippercan be usedas in 6:54;just prop up the sheetfrom which
the planks are to be cut and allow the stripper to cant over onto the
cuttingboard.Turn the sheetover to get the taper in the correctrelation
to the one just cut. (6:55)
How do the parallelplanksfit? sketch6:56showsthis 'tazypranking'
system.Groupsof planksare laid edge-to-edge and naturallyenough
touch at the ends but not at the middle. By following the order shown
cut-downplanksgraduallyfill thesegaps.
In orderto markthe shapeto be followedwhen trimming those later
planks,try the method in 6:57.For it to work effectively,the untrimmed
edge of the new plank should be parallelto the adjacentfitted plank,
then when the opposite edge is trimmed, it should fit. Try cutting
overlengthuntil practisedin this method.
Use sandable glue - some woodworking P.V.A.type glues go
rubberywhen sanded.This ruins the effect of plankingor indeed any

Chomfered cut
Cutting bord
Poperclip wire
Plonk widrh
plus l/8"

a
Pencil stub

Finol filler striPs Filler plonk porollel l/8"

frm lost plonk pinned dry
6:57
in losi gops
f i l l e r p l o n ks t r i m m e d

Glue bottle spout

Poper clip wire gride

-'{

Even run of glue

69
 Porollel or stroighl toper
sides oulled in ol ends

Thick sheet t'ose

Flot side orrc

Lominoted curved bose

Botfm (bose)

Cul ot for cockpil or wing

Shoped block Q lue one edge first,
for slrength Thick conopy moteriol roll when dry
Ply rolled fuseloge

Thick sheet bottm

B o n d o g eo n d P . V . A . g l u e
reinforcement fgr smoll models

surfacejoint. To get just the right amount of glue right on the very edge
of the plank can be rathertiresome,so try the gadget in sketch6:58,
which guidesthe spout of the glue bottleas seen in 6:59.

Rolledfuselages
Effectivefuselagesor tail-booms may be formed by bending thin
balsasheetor thin plywood over formersto make a tube-likestructure
when gluedto a flat sheetbottom.Detail6:60shows it in a simpleform,
and 6:61 indicatesthat the bottom may be shaped to give a curved
bottom planformto the sides.The top has to be straight,of course,but
that bottom can curyeupwardsas wellwhen laminatedas in 6:62.Trim
off the surplusside partswhen the glue is set.

Ghangingthe top
lmaginea fuselagewith a lowereddeckingforward of the wing . . .
Easy;sketch6:63 shows how a lengthwiseslit is made at the front and
the edgesoverlappedto lower the line. Cut formers to fit afterwards.
The methodof rollingthat ply is seenin 6:64,but rememberto allow
about 1/ain.overlap at the bottom edge and allow one edge to dry
beforerolling.1/szin.
ply is quite thick enough; use 7oain.ply for small
models.

70
 Cutot for cockpit
\
Stroight topers r

Wingrlor fill/er
6:67 Doubtero
iro;d'J lor reinforcement

Spine strip dmn

centre of ply sheet

Rolled bolso sheer

6:70
Medicol bondoge
rolled vrith sheet

Mosking tope binding

stuck to itself

6:68 6:72
Control cobles

Keepingthe strength up
A dual curvaturein the fuselageis not possible,but the nearestthing
to it will be seen in 6:65. Do not neglectto reinforcethe area near the
wing and cockpit,where the sectionchangesand loses some rigidity.
A variationon the rolled ply fuselagetheme can be seen in 6:6G.
Here,the bottom is roundedand the top edgesclampedtogetherover a
narrow strip. lt makesa much thinner fuselageand lends itself well to
the up-to-datehump-backprofile.lt too can be taperedfore and aft as in
6:67, but additionalpart-rolleddoubler piecesof ply are vital where a
cut-out is made in the curved bottom area,say for the wing. External
fillets will also stiffenthe edge of the hole.
Thin straight grained balsa sheet can be rolled over a well-waxed
tapered forme (such as an old billiard cue). lf the sheet has to be
damped to aid bending,as seen in sketch6:68,watch it while it dries,
and graduallyslide it off as it shrinksbackto size,or it may bind on or
split. Severallayersof thin sheet are betterthan one thick layer,as in
6:69. Tissueor bandagemay be laminatedin (6:70)to resist splitting
for little weight penalty.
lf formersare to be insertedto reinforcethe tube at stresspoints,use
a small-borecore tube as a permanentjig as in 6:71 or utilisecontrol
cabfetubes as in 6:72.
CHAPTER7

Around the engine

Gowlings
Slot-props
Ductedfans
Silencing SeealsoGhapter6

Cowlings,if little else,may need the hollowingof laminatedbalsa

blocks in their construction.Sketch7:1 shows how pieces,fretsawn
from largerlaminations,can be used up for the smallestones.lt also
indicatesthe preferreddirectionof carving, once the laminationsare
g l u e du p .
Such a technique might be used for a fixed lower cowl, which
supportsthe bearers,as seenin7z2.The upperpart is removedto gain

Outer lominotion from centre

Block bols removoble Corve inside towor&

top cowling cdntre
Removoble cowl ing

Cooling oir exit

Fixedcowrins
7:g
supports beorers

72
accessto the engine,which in this casewould be upright.lf the engine
is side mounted,cheekcowlingsmay be made,eitherfrom solid block,
or from blockat the front and curved sheet aft (7:3).
Up, down, or sideways,the radial cowl has no restrictionon the
englle-Alront ring from-4ounorertriprof balsacan be made up on a
ply ring and sandedto sectionas in 7:4. The sidesare rolled ply
(disguisethe joint below),with a further ring at the rear,or alloy
bracketsto mount it. Sketch 7:5 shows a composite cowl for an
inverted{or upright}engine.Thistype would do for controlline models,
but couldbe modifiedfor sportor radiocontrolmachines.Thosesingle
curvaturesides can be 1Azin.ply.
7:6 showshow to blenda squarefuselageinto a spinner,by adding
thick doublersand triangularstrip. Note that the rear ends of these
added pieces are tapered off to make room for the engine and its
bearersor mount.A holewould be cut to clearthe cylinderand it could
be slit lengthwisefor access.Always face the meeting edges of such
componentswith l/szin.or I/aain.ply, becausethere is much vibrationto
causewear and consequentfuel seepage.T:7shows the construction
for an all-balsaversionof that in 7:5.

Pon or block port

of fuseloge

Lominoted bolso ring

Plonked too or block

Ply focing

Centre lominotion
Bottm
 7:8

Piono wire cliP

engoges in engine
bockplote recess

il-
:l

L -i
I

.l
I i-'l
v ! -L^
-
Engine
'-l

Dresssnopsflush

When a cylinder of a model engine proiects from the cowling or

fuselageit may be an eyesorein an otherwisestreamlinedform. What,
however, should be done with the cylinder in sport models of free-
lancedesign?Sketch7:8 shows one idea employedin a pseudoWorld
War I machine.Most of the engine is expressedas part of a dummy
'threecylinder'blockfollows on behind
exposedone.A box-like(sheet)
it. if required,the backand front ends can be left opento allow for extra
enginecooling.One of the author'smodels employedbeer bottle caps
as dummy cylinder heads.

Keeping it in place
The removablepartsof a cowlingshould be easilyclippedin place,in
some cases,while the engineis running,althoughit is a betterpolicyto
arrange adequateaccessto the engine via holes. A wire clip on the
cowling can engagein the engine backplaterecessas in 7:9, or dress
snapscan be set in ffushas in 7:10.To alignthe snaps,fix the male half
first, then pressthe cowl down to leavean imprint of the pip, to locate
the centre of the other half. Ply facings will not dent easily,so put a
smear of Plasticeneon the surface.
How about utilising ready-mouldedparts for cowlings?Sketch7:11
shows vacuum formed wingtip mouldingstrimmed and prised open.

74
 7:12

F R O N TV I E W

Bolm ring

D r u mf r m b o r t l e s i d e
Neck end used
os topered cowling

Rornded end os
rodiused cowl ing
Bose
usedoscowling
7:13

The unoccupiedcowl half can be plain, but that which housesthe

cyfinderneedsto be cut for cooling, as in 7:12, which illustratesa
helmettype and would also servean invertedengine.Keepthe plastic
well clearof the engineto avoid heatsofteningit. Commercialbubble
cockpitcanopiescan also be used as the rear part of helmet or side
cowfs, with the 'hot spot' taken care of by balsa block. Fizzydrink
bottles yield severaluseful areas for turning into radial cowlings, as
seenin 7:13.The base,which can be carefullydetachedand cut out in
the centre,makesa small-radiusfront type. The bottom of the bottle
itself is hemisphericaland can be used for those more rounded nose
sections.The cut-awaytip might even be incorporatedas a spinneron
smallermodels.
The necktapers and providesa more streamlinedversion. What is
left can be cut to lengthto form a tubular sectionaft of a balsa/plynose
section. The smooth plastic surface aids a good finish and extra
strengthcan be achievedby lining the tube with balsaor thin ply with
the major grain directionfore and aft. Many more ideas may present
themselvesin a searchthrough the kitchenstore of tubs, jars and lids.

75
Slot
- props
Wtiiledealingwith thatwhichencloses the engine,mentionmust be
madeof the 'slot prop'system,wherethe airscrewis situatedway back
downthe fuselagb. ehnoughthe modelprototypes wereflyingas early
asthe 19b0s,onl"yr"""ntlylrasthefull-sizeaircraftworldadoptedthem.
Sketch7:14 expiainswhat happens.The maior requirements are as
follows: 1) Circularfuselagecioss sectionat the Ffop position,if the
piop i" to be in the mainfuiselagearea.2)A good wing.span if the prop
irit throughit. 3) Someconueiientmeansof separating tle fore and
aft sectioni of the model,for startingor servicingthe enging, and 4)
springstart belt and pulleystarting(as in ductedfans)and
accesshatches. Prop Secret,the prototypeshown, usesa rolled card
"ttiin"t,
iusetageabout4in.dia and a 1.8ccdieseldrivinga 9in.dia.prop.The
sketchihowsbearers,for the benefitof the largenumberof modellers
who havebeammount motors- see7;15.Dowelsioin the removable
outerwing panelsandfuselagenose,but verticalmetaltonguescould
be used.ift" p.p has a balsi and ply drum slippedoverit 17:16)and
tft" pfrn view in 7:17 showsa typicil layout.Remember that in this

Chooe slightly lorger dio prop

t ,Open windows for
Rmovoble fuseloge front ond Pro,p drum engine cooling
lmding edge of centre section /

Engine beorers

7:14

Fore/of t ioining dowels

Removoble for engine occess in centre seclion

{i Hond storting bY
hord short bl ow
to blode neor toP
\\
dod cenlre
\\

7:15 Wing dowels

Centre section ioiner dorels

l/32"ply fronl
{_._._ ond bock on bols core

r/&"ply
Bolonce prop drum
edge
corefully

7:16 7:17

76
case, it is the wings that hold the fuselagetogether. However,in the
pusher layout shown in sketch7:18,the wing is clear of the prop and
the fuselageis deep enough to be joined to its tail section.lt is, in fact,
a filled-intwin boom, arrangedvertically.lf the engine can be started
without removingrtherear part then radiocontrol can be installed, with
cables to elevatorand rudder running around the edges. lt is not
outsidethe boundsof possibilityto arrangethat both cabi-es go outside
one ioint and allow hingeingof the fuselageby their flexibility.Another
method is to housetwo servosin the rear sectionand lead the wiring
acrossthe ioint, to socketsin the front part.
Takingthe enginefurther backgivesthe opportunityof installingit in
a slotted fin, perhapsless obtrusivelythan in a conventionalpusher
layout.The tailplanecan carry the rudder linkageto a forked horn to
engagein the rear part of the fin or the top of the rudder itself.Sketch
7:19 showsthe generalarrangement,with the engine in a thickened-
out part of the fin. The side-onview of the prop appearsto fill-in the
slot, so the system is not as obtrusiveas might be imagined.

Thin or sheet wings

i4
tl-

ll-t
Conlrol cobles
Slim front fuseloge

-___\\

I
Spring stort engines useful
et-?? in this opplicotion

I
I
I

Cooling

7:19

Wide oreo oround engine

77
 Silencer or tuned pipe poitioned for leost obstruction of duct
Suooorl
-\-

Lorge intoke dio.

Foiring Rolled ply toilpipe

Comme,ciol Tonk os short os :cole oermils
Storling holch ducted fon unit

7:2O Engine plole fcrms

wing lcngves

l/4"thick ply wing rongue/beorer

7:21 Web below

l l o y Or t h i c k p ll y t o
AilOy
A
fit o
fit oraind
rc t engine
cronkshoftt b o r i ni n g Intok
\--
*-=--s,.ippo.r

'" 7:22

Ducted Fans
This system requireshigh revvingengines.Most ductedfan models
today are radio controlledand need high power, so there are several
commercialductedfan units,comprisinga motor mount and short tube
which surroundsthe fan and engine. lt is this unit that has to be
blendedinto the arrangementof ply tubes which form the tailpipeand
intakeducting.All other structureshould be outsidethe duct to permit
unimpededairflow. However,as will be seen from 7:20, the tank and
tuned pipe silencer need supports,so a reinforcingpatch has to be
added to the tailpipe.Similarly,spacingwebs can support the tank
fairing and act as flow straighteners.
In home-brewengine installations,the wing mounting tongues can
form the mount, but it is often necessaryto add a web close to the
engine to damp out vibration and strengthenthe duct by reinforcing
with a 'doubler ring'which is rolledfrom plywood.A strengthenercan
be screwedto the front of the enginemount as in 7:22 and this can be
tailoredto fit the enginecrankshaftbearinghousing,thus relievingthe
strain of startingfrom the lugs themselves.Naturally,the size of this
alloy or hardwood block should be less than that of the fan hub. lt is
essentialto fuel-proof the inside of the duct, which in some cases
becomesa main structuralelement.Free-lancemodels can have the
radio linkagesrunningdown a dorsalor underbellyfairing,havingthe
tailpipeas the rear fuselagealone.

78
 Silencing
Enginenoise is a very sensitivepart of public relationsin the radio
controlworld. lt is not only the exhaustnoisethat annoys,but the rest
of the model vibratingin sympathy- see 7:23.
The engine itself p+odueesmeehar+ieaLsound by+ransndsing its
movement to the airframe; the covering drums and amplifiesthe
sound. The silencerradiatessound waves by vibrating;thin home-
made silencer tubes are suspect here, 'panting' with the exhaust
pulsations.Soundalsocomesfrom the carburettor(rememberyour car
system).Let'ssee how some of these soundscan be reduced. . . lf the
' engineis resilientlymounted as in7:24 the vibration is reducedby the
time it reachesthe airframe.lt is important, however,to have a long
bearingsurfacebetweenengine mount and engine bearers,otherwise
the enginewill rockand probablyvibratemore. Experlmentis needed
to find the correcthardnessof rubber packing.Whateverthe method
chosen,be sure to avoid any direct rigid contact betweenthe engine
mount and the bearers,or as in7:25, the enginemount and bulkhead.

Air intoke noise

Ronle frm wheels

a

724
B o lt
Metol wosher

Rubber wosher

Rubber
strip

Locking nut

Locking nut
Beorer

7g
 Fuseloge

Corved block

Full metol or ply tube

7:3O Lorge c*ling

Tuned pipe ond silencer

Acoustic foom
Acorstic fom Rodio s;ctan

It is the shapeof the mounting rather than the bolts that keep it in
alignmentso by gluing the rubberlaminationin placein additionto the
bolts,the mount should not allow the bolts to transmitvibrationto the
beareror former.
Efficientsilencerscan be quite large,but even so, an improvement
shouldbe noticedwhen sucha silenceris enclosedwithin a fairingas in
7:26.
The ends haveto be slightlyopen to allow coolingair to passaround
the silencer.Some airbornesound radiatingfrom the silencersidescan
be absorbedby a thin (%in.l layer of fairly densespongefoam plastic.
This will melt and give off toxic fumes if allowed to touch the hot
silencer;beware!Aim to interruptthe direct'line of sight' betweenthe
1oi1e-nloducingparts and the outsideworld. The separatehousing in
7:28 only goes part of the way.
cowlings are the most difficult to treat, but with space inside the
intakeand exit slits can be screened(not blocked)with foam 17:2g1.
The'full treatment'isseenin sketch7:30.

80
CHAPTER
8

Hatches,cockpits
Reinforcingcut-outs
Glazing
Ganopies SeealsoChapter6

Largeholes in the surfaceof a fuselagecan be a source of potential

weakness,for example, an access hatch near the nose reducesthe
strengthacrossthe fuselage.lf this is on top, as in 8:1, an upwards
landing shock at the nose will cause the sides to open out. This is
explainedin sketch8:2, so a safer position for the hatch would be on
the undersideas in 8:3, but in any casecross struts at the ends of the
opening needto be well fixed to the sides.
Any openingwhich chops through load-bearingskin or longerons
needsto havea doubleras in 8:4. Note how the endsof the doublerare
chamferedto spreadthe load gently.

8:1 1-

8:3
Holch below

Doubler inside mode in

8:6
two holves to f it

81
 Cockpitopeningscan be given a second skin insideto act as doublers
'floor' as in 8:6; the grain runs
(8:5)and whereuit possiblea high level
acrossthe fuselageto provide a tensile brace.
Hatches in flat- or siightly curved sheet skins can be started by
carefullymakingfour holeswith a hole punch rotatedgently,savingthe
waste retrieved-fromthe punch as in 8:7. Cut the outer edge with a
knife,then glue the waste into the hatch panel at 45'to offer end grain
to the edge.
To stop-thepaneldropping in, doublersare positionedto overlapthe
edge as in g:8. Wnere hatchesoccur on curvedtop de-ckingor in block
ar"-rr, the edges can be faced with thin plywood for strength and
n".tn"r. (B:gi. Hatches are best located between formers and if of
rolled sheet or planked,have end formers too as in 8:10. The skin is
appliedall over,then the hatchcut free, hencethe spacersto allow for
the saw blade.S:11 suggestsa means of making straighthorizontal
final cuts to free the hatlh after cutting through skin and spacerscrap.
Ply can then be insertedand markedfor trimming as in.8:12'When
gluing these in, polythenebetween fuselagefacing and hatch facing
Sove wosle ond

Add dobler strips inside

Piece of fuieloge cut @t

becmes hotch ponel

Corved block

Skin (rotled or Plonking)

ily focing odded

Sowcuts first

8:'t1
lexible metel strip 8|12 l',lork focing PIY

8:13
W
82
 Y
ir

preventsaccidentalgluing in of the hatch(g:13).

Now let'sput some glazingin . . . Supposethe cut-outis in the form
of a cabinwindow, as in 8;14,then the acetateglazingcan be held in
placeby the doublersthemselves,but these are-setbick slightlylrom
: - the edge fsr neatness_
This detailcan be modifiedto suit open frame fuselageswith infill
panelsas in 8:15; allowancehas been made for a thin pl-ywoodframe
to. give strengthand neatnessto the opening. lf weighi sarringis a
prime concern,balsastripsmitred at the.otnjrs will sErveas in g:16.

Windshields
The most simple form of windshield is a curved piece of acetateor
clearABS cut from a flat sheetto a paper pattern.Leavetwo or three
l u g s . t os l i p i n t o s l i t si n t h e f u s e l a g e i o is e c u r i t ya s i n g : 1 7 . A n e d g i n g
can.beappliedin the form of split flastic or rubbertube.A bettertrim ii
? thin ply or aluminium litho plate frame carefuily fretted out
(temporarilyfix the plateto plywood for a cleancut).Apply
t|,e ira-es
to a fofdedflat sheetof ABS and trim to shape(g:19).
A short cut is to take the front of a commercialbubble canopy and
painton or apply paperframesas in g:19.why not use the resi of
the

8:15

Flot sheet folded

Flot sheet orched

T h i np l y
Leove fixing togs frome
when cutting-out odded

8:17
"/4,i
Poper temPlote

Stondord conopy
8:18

*1 /__-
Dummy runners

used os wincishield

83
canopy to representa slid back canopy,on those modelswhich have
canopies rather than'open-cockpit-and-windshield' just described?
With cockpit detail and dummy canopy rails,this is quite convincing
and a welcome changefrom the plain bubbletype.

Gommercialcanopies
There is a wide range of ready-mouldedcanopies,so the average
model has no excuseto be unadorned.However,it is providentto have
a few canopiesaround when designinga new model so that a suitably
shapedtop deckingcan be arrivedat.
Suppose the new creation demands a different treatment. A more
rakishangle can be adoptedby trimming a largercanopyat the backas
in 8:21.The sidescan be pinchedin as in 8;22,or the sidesof a narrow
canopyspreadto make it arch as in 8:23.Windscreens of cabinmodels
can be made more bulbous by taking two piecesfrom the sides of a
large bubble canopy and turning then aroundto fit on a centralframe
18:241.The bubble type can also be cut into three sections and
condensedin length or modifiedwith bentflat sheet,angledby making
'V' cuts and mounted on frames,all as per 8:25.
Really racy windscreenscan be made by turning a bubble canopy
around and cutting it to fit, see sketch8:26.

8:22

bock ond trim

Squeeze side to moke sides more bulbous

re-trim bottffr edge

Ply fromesot ioinh

Spreod sides to orch conopy

Fromeot ioint

Curved sections used Stondord conopy cut

for windscreen porl ond opened orl
8:25

8:24

84
 R6el stripper to
Wod strip
/ required strip

Intemedioie strips fit

";-,ffiilI:lu:o--J€ to boord or gloss beiween moin ons

Scrop bolso web

glued to poper

Ploslicene shoped to meet edge of poper

Un-lrimmed conopy /vlork edge with

o wox pencil
insert into conopy

Mosking tope

Almost any screenshapecan be derivedfrom canopiesby trimming

one or both ends as 8:27 shows.Dummy framescan be simulatedby
cutting strips of self adhesivevinyl or maskingtape with the aid of a
balsastripper(8:28).Varnishover with fuel proofer to secure.

Fitting the canopy

It is all too easyto mis-trimthe edge of the canopy,but the method in
8:29 aidsthe markingof the cockpitedge on the canopymoulding.Be
sure to avoid bendingthe Plasticeneused, during its transferinto the
untrimmedcanopyas in 8:30.
Now the canopyfits, it can be fixed with epoxy or contactglue to the
almost finishedfuselage.Maskingtape will ensure that there are no
unsightlyblobs outsidethe edge - see 8:31 - and some guide blocks
and a maskingtape hinge can help the pre-gluedcanopy safely into
placewithout smearingthe adhesivearound the insidesurfaceof the
canopy- see 8:32.
Rememberto finishall the detailand paintworkin the cockpitinterior
beforeenclosingit. Checkit for dust too; the canopygenerallyattracts
balsa dust insidedue to staticcharges.

85
 Plosticene shope

8:33
Glossfibre con be used I
in ploce of wox if desir

Por in ploster of poris ..-..7

Key hondle with tocks

Epoxy filled surfoce

Collopsible Plug
wilh removoble cenlre
bolt together cleor of
mculding edge

8:38
Exiro depth Spigot or hondle

Making bubble canopies

lf you are determinedto make your own canopies,or indeed any
other formed plasticsheet items like fairings,wingtips, cowlings and
blisters,the following few notes may help.
'plug' is forced into a heat-softened
A suitablyshapeditem calleda
sheetof moulding quality clearABS or acetate.The plasticretainsthe
shapeon cooting.To make a plug in situ, on the model,study sketch
8:33.Mould Plasticene to the requiredshapeand smooth it flush at the
edges.Add a Plasticenebeador wall as in 8:34,which is to containthe
mould materialwhich is meltedcandlewax brushedon. Add more wax
and scrapsof bandageto reinforceit, as in 8:35.When hard,the mould
can be taken off and the Plasticenetaken out (glassfibremay be used
insteadof wax). Castthe plug in plasterof paris as shown in 8:36.
A plug needsto be a littledeeperthan the finishedmoulding,so the
edgecan be built up with balsaor more plasterand trimmedflush,as in
8:37.

86
 . Bulbousplugscannotbe withdrawnfrom mould or mouldingunless
they have a wedge down the centre like that seen in 8:38. lf the extra
depth is shallow,the canopymay not trim properly(8:3g).
Simplemouldings(withoutundercuts)can be made by pushingthe
plug rnlo a hqle tn a ply plale solhailUratrys Lheplaqtic she_etdown
into the hole.8:40 explains.In this examplethe hole in the ply, which
should be about /ain. thick, clearsthe plug by the thicknessof the
plasticsheetall round.The plasticshouldbe pinnedor clippedin place
beforeheatingin the domesticoven until reallysoft, but not so hot that
it blisters.Wear thick gloves and quickly plunge the plug in. An
additionalplatecan be madeto clampthe plasticsheetas seenin 8:41.
This allowsthe free movementneededto make an even moulding.

Vacuumforming
A professional
mouldingmachineis not cheap,but thanksto the use
of a domestic vacuum cleaner and oven or electric fire, both in
unmodifiedform, moulding can be done with the simple box unit
shown in sketch8:42.

C lomp together

Guide plote to
clmr plug eosily

Drowing pins
bulldog clips
Plostic sheet heoted P r e s so n l o s m l i n g t u b e
Fix with mosking 1eO.
lnitiol shoping Shopeofter suction

with conloct odhsive SECTION

Suction box
C lomping f rome
 Ply plote guidesABS F i l m s e o l i n gi r o n
/ Metol plote to form flot
, Hold until cool \

Hole to cleor
lomp bulb

8:45
8:46
Cut section for conopy

8:47
Cui off hondle
ond smoolh edge

li:Ti;,il',''"0**8:48

The important feature is a frame onto which the plasticis secured

with maskingtape. This is placedin the oven for heating and swiftly
forced onto a rubber seal gasketon the vacuum box as 8:43.
What at first appearsto be a gentledeformationof the plasticrapidly
clingscloselyto the plug as the air is suckedout. Small piecesof plastic
can be taped to a sheetof thick paper or card to save wastage(8:tl4).

0uickies
Shallowcircularblisterscan be mouldedby usingan old electriclight
bulb, round door knob or other smooth hemispherical item as a plug.
'astrodomes'
Choose a suitable tin can and ply plate to make and
similar items, as 8:45. A spinner may be used as a plug in similar
manner for producing,for example,the bomb aimer's canopy on a
model 'Lancaster'.The flat window sectionis formed later by pressing
a hot metal disc onto the moulded surface,where it will cause the
plasticto re-form in this area (8:46).
lf one is not too particularin respectof crystalclear glazing,cordial
drink bottlescan be cut up and reformed,but quite a good screencan
be cut direct from a shoulder section of a tizzy drink bottle as seen in
8:47.
Little blisters can be made from whole or parts of plastic picnic
spoons or those Sml. medicinespoons- just the job for fairings over
'Jungmeister'.
cylinderheadsin a

88
I
I

II
I
I CHAPTER9

Better wings and tails

Templates
Packing
Detailsfor camber
Reinforcement
Lighterconstruction SeealsoGhapters
Tailvariations 4andtr1

Here are some extra details for improving those basic structures
describedearlier,Templatesare always useful for ensuring accurate
cutting,but a rib templatecan be used to cut many differentsections,
as shown in 9:1. The resultof tilting the templateto reduce'thechord
is similarto that of trimming off the undersideof a ready cut standard
rib, but the grain directionof the rib can be chosento follow the lower
surface.Alternatively,a templateintendedfor a flat bottom wing can be
turned over to enablesymmetricalribs to be made as seen in 9:2.

Packing
Where washout is needed,a strip of balsacan be insertedunder the
trailing edge while the wing is being assembled,or before upper

Intermediote rib

Resultontrib shope

9:1 Templote reversed

for second cul

Required length
9:3 Pocking extension on ribs

'..;:t:).i:
i

l I"'
h - k'--rI
b_t.
l-
\ Wing ponel
Pocking strip further in
Slot for lower
ot tip to give woshoul
T .E . s k i p
sheetingis done.The further the strip goes in at the tip the greaterthe
washout (9:3).Some wings needextensionpieceson the lower trailing
edge of each rib, or those near the tip, to jig the wing to the correct
washoutangle,or merelyto supportit while building.The examplein
9:4 is intendedfor'V' type trailingedge strips.
When lower cap strips are to be fitted later, the spar and ribs are
packedup so that they meet leadingand trailing edgescorrectlyas in
9:5. Where the section is undercambered,the trailing edge is often
tilted, so it too needs packingas seen in g:6, so does the lower wing
spar or spars,even if there are no lower cap strips (9:7).
Lightweightwings may have severalsmall sectionspars insteadof
leading edge sheeting.By staggeringupper and lower spars,the rib
strength is retainedas shown in sketch 9:8. Thin sectionscan have
large leadingedge strips,shapedto form the lower curve.The trailing
edge is usuallyso thin that double cap stripswould meet. In this case,
cap strips or no, gussetscan be added at the junction of each rib and
the trailingedge- both thesedetailsare shown at 9:9 and the general
proportionsof the gussetsin sketches9:10 and 9:11. Pay particular
attentionto the correct grain directionof the gussets,for they are to
afford support to both ribs and the trailing edge itself (often thin and
liableto tilt with the added support).

Rib pocking
Tilted troiling edge
9:6

Spor pocking

Leoding edge toP sheet onlY

Ccp striP toP onlY
I
I
I

Wide lmding edge

Troiling edge

90
 fn sketch9:12,we see a whole collectionof usefulgussets;at the tip
to resist landing knocks,around the tip to main panel joint where
dihedral change occurs and near the centre section,to reinforcethe
areawhere rubberbandsrestrainit. Thoserubberbandscan easilycut-
into a thin trailingedge,so let in a strip of spruce,shapedto_lhgaerofoil'
seeti6n; and m a[e d oubty su re withpi afto-v\rire;as ir+9:13-Thin p ly can
be glued over the trailing edge instead,but it looks untidy. Note how
the-endsof the insertare chamferedoff to blend the strengthgradually
into the balsa,thus avoidingweak points.
9:l4showsthe staggeringof wing bracestripsforthesamereason.lf
the bracesthemselvesare tlpered off as in 9:15,which comparesboth
straightand taperedtypes,there should be less chanceof weak points
on eachspar,leadingand trailingedges.
Where notchedfulfdepth sparsare used,rememberthat the effective
depthis only that of the unnotchedarea,so to notchbracesas in 9:16 is
unnecessary and unwise.9:17 shows the correctmethod;the taperis
from the top so that the brace misses those notches and blends in
nicely.

Tip broce gussets Thicker rib ot tip dihedrol ioinl

Troiling edge

9:13

Piono wire to prevent

rubber bon& cutting in

_4
Porollel broce

Topered broce

GI

Broces stoggereo
9:15
9:14

Toper lo spreod lood into sPors

v
f r#..tiu"r-"" o*t,
9:17
 l/32"ply on top ot [oint
9:19

Centre seclion sheeting top ond bottm

9:2O
x
Frocturepoint section

Topered spor doubler

Positim of ioiner lube if used

Topered sheet

l0rni.

9:23
Toperedspors Topered lmding edge sheet
Porollel open frome oro
'r/ rlr, F
tt ./ il ;; il '1
J- -l, - ! - u- -----x - ,L

Topered troiling edge sheet 9.24

Wing sheet planforrns
A fully sheeted or stressed skin wing, or one which has a fully
sheetedcentre,as seen in sketch9:18, can benefit from thin ply with
the outer ply grain spanwise,under and over the centrejoint. This can
often look neaterthan bandageand glue, or glassfibreto reinforcethe
joint. The ply insidethe joint must be in short pieces,otherwiseit will
not meet the skin. ln any case,it is most useful at leadingand trailing
edges only.
9:19 shows variations at the centre of a partly sheetedwing. The
sheetstrengthenswhere there is the most stress,but has to be reduced
in area,for lightnessoutboard.Neverstop the sheetsharplyas in 9:20.
It has a potentialfracturepoint (evenif the bracesor joining dowelsend
nearbyl.9:21 is good; the sheetgraduallyblendsinto the rest of the
wing and the dowels are staggeredtoo.
Doublerstrips on sparsand sparsthemselvescan taper (9:221.Even
unusuallookingarrangementslikethe plan seenin 9:23will providea
good strengthpattern; strong at the root, blending out to lightnessat

92
 Plone in ihis direction to
keep wood in iension

9:26
Turn wood end to end
Clomp to finish ploning

at

9:27

B o l s os p o ro i & r i g i d i t Y

Epoxy gloss stronds

in ploce ond worm

tfe tip. A wing which is taperedwill be unnecessarilyheavyat the tips,

if the sheetareasare parallel.Try taperingthe sparsand sheetwidths
as seenin 9:24.
ln discussing taperingsparsand doublers,it is realisedthat some are
spruceand needto be planedcarefullyto taper them. Small section
timber needstreatinggently.lf it is pressedend-on up to a bench stop
or the wall, the planewill probablybuckleit. Plane it in tensionas seen
in 9:25,this way, it will lie flat while it is worked.Therewill be a short
part of its length unplaned,becausethe clamp gets in the way, so turn
the striparoundend to end and re-clampit as in 9:26.The thickend can
then be reduced.

Special construstion
Contestmodelsusuallyneed a more technicalapproachto building,
for example: thin wings have to withstand high stresses wheh
launched.Thistip relatingto glidersshows how glassfibrestrandsmay
be unravelledfrom glassfibretape for use in spar reinforcement19:27ll.
Glassfibregivesamazingstrengthto flat balsasparsand carbonfibre is
evenstronger.In 9:28,it is suggestedthat the sparsare formed actually
on the leadingedge sheet,by sandwichingglassstrandscontinuously

93
 Riblets l/32" or soft l/l6"3heel Sioggered wonen rib belry

il
l----r
i
I
I' i
I
I

ii,
I I

' l-Lr--
--r-l-J-
l/16"x5/8":pnrce "squorewonen.ibss tog
ggp
Sofi l/l6"sheet

l6"spor Sheet floPs or

l/16"x3/16 vp to 3/32"xt/2"
cop ribs top ond boilom

9:3€l

from root to tip betweenthe skin and a thin spar,whose only purposeis
to add rigidity. Ribs are built onto the lower skin and the top skin
complete with spar added and trimrned at the leading edge. Sketch
9:29 shows how to assemblethe spars.
A method used by the author for lightweight electricaerobaticR/C
models is a 'D' box leadingedgefrom thin sheet,edge jointed to %oin.
flat sprucespars.This is the major load bearingmemberwith a vertical
web/spar. Ribs, such as they are, comprise a lattice of l/ein.square
strips of double warren planformto make a geodeticstructureof very
low weight.The whole of the trailing edge is a movableflap divided up
as flaps and aileronsas seenin plan view 9:30 and section9:31.
Ribs have been omitted altogetherin the quick-to-makestructureof
9:32.Flatstripsare archedover a spar or two, to meet leadingedge and
lower strips joined to a small section trailing edge. The section is
maintainedby the depth and position of the spar(s).Free flight and
sport R/C models have used strips of %oin.x l/ain-3/ain.
and on simpler
models, have been laid straight as normal ribs, with the occasional
diagonal(warren)rib as seenat 9:33.Such a wing relieson the tissue
coveringfor much of its rigidityand hasto be of gentlecamberto avoid
crackingthe cap strips,which of coursehave nothing to cap!

94
 Riblets (pre-bent strip or sheet cuf to secrion)

9:34

Ribs top ond bottm

Brccing below

Al| |/|6"x3/|6'strip

Brocing on top

'*;fr:'J1'J"*
9136
Continuingthis theme further,stripsof lAain.xsAoin.were persuaded
to form a light electricR/Cmodel wing, following the crossedgeodetic
bracing method, and pre-bentcap strip riblets at the leadiig edge
completeda wing lighterand more rigid than many traditiona'lones.
The plan is seenat 9:34.

Orthodox geodetic wings

Firstsome extra ribs are needed;geodeticwings have diagonalribs
of the same depth as the normal ones- this meansa bit of plotting . . .
study9:35.Dividethe normalrib into equalstationsand draw a line at
the sameangleto it as will be takenby the geodeticrib.This is the new
rib datum line. Producethe station lines to meet it, then on each,
perpendicular to the datum, mark off the standardrib depth.Simple
enough, but wait; the top spars have to be projectedfrom datum to
datum, not to that new rib top. Returnthen backperpendicutar, as were
the stations. The new rib can be outlined, and the spar notches
indicated- note how extendedthey are.
when the ribs are assembled,alternateribs have to be cut, or half
jointed,see9:36.Ribletsmay be neededif the geodeticplan is not close
spaced.

95
 Some wings have standard ribs and geodetic ones at 45" or
thereabouts.the geodeticones may be thinner sheet,although on a
contestrubber powered model, all might be 1/szin. thick.The geodetic
ribs are usually cut to meet the main ribs (9:37).Warren bracing ribs
can combinewith normal ribs,adding rigidity,lesseffectivelythan true
geodetic,but with lesseffort and weight, see9:38.lf the ribs are warren
[attern only, without straight ribs, there is still rigidity, but -spacing
needsto be closerand ribletsmust be introducedto filtthosewide gaps
forward of the spar (9:39).
The warren or geodetic rib system need not always be carried
forward of the mainspars,in which case more riblets are used to
maintainthat important aerofoilsection,as in 9:40.
A lazy way of installingand shaping geodetic ribs is to be seen in
9:41,but only do this if the structureis tough (flimsy,soft sheetwill be
damaged easily).Rectangularblanks of sheet are cut and glued in
position between the full ribs proper. This is done preferablybefore
iitting the top spars,becausethey will be difficult to thread in. When
dry, they are sandedin situ, down to the levelof the full ribs,takingcare
not to sand the latter accidentally.

Godetic ribs

Worren ribs
Cut godetic ribr ol crcings
Riblets lvtoinrik

Woro ribs

Wi& wnding blek

- Sond off geodetic blonks to mtch ritr
i
Add top spors loter
Fit rectongulor blonks to full rib wing

96
Strip bracing
Normal wings can be made more rigid by adding square section
stripfrom top and bottom sparsto the trailing edge,forming a geodetic
pattern.They lie below the coveringline on top, but on it below, if the
wing is flar bofiomed aft of the spar- lt does nst wsrl on deeply
undercambered wings.The systemis shown in; g:42.
A certain amount of weight can be saved at the leading edge by
omitting the lower sheet and substitutingwarren bracing from lower
spar to leadingedge strip. Pre-bentcap strips can then extend to the
leadingedge,in one pieceif desired,all per g:43.

Tougher tails
Although sheettails have been dealt with earlier,these few dodges
s.houldhelp in detail.Swept backtail surfacescan be prone to splitting,
due to the spanwisegrain pattern.9:M shows how to lay the sheet out
in sectionsedge-joinedto supportthe hinge line (C/Land R/Cmodets).
In 9:45,the grain is parallelto the edges,but becausethis meansthat
the tail has to be cut in half, flat ply or hardwood bracesneed to be let
in. Fordihedralledor anhedralled tails,tough ply or wire bracesshaped
to the angle are inset.
Endsof elevatorsand tailplanes(or rudderand fin) benefitfrom 'anti-
split strip' butted on (9:47).Unless the model is scale and requires
otherwise,use bluntly rounded edges.(9:48).

Top sheet only

Top loding edge sheet

Worren brccing
boltm only

Upprer worren brocing

Cop slrips on bottm ful I chord

Nole groin directions

Floi broces
let in flush

\l
El ewtqs
FLAT
swEpr
ron)o# o,ruo*rd(
94 945
TATLPTANES

Hord od srrips bur

ioined _
-. (9rcin chordwise) : Do not sond ro o knife edge-
sport models shwld not dent osily

D
97
 Thick toilplone

Et EVATOR 9:52
(s ruddq)

Exces presure in rnding Skin recoverslo qrodrce

deflects sheet skin

-j
S p o r s -o n s t ee t e v o i * 9:54
9:53 g:SS spor for cleroncc when
hinged or top edge

Chomfer lryer skin

The edgesare best protectedon soft sheettails (soft becausethey are

thick in section).Hardsheet,or eventhreadgluedon, will do the trick-
see 9:49 and 9:50. Tail surfacescan be built up as seen in 9:51. So
simple and weight saving,'this.The structurecan be laid in the bottom
sheetand when dry, the top sheet added.Taperedsectionsfor rudder
and elevator are made just like the built-up trailing edge section
describedearlierand seen in 9:52.
It pays to sand the outer face of the sheet coveringbefore building
the tail, becauseif sandingis done vigorously,as in 9:53 the skin will
bend betweenthe structureand get sandedthin in some placesand not
in others. lt then pops back as in 9:54, leaving an undulatingsurface
with patchesof partly sandedfinish.
Wheneverturning a componentover after sandingone face,in order
to sand the other, place it on a smooth, clean surface,preferablywith
soft packing,to avoid scoringit accidentallyon blobs of dried glue and
wayward bits of wood.
That double surfacedtail can be made over pre-shapedstripsto give
it a streamlinesection,omitting leadingedge and trailing edge in the
process,as seen in 9:55.
It is often convenientto maketailplaneand elevatorsin one pieceand
slit apartwhen finished.
For lighter models,or those requiringlight control surfaces,warren
rib layout is excellentin retainingrigidity, as seen in sketch9:56. Flat

98
 Lowef worren spocers

Worren st)rle rib configurotion

Spocers ore hoif depth

ond glued ot crossingo
R i b sho lf notched

-'\
9:57

Geodetic style ribs Thin sheet core

9:58 Lomircted slrip

obove ond below

Strip "spors" ond "ribs"

9:60
-nFnffi
Im::;;.;;:il,"i*,/ sEcTroNs t
,.ffff:ffi tl*;";*,r"_?ru
plate tails, often prone to warping, can be made warp-resistantby
ysilg the doublebraced geodeticmethod. Herethe bracingstrips are
half the thicknessof the outline strips,one warren plan set are iaid in
touchingthe buildingboard covering,then a secondset are placedin
top, half a bay out of phase,and gruedat the crossings;all as seenin
sketch9:57.
Backto the elevatorsagain. . . geodeticribs half notchedtogetherare
the job for thesetaperedsectionsas in g:58.So, on to scale-li[etails . . .
How often has an interestingpfan shape beenchangedbecauseit was
difficult to build? A method beloved by scaremodrellersis shown in
9:59.A 1Aain. sheetcore is cut to the outline of the tail and pinned flat,
for stripwood to be added in the form of spars,which are continuous,
and ribs. The edge is formed by squeezingstrip betweenfinger and
thumbnail to encourageit to foflow the outfine. Glue wilt res-toreits
strength when in position, but purists could laminate the sharper
bends.Havingcompletedone side,the structureis turned over and a
repeatset of strip added to the other side (9:60).when dry the whole
tail is sandedto the appropriateaerofoilsection,or just roundedoff at
the edges,slit and chamferedat the hinge line, and tissue or fabric
coveredas in 9:61.Whereverthere is a stresspoint,fill in solid (i.e.at
the fuselagejunction,strut pointsand hinges).
CHAPTER10

Hingeingcontrol surtaces
Hinges
Split elevators
Non-fixedtails
Ailerons
Flaps
Spoilers
Variablecamber
Slats/slots
All-movingsurfaces SeealsoChapter9

The most elementaryform of hinges can be seen in the control-line

model,where apartfrom the largerversions,the method seenin sketch
10:1 will suffice.An alternative,less time-consumingmethod is the
'clotheshorse' hinge of 10:2.To preservethe flexibilityof the thread or
tape hinges,apply a little candlewax to the area where they crossthe
sheetedges.When dope or paint is applied,it will not then soakinto the
materialto stiffen it and make it brittle.
Radiocontrol modellersoften use leaf and pin hinges,which offer a
more precisepivot, but for control line models, some examples are a
little stiff, so disassembleand cut a fraction away from the meeting
f a c e s ,a s i n 1 0 : 3 .P i n ' p o i n t ' h i n g e sa s i n 1 0 : 4 a r ec o n v e n i e n t t oi n s t a l l ,
but fit in wood of 3/rain.or thicker.

Crossed linen
Corpet threod hinges "- or nylon
fope

D r i l l s m o l lh o l eo t
eoch throughPoint
1O:2
1O:1
Commerciol nylon hinge
with holes or ridges
for glue grip
10:4

Borbed single poinl hinge

Wirhdrow pin ond trim fits drilled holes in bolso
sidesof lugs for free (some types hove integrol horn)
movemenl

100
 Hord bolso blocks

Misoligned
y

1O:7 skryed J'. M

--:-
X
Stossered
E; r-l.-'
I -*---lr
1

1O:9

h Double strips sond'rich tope

1O:10

Some designsrequirethe hinge to be close to the top surface.Leaf

hingesare most convenient,as seen in 10:5,and here the sheet skin
traps them for security.Scrap blockssupport them below and provide
more areafor adhesive.lf using epoxy or superglueto fix them, be sure
to wax the hingepin area,as a resist.Foldthe hingeand dip it just into a
tin lid containinghot candlewax, or use boot polishcold.
The hinge point in 10:6will not have its pivot so near the top of the
joint, so file a little clearancearound it and ensure that the pivot is
horizontal,as if twisted round it will be stiff. Those chamfers in the
meetingedgesof controlsurfaceand the fixed aerofoilneedto be wide
enoughto allow the surfacesufficientmovementwithout strainingthe
hinge.
10:7showsthat a top-hingedsurfacecan havethe leavesof the hinge
angled down into better areas of grip. watch out, however,that the
slitsfor the hingesare alignedon both sidesof the hingeand are along
the hinge line, in both plan and rear views. Misalignmentcauses
friction,loosensthe hingesand warps the control surface.lf it does not
drop under its own weight, re-check.
10:8shows a pieceof fabric underthe skinsas a continuoushinge,
10:9 is similar.Two strips of fabric tape sewn down the centrecan be
g l u e do u t s i d ea s i n 1 0 : 1 0 .

101
Film hinges
Heat s-hrinkfilm can be used as hinges,full length at the covering
'b'; it
stage.10:11explainsthe sequence.Do not omit that packingin
preients the fiim shrinking the joint too tightly, making it stiff, but
remove it afterwards!

Split elevators
The rudder may extend across the elevatorS, So cut them for
clearanceand re-ioinwith a hardwood strip. Offsetthe horn, tho-ugh;
centralholeswill weakenthe joiner.Hard balsaend stripsalso reinforce
hereand epoxy skinspreventthe wood being crushedby the tightening
of the horn bolts.(10:12).
Wire ioiners can fit into slots in the ends of elevatorsif taped and
epoxied-for security,as in 10:13.The tube is importantif the tail is held
on Uy rubber bands.lt is gtuedto the tailplaneand preventsthe bands
f,estrictingelevatormovement.
10:14shows how to arrangechamfersfor free movementand 10:15
a recessedhinge design for close gaps (air escapingthrough a wide

Add film 2

\10:11

b d (overing overlops
Fold down onto i/l6"Pocking

Hord bolso or
hordwood ioiner

1O:1

Ploslic tube to keeP rubber

boncb off ioiner

10:13 -- t)
/ ,/</ <_Hing.

Horn here

102
 ffiffi 10:14

@ C l o s ef i r
/
15 <
1O:
-1-'

t/32"ply

Holes in line
I

;
1016
wilh hinge -

Cmmerciol ioiner

Cut foilPlone
to cle n

1q-,17
_ F i m l b e n d( r w i s t )

.RR)
rLr. rv Inrsoeo
1q2O

hinge-linespoils efficiency).10:16 illustrateshorn fixing. Keep the

holesin linewith the hingepivotfor accuracy.Commercialjoiner/horns
are easilyinstalled(10:17)cut a clearancenotch in the tailplane.Horns
can be cut from aluminiumangle (10:18),obtainedfrom D.t.Y.shops.
Drillthe pushrodholesto fit the wire to be usedor a commercialclevis
(10:19).
Clevisesare adjustableand clip into the horn. To removefrom the
horn, gently prise apart with a small screwdriver.Sketch10:20shows
how to bend a pushrod (16S.W.G.cycle spoke or piano wire). One
clevis is neededon each pushrod if adjustmentis to be made.
The positionof hornsdependson the clearancein the model,but the
straightestroute is the best.A hollow fuselageallows a centralhorn to
be used,as in 10:21.
lf the horn must be outside fiA:221,the crank in the rod must be
gentle,or movement could be lost. Dihedralledhinge lines (10:23)

103
dictate that two horns and a split rod are needed,so too with a swept-
backhinge line (10:24).When you've built one, it will be apparent.

Knock-offs
On a radio control model, movementof the tailplaneon its retaining
rubber bandswill changethe elevatorangle (drastic!)10:25suggestsa
tocatingdowelto preventfore and aft movementin flight.This is not so
pronounced with a vertical pushrod, as in 10:26. A pivoting tail is
acceptabletoo 110:27l-.

Ailerons
There are four basicclasses,as seen in 10:28.The strip type can be
driven from the inner end, via a short torque rod, (like half an elevator

I
1o24

Bind ond solder

x
M o t c h s t i ck shrcr pin

\->
L-4' -]-:

S . i n g l eb o l t f i x i n g

1oj27 "ifi'.?:';l'.I:fi{

104
tr

horn/joiner).The othersare operatedby a bowden cablecurvedto turn

90o,or better still, by a 90o bellcrank.(Books on radio control will
explainthis. ff it were all describedhere,the book would be unwieldy)
'Balanced'meansthat
an areaat the tip goesdown, as the main surface
goes up. fo reduce the forces on the controts-More of a fulLsize
practicehere,but copied on some scaleW.W.l. subjects).
A rear spar carriesthe aileron as in 10;2g,but a short one has to be
well supportedinboardas in 10:30.lt is usualto makethe wing in one,
then cut the aileronfree and face its raw edges.Strip ailerons,h-owever,
can be shapedand added later,as in 1052.

Strip oileron Smoll inset oileron

Lorge oileron Bolonced oileron

1O:28

_I
10:29

6
Cul lo form oileron

Troiling edge sheet

ofler ossmbly
Chomfered focings

Continuous ribs

1O:31

1O:32

105
 -\r\ x
1e33 ) [i;:i,';',i.:-jF
-

Box lading edge

to oileron

1O:34
q 1036
v
Pivot wire

T+ hinge_l__

C orrlinuous " l"'logic Tope"seol

Offset pivot
vDrog produced

1O:38
Offset hinge plotes

When shapingthe trailingedgeof the wing to meet an aileronof the

strip type, checkthat it blends in, as in 10:33which shows right and
wrong. 10:34will help those needingwide chord aileronsand 10:35
provides details for alternative minimum clearance hinges. Why
'Magic Tape' in the
bother,you might say . . . 10:37shows a strip of
hinge chamferto bend freely and preventair leaks.Tape on top serves
too, but is more visible.
Another type of aileron is the Frisepattern.This is hinged offset so
that it givesdrag in the'up' position,aidingturnson some models(and
full size).The hinge is well back on long plates and the top of the
leadingedge is radiusedto fit an overhangingtop surfaceon the wing
(10:38).

106
 F
l.=
Flapsand brakes
This page shows lift and drag producingcontrol surfaces.Flaps go
t
'is
,ill
:ll
iil
down to aid lift and can sharethe same hingeline as the ailerons,as in
10:39.lf the top movesup at the sametime, it becomesan airbrakeas
wellll0:40lJhe underside-oflhelrailing edge canbe split to lower- as
a lift augmenter.This is easyto model; recessthe lower skin and make
the flap from thin plywood. Stiffen it, if needed,with a piano wire
l e a d i n ge d g ee p o x i e do n . ( 1 0 : 4 1 ) .
An interestingco-axiallinkagewas seen on a contest aerobaticR/C
model. The aileronsare driven by a torque rod within a flap torque
tube, all supportedin bracketsas in 10:42.
Glidersare not so complicated.A thermal soarer can be slowed to
loseheightby raisinga ply panelon the wing surface,as seenin 10:43.
How does a cableopen it? Run a fine cableto the wing L.E.and backto
the rear edge of the spoiler.

1O:4O

4--spring closure, torque

\-\ rod or coble to open

107
 To servo

Top hinge seoled

To fixed point To servo

1O:4 Mid section
Reor section

Neor symmctricol trim

Loding edge
Y:rc Inset leoding edge
Slot on spocen 1O:45

To seivo Pushrod

10:46 Extended

f
To servo

1O:47 Ply doublers 1O:48

Variablecamber
Thistype of aerodynamic trickery,developedfor f/f powerclimb,was
used successfully on an aerobaticelectricmodel.lt was possibleto
launchthe modelinvertedand climb it with a camberedaerofoil,then
changeto fully symmetrical for somemanoeuvres, changingto normal
camberedprofilewhen upright,for high lift.Thosehingelinesmustbe
tape sealedand the linkagearrangedas in 10;M (right)to give more
movement at the rear section than that of the centre strip. With
adequatepower,controllinetype opposedflapswork almostas well!
10:45showsthe differencebetweenaddedand inbuiltwing''slots.
Theseimprovestallresistance is obvious.
at the wingtips.Construction
Movableslats,as in 10:46,can be springloadedto pop out as speed
decreases (fullsize)or (saferin modeluse)pushedout by a servo.They
area littlevulnerablein somelow wing subjects. All-movingtailplanes
pivot in a rod as in 10:47 (vertical pushrod)or 10:48(normallinkagel.

108
 Rod to bose of underfi

Retoining pin
Fixed rod
Underfin on shollw fuseloge

Ply doblers

I In Sktn

10.50 Brosstubes
10:51
\

rlrhl
Sprucesliip, drilled \ fpo"y fitl flush

Slox for tubs

Thickness of sheet

All-movingfins can be aerodynamically balancedand pivoted on a

rod, as in 10:49.Still in the realmsof radiocontrol,the rockingtailplane
mount allows for a single bolt mount to hold a 'slewableltailplane,
useful on rockyslope sites or for reproductionvintage models,where
the all-movingtail is to appear'fixed' and without elevators- 10:50
explains.The same methodcan be appliedto a 'T'tail; by reinforcing
the fin top, as in 10:51.Use a verticalpushrod.
Sheettailplanesare sometimesthin, so the brasstubes into which
the pivot and drive wire joiners fit have to be slotted in. Sketch 10:SZ
shows a root reinforcementidea. lt should save some splits in the
tailplane.

109
CHAPTER11

Wing and tail attachment

Bands
Tongues
Bolts

:!

Free flight, radio trainers, sports models and control-linetrainers

usuallyhave needfor really resilientwing fixings.Traditionalmethods
of securingthe wing, and in somecasesthe tailplane,employa number
of strong rubber bands hookedonto protrudingdowels in the fuselage
and taken over the wing or tail. The basicset-upis sketchedin 11:1.
Note that the dowels passthrough strengthenedparts of the fuselage
and are located so that the rubber bands pass straight down (or up)
from the wing. Spacehas to be left betweenthe wing and the dowels,
so that the bandscan be hookedon easily.Frictionbetweenthe bands

Rubber bonds
Spoce for fitting bonds
Birch dowels Protrude
well post bond
'-.-..__---t
11:1

11:2 "V" cut wilh f ile

Trim off in pencil shorpner
ond sondpopet
-
Thin sst

11:3
110
 11:6

11:9
1 1:1O
and the wing, and betweenwing and fuselage,resistsmovementof the
wing, but a hard blow to the wing should causeit to siew, or the bands
to break,thus minimisingdamageto wing and fuselage.11:2 shows
how to cut and finishthe dowelsso that they do not damagethe bands.
Bandsaloneare not the only aid to security;11:3 shows a wing seat
detail.The wing shouldsit on its platformor seatingwithout rockingor
slidingeasily.lf it movesabout in flight,the model will lose its trim and
become unstable.A strip of thin adhesivefoam or silicone rubber
caulkingensuresa good fit. (Placepolytheneon the wing and sit it on
the wet silicone rubber, it can then be lifted off after curing and the
polythene stripped off).
Do you object to seeing rubber bands? 11:4 shows a streamlined
fairing made from balsa or moulded in ABS. This can be continued
forward as a canopyor hatchcoveras in 11:5.
Try to avoid seatingthe wing in a steppedrecessfore and aft; (11:6).
ff it sfews, it will damageitself,and the fuselage.Similarly,as in 11:7,a
steepcut-outat the leadingedgewill restrictthe forward movementof
a-banded-onwing, so that in a nose-oncontactwith the ground, the
wing or fuselagesuffers.11:8 is better.
When a dowel peg is usedto locatea wing, it will allow the latterto
slew underthe rubberbands,but preventsit moving fore and aft. lf the
wing has ailerons or flaps near the centre section, these may be
damaged: see11:9. Installingthe peg aft, in this case,as seenin 11:10,
allows the front of the wing to slide instead.
 In orderto avoidthe use of projectingdowelsand largerubberbands
in an otherwisecleanairflow,the systemshown in 11:11was used on
an electricaerobaticmodel.Wide nylon tape lies flat on the wing and
passes down onto formers at leading and trailing edges.The ends
terminate in wire hooks,over which a small band is wound to secure
the wing tightly, but which will break in a hard landing. Two-piece
wings may part under the wing bands,so apply vinyl tape to prevent
this - 111:121.
The use of a 'dethermaliser'(a systemto limit the flight time) requires
a different method of fixing for the tailplane,or in the case of chuck
gliders,the wing. In this casethe leadingedge of the wing lifts,to stall
the model down. 11:13shows a bolt aft and small rubberband at the
front. A burning fuse (lamp wick) melts the band then snuffs itself out.
Tip-uptailplanesare held by a bandat the leadingedgeand a thin wire
or nylon to the rear,as in 11:14.For twin fins, the glued-onend fin
detail is a break-awayfixing. Seen at 11:15. lt depends on a soft
replaceablestrip of balsa.The hard balsa end rib does not tear away,
provided balsa cement or PVA glue is used.The joint can be re-glued
severaltimes beforethe soft strip needscleaningoff and replacing.

Wind smoll rubber bond orond hoks

Wide nylon tope

loops fore ond oft

l69. piono wire hooks

11:11
11:12
Alloy snuffertube

Tope iwo-piece wing holves

Hook in toilPlone

Fin glued only to soft striP

:
To dethermoliser sPtern

11:14 4
Brmkoble
soft bolso striP 11:15

112
Tongues and dowels
w.ing halvescan be joined by severalmeans.The most rigid is the
verticalsteeltongue insertedinto a closefitting brassbox in eich wing.
The joint is flat, so unlessthere is spacein eachwing for the boxesto be
tiltedr+he wing centre sas to be flats also. ]f; however; the system
employsa pair of boxes in the fuselage,and one in each wing; the
boxescan be solderedtogetherat an angleand one steeltongue used
i l e a c h w i n g a s s e m b l y .1 1 : 1 6 s h o w s a s i n g r e f l a t w i n g v e r s i o n .
Horizontaltongues, as seen in 11:17,do not provide the bending
strength needed for high performancegliders, but suffice for small
sport models.Theycan be made in balsa,in additionto the ply version
shown. Note too, that whereasthe steel tongue will bend to allow
yvilos to knock.back, the edgesof these tongues have to be shapedas
i n 1 1: 1 8 .
Piano wire dowels in brass or alloy tubes serve a wide range of
applications. The dowelscan be bentto the dihedralangleand will flex
to savethe wing in a sharpstresscondition(like pulling out of a dive
suddenly).The wings can be held in place on the dowels by a
transverserubber band, as in 11:19,or provided with quick-detach
'buttons'asin
11:20.

"=W,*6
Bind ond epoxy

11:17 Thin ply box in wing

1
Bolso, some \
thickness os tongue t
I
I
I

Rodius longue edges from

\
wing leoding ond troiling
edges to ovoid domoge fo box )
tongue cut ond glued ot
Plyvod
l''-
11:18
hook
1 1:19 -Reioinins
--
"={ ,--,--,- Keyhole slot

2Retoining rubberbond

Woshersol&red'to hook
11:N
Joiner dowels in bross iubes
Rubberbond between hooks thLgh fuseloge

113
 1122
Ply lip on fuseloge
Vr'ingslid* under liP

Hordwood plote (loose)

1121
Commerciol wing brockets
fixed to sideor former Alternotive bl ind nut

Toppedhole in
beech Plote

li leost 3/8"
Reinforcing PIY woshers

11|23 Troiling edge

Wing bolts

Ply formet
L i n eo f L . E .

11:25

Bolt-on wings
As might be expected,a bolt-onwing is less resilient,althoughif the
bolts ar; thin enough, they will break before the wing or fuselageis
damaged.The wing is firmly locatedand may be boltedat leadingedge
a high wing layout,the
or, asJs more popular,at the trailingedge.On'sudden
front bolt allowsthe wing to ride forward in a arrival',(11:21).
It cannot slew unlessit moves enough for the dowelsto clearthe rear
former. Not so restrictedis that seenat 11:22. Here,the wing wedges
under a plateat the trailing edge and is restrainedby a clampingblock,
and down, but allows it to
forward. This wedges the wing firmly aft'arrival'
slew slightly, or to fall clear, should the break the bolt. lt is
importantto makea secureiob of the rearsocket,using epoxy and tape
or bandage.
The real bolt system in 11:23is typical,althoughthe wing bolts may
enter a hardwoodor Voin.ply plate,as in 11:24.This is designedto pull
out, rather than having the bolts break. Sometimes the fuselage
formers dictatedetail 11:-25.

114
 ry
tl

ii
.1

CHAPTER
12

Struts
Gabaneand centre section types
Wing struts
Fixings
lnterplanestruts

Unless a 'pylon' is used, wings mounted above the fuserageare

carried on a set of struts, variously classed as 'cabane' or 'centre
section struts'. lf you prefer woodwork to wire bending, try that in
sketch12:1;the top railsare laid flat on the sidesof the ufrights, and a
doubler piece forms an infill. Notches in the ends hold the wing
retainingrubber bands.l/ein,3/.ra,or l/ain.ply can be used for the strut
unit in 12:2,accordingto model size.The piano wire wing dowel is in
one piece and must be bound or taped securely.12:3 makes good
practice for wire benders and needs soldering. 12:4 is more of an
engineer'sjob; countersunkbolts may be used insteadof pop rivets.
Spruce slrips overlopped

12:2

12:1
Plp"ood slrut unit

Drrol strip,

Bend up piono wire ossmbly,

12:3 bind wittr thin copper wireJrid rold",

115
 All these struts need a securefixing in the fuselage.Verticalones
may look unrealistic,but if there is a longeron,seethat the strutsdo not
weakenit (12:5).Wire or strip metal types can be bound or screwedto
strong cross bearers.When the wing is to be bolted in place,.thestrut
ends6an be drilled and blind nuts fitted to ply platesin the wing, as in
sketch 12:6. Locking these plates to the spar and rib system is
important.lf foam wings are used (chapter16) bolt right through,with
nuts under the strut ends.
Strut-equippedhigh wing models usually have a strong one-piece
wing, so thostruts aie dummy and can be lightly attachedyi$ rubber
bands or hooks and loops. A typical strut appearsin 12;7.The ends
locateon open hooks and the little iury struts are sprung into placeor
bandedon. Sometimesa rubber band forms the jury strut itself (if the
model has them).
Other dummy struts can be held to the fuselageby a rubber band
through a tube or underneath.The outer ends can spring.into loops or
tubes.12:8showsa solderedloop of a firmer bolt-onversionand 12:9 a
simple loop for the wing made from a split pin. Thesemay be used on
the fuselageas well.
Whateverthe type of removableor knock-offfitting,the fixing points
shoufd have a small piece ol 1/szin. ply or hard l/'rain-sheet let in flush
around the fitting, otherwise the strut may damage the surface,or
pokethrough the covering.

=F>-
| \
--!--Fir betweenspors \.

Ply plole insei fury strut hooks into

wire loops under wing

\"-'
winsuor,*>g

Bolso foiring ePoxied 12:9

Hord block
between+ors

116
 Metol plote epoxied
O\
Sgueeze lube
ond drill

12:11
Wroppedlirho ploie
I grooved strips

12:12

C o m m e r c i owl i n g
Hordrrmd sprmder bolr brocket
on spor wirb

Bolt to spor in cenlre

section or fuseloge

1216

spruce struts may.b,estrong enough without piano wire, but they

need fixing plateswhiChshould be reallysecure;as shown in 12:10.
Afternatively,alloy tube can be squeezedto form slim struts as in 12:11
and teardropsectionstreamlinealloy tube is avaitablein model shops.
Largefairingscan be addedto piano wire struts in severalways . . .
seesketch12:12.The two-pieceversion(central)is the neatestmethod,
but a carefullyjoined piece of litho plate,thin ABS sheet or thin card
can be effective, permitting the wire to flex under stress, without
crackingthe fairing.Sketch 12:13shows how to fix the roots of wings
which rely structurallyon struts.That in 12:14needsan accesshatchin
the fuselage.Those in 12:15and 12:16rely on shear bolts (targeand
small models).

117
 12:17

Ply plote tongued

into rib doblers

SPot

l"-

Spor dwbler

L ine of

12.20
Sew hooks to ply

Ply on spor web 12:21

S m o l lb o l t s t o b r o k i n c r o s h

lnterplane struts
Much of the foregoingend detailsapply here,but the sketchesin the
12:17group show some applicationsand arrangementof wire work.
Where there is interplanerigging, it may be used to hold the struts in
place,facingthe hooksoutward on the wings or inwards on the struts.
Dummy rigging can be made from shirring elastic,or, on larger
models, wire fishing trace tensioned with rubber bands. Working
rigging is more fully describedin books on scalemodelling.
Sketch 12:18shows a dovetailedfixing plate in the wing, 12:19the
method of installinga ply plateto carry a strut hook,for usewherethere
is a risk of rough treatment.The piano wire hook could be 20-18s.w.9.
and bound or sewn, and epoxied to the ply, ds in 12:20.On small
models,the hook can be bound directlyto a spar.Externallugs can be
part of a ply riblet,as in 12:21,but the skin needssupporteachside,the
coveringfabric or tissue being stuckto a cap strip each side.

118
 Fill between spors

A c c e s sh o l e i n s k i n

Si;)io,' 12:22

A smaffer external lug is detailed in 12:22 and ts is steadied by the

spars,but an area of sheetwill be neededaround it with a cut-out to
gain accessto the bolt which fixes it to the rib. The same detailcould be
appliedto the fixing of a wing directlyto centre sectionstruts.
The more piecesof strutteryand wing fixings one devises,the more
complex some of them seem. Once you have selecteda system that
suits your particular model, stick to it, there's no sense in being
different,when it is alreadyreliable.

119
CHAPTER13

Landinggear
Springing,main legs
Nosewheellegs
Wheel retention
Tailwheels
Skids
Dollies
Retrasts
Wirework
How many wheels? A two-wheel landing gear (undercarriage)is
'tail dragger'- the tail end havingto make
sometimesreferredto as a
do with a skid or small wheel. Such models requiremore care on take-
off, particularly if the main wheels are far forward of the centre of
gravity. lf they are moved back,the model may tip up on landing,_for
ground friction is greaterin proportionon models,comparedwith full-
iize aircraft. The tricycle layout is more stable, but benefits from the
nosewheel being steerable. Single leg and more rarely tandem
wheels are mainly chosenfor free flight, or control-lineracers.Indeed,
most free flight modelstend to be hand launched,so a nose skid may
suffice.Sketch13:1 shows some planforms.When a model lands,the

vtr
MM
lronsm i
\
\

obsorbing 13:2 owoyfrm firseloge 13:3

120
 SIDEVIEW

Note roke on leg

13:5 C laronce in wheel boy for sprin

So.ldered up piono
wrre undercorrioge

Bind ioints wirh rhin

copper wire ond solder

Rubber bond springing Soddles

feg{s)tend to knockback and up, ratherthan straightup, as in full size

practice(it's that ground drag again)- 13:2 explains.A leg fairing is
saferin front, if the leg is to bend back(13:3)otherwiseit crunchesinto
the fuselage.

Simplicity
The simple leg on a profile Goodyear control line racer is a good
example.lf it were straight,the jar of settingdown in the excitementof
a race could wreck the model. 13:4 shows how to fix it. A dummy
retractcan be sprung to go back into the wheel bay of a twin, or even
singleenginedC/Lmodel (or R/Cfor that matter)(13:S).Basicwire two-
wheel undercarriagesare a good test of handiwork with wire and
soldering,see 13:6.lf you are not sure,makeone in coat hangerwire,
to get the lengths and angles right before using piano wire for the
proper one. Commercialnylon saddles hold wire parts to a ply plate
under the model; 13:7 (the 'P' clips spring away or break in a hard
landing.Rubberbandswill also providespringing(13:8)).
 Leafundercarriages area wide stripof dural(aluminiumis too soft).
Commerciallyavaiiableor home-made,they must have high tensile
steelboltsfoi the axles(orthesewould break),see13:9'Smallmodels
can havethe leaf boltedto a fixed ply plateas in 13:10,but rubber
bandsprovidea saferattachment, in that the U/Cwill tearoff cleanlyon
r o u g hg r o u n d (. 1 3 : 1 1 ) .
lf Vou are determinedto use bolts,try fitting rubbergrommetsto
absorbsome shocksand to tear out, leavingthe bolts in the model
(' 1 3 : 1 2 ) .
Somefreeflightmodelshaveplug-inlegsand 13:13explainshow to
gei plenty of Searinglength in th-etubes.Torsionbar springingis
iirnite and neat - see 1i;14, which is for fuselage-mounted.types.
Wingmountedlegs(lowwings)areshownin 13:15with variations in
13:16for lightermodelsand 13:17for a one piecebeam'

13:9 Doubl ers

Formed durol
lmf undacorrioge

High tenside
steel bolt oxles
13:10

13:11
13:12
Torsion bor suspension

Holf fuseloge width

13:13

1314 Do,)r"-i,. soddre

--\42
Retoining Plole
Recess soddles into sheet skin

Undercorrioge brcm
(hordwood) .z/

Flot bom frm PIY

1316
Hordwood torque block

Beom forms wing broce

1315 Rib doblen

122
Noselegs
The noselegcomes in for much punishmentand is readily knocked
back.A coil formed in the wire providesspringing,but it needssupport
nearby,see 13:18.Twin legs can be sprung by torsion bars, (13:19).
9leqqblqleg! jrq shqy1rytl!!?qlvliqh iq bqme-!!qde,or anelaborate
c o m m e r c i aol n e f o r h e a v ym o d e l si n 1 3 : 2 1 .
A convenientpoint of attachmentis the engine bulkhead;some
radial mounts are alreadygrooved (13:221,otherwiseadd ply spacers
and a bearingtube as in 13:23.Wheelswill not turn smoothlyon the
axfes if they run up onto the leg bend.See 13;24.A colletwith socketor
Allen setscrewwill retainthe wheel, but file a notch in the axle for it to
grip, lf the tip of the axle is annealed,a thread may be cut on it with a
screwcuttingdie.Cap nuts makea neatjob, as in 13:25,but use thread
lockingcompound.

Fomer supports
leg ot coil edge

\
Leg ben* obove coil
,
1918 \
Fixed leg version
-3<=-l

Bross beoring
ond nylon horn

Severol turns

Brossoxle sockeis

13:20 13:21
13:19 Soldered wosher
*-. -)

Grmved motor mwnl

Annmlend ond throd

Uffi -rq:ffi @j@ff ssr:ra fi&i#rt

[j*$S{ges'*9"*$,ii* t 123

sl'fiii t s
Fe-.fr# {.--s;n.;d
 . Allow for bend
,
rl
ir
J
t bloiting PoPer
heoi sink

:::l::::::::'::::::::::::fi
:::;:r,::::::r:::::::::::: :l::i::
:::' ::::::l ::l::::::]::::::::::::: :

Leg botrnd ond epoxied Set-bock toilwheel

steered vio linkoge
13:29 to hordrrood sirip
frsn rudder horn

13:32
Drilledbolt

Nut

nylon brocket

13:31

A washer can be solderedon to retain a wheel, but in order to avoid

softeninga plastichub, follow sketch13:26.Tailwheellegs,arecranked
to positionthe wheel in line with the centreof the fuselage(importantif
th6y are to castorand neat otherwise).(13:271. When the leg is fixed to
the rudder,as in 13:28,the model may be steeredas it'taxiestail down.
lf the wire is short, reinforcethe rudder (13:29).The tailwheel can be
remotefrom the rudder,but driven as in 13:30.Freelycastoringwheels
can pivot in a commerc;albracket(13:31),or in a drilled bolt, as in
13:32.Nylon bolts afford springing (13:33).

124
 Piono wire skid

P l y o r o l l o y o n r u b b e rs t r i p

To fit wing
-socketson model;2,

odi*H,;;ns 1 339
se*ins
(elecrricol co.ne.toi blocki

A glidermay havea landingwheel mountedon trunnionsas in 13:34

- fine for the big 'uns. The tailskid that screechesalong a runway
shouldbe banned!Full-size aircraftwith skidsare supposedto land on
grass.Try 13:35.
The noseof a glider is a skidtoo, whether it is just reinforcedor fitted
with a rigid or sprungskid - choosefrom 13:36.
suppose there is no undercarriage. . . control-line speed models,
and some scale subjectsflown in 'retract' mode (no wheels), need a
launchingdolly, as in 13:37,which needsthe tail to rise to free it, or
13:38,where the model is unrestrained.13:39suggestsa means of
adjusting the tracking, so that the model runs straight if radio
controlled,or withoutdraggingthe linesor running-in,on a control-line
circuit.
 ' Brossstrip
! lot.h"t Locking orm

,/r \t-
Stop ll
ri
tl
U

13:41
Io servo

G./ 13:42

Notch ot
enoS

Sliding bolt

13:43

It is important that the model frees itself clganlyfrom the.dolly, so

those retaining prongs must be long enough to prevent the. model
bouncingout daily, yJt shapedto cleal without carting.thewhole thing
also shows a socketin the model which should
way up',i ttte air. 1'SIAO
not jam when it is tilted.

Retracts
Let',sstart easily.A hand-launchedscale model can have realism by
lowering the undercarriagein flight. No servo is needed,becausethe
throttlelewo can be linkedto unlatchit. When dropped,it locksdown.
13:41shows
-Commercially the construction,13:42the action.
available(or some home-built)retractulits are seenin
13:43,whichboltsthe leg up or down, while that in 13:44usesa slotted
arm or fork and goes over centrein each direction'

126
 ,4 ( 1346

1947
13:49
File bounces off

File

Holf round fi le
<1-Curling

{ 13:50
Rotote 13:51

Atypical installationis seenin 13:45.Individualunits requireslightly

differentbeam positions.lt is importantto makethe smallestpossible
cut-outsin the structure,for althoughthe legs of the units are sprung,
there is a twistingload on the wing. Geometryis impoftanttoo; 13:46
shows that a wheel may haveto be a angledin the 'up' position,which
means turning the mounting beams too.
It would be difficultto go far in aeromodelling
without practisingwire
work. What follows should help; mostly self-explanatory,these
sketches,but . . .13:47 shows the ideal cutting method for piano wire,
13:48is what happensin hasteand 13:49remindsyou to clamp close.
Pianowire has a hard surfaceand cut should be from softer to harder,
13:50 explainingwhy the wire is turned. Setscrewflats should not
r e a c ht h e w i r e e n d ( 1 3 : 5 1 ) .

127
 A flat file gives more of a grubscrewrestrainingstroulder(13:52).A
grindstoneslrves too, but sufferswith use as in 13:53.Always wear
6ye protectionwhen grinding (13:54).Do not try to cut thick pianowire
in pliers,use largeenoughplierswhen bendingand pressthe wire on a
haid surfacetool {13:b5).lf a tube has to be positionedbetweenbends,
follow 13:56,gently re-shapingthe tube afterwards.The dotted lines
show the posiiionsof the pliers as the iob proceeds.
So many peopleclamp the wire in the vice and wrestleit into a sharp
bend- 13:57is a betterway.
Thin wire (up to 16s.w.g.)can be bent in a home-madehole jig, as

-1- Flot file

'(t$ W E A RG O G G L E S

*J
.!
13:54
f:rti I I

pr-*r
air.;:11 {
)
E!:,F --1
AL ti,ifi.:-
__:_:_
-:===
,,
Edge of grindtone

13:53 Pliers on tube

ir--l

} )
13:6G

128
seen in 13:58.A second piece of steel bar rests on the wire and is
hammereddown. This gives a nice straight length each side of the
bend. Sketch 13:59 shows that if wire is forced around too tight a
radius,it will be weakened,even if it is annealedfirst.(Heatto red heat
and wort ietore or as it cools, re-jeat -and plunge it into water to
restoresome of the temper.Too much will makeit brittle).Commercial
wire benderswill make short work of forming bendsand coils in thick
w i r e . 1 3 : 6 0i s a s i m p l eb e n da n d 1 3 : 6 1a c o i l ,s e eh o w t h e b e n d i n ga r m
rides up. When wire has to be epoxiedinto wood, it will benefitfrom a
keyedsurface; 13:62suggestssolder, 13:63fuse wire sordered.

13:58

-P Wire dio.
L\

Too smoll o rodius

Coil fsr6sj rI

II
lf
,rl
'i
fhin copper wire soldered

Solder keyed with pliers

13:62

129
 D /e=:
-mft\
""w"h=-*
-:-lr:-
|
/
De-burr
Roll tubeon newspoper 13:65
1g:64

-1F=4u,.,',.)
(-6 -.1
chonge

1368 zZ'

264
Crimp
Xrr,ro{
Tubes
Thin wall brass, copper or alloy tubes are easily cut to length by
rolling as in 13:64.Keepthe knifein the grooveit cuts.A burr will be left
inside(13:65).Wire endscan be givendrilledlugs as in 13:66- usethis
for horns, struts, and linkages.To solder it, apply solder paint inside
(13:67).
The insideof the tube may not be cleanenoughfor this as bought,so
bend piano wire and grind or file it to make the scraperin 13:68.A
notch in the tube also keys and aids solder flow (13:69).
Never put up with sloppy fits: crimping is not the answer,as it will_
soon wear loose again-see13:70.

130
 13:71

Notch for plumbing Full for struclures

13:72

i
t;

,'li
,t,
'I i

:lr:l

iri
il
Severol teeth ihick rffi

on ply
I (v
Metor
1 ff
ij
13:75

lf the tube work is to be usedin the fuel plumbing,rememberto align

tff
the cut-outin one tubewith the end of the one joining it (13:711.A pieie
ffir
of rustywire locatesit and won't bond to the solder.Retainthe strength
of a main tube in sketch 13:V2- file the others to fit and use nails ii a
ff
'fl',if
' li:
i;ii
wood blockto alignthe parts.
sheet metal will bend,stretchand buckleif it is not supportedwhen ,i'i
sawn {13:73).Cuttingwith metal shearsdistortsit in long lengths,so
cut thin meta! by
!ai!_9Lrllg it to ptywood and fretsawini wiih a fine
metal cutting blade (13:741.
saddles?Easy:look at 13:7s,it's quick.Lugs like 13:76open out if I

soft soldered.
I
:

131 i
 13:77 _--'f,

13:79

Longer side

Metol strip

13:8O
=

Metol bending strip

Slretches

Bending bors
13:81

lf you must make them like this study 13:77to get the.bend tight'
(plumbers'
13:78shows a more foolproofversion,usingthinnermetal
sofder is O.K.).Why put in sketch 13:79?Thick metal will not bend to
the same finishedlengthas a thin cardboardpattern.Cut a very narrow
ririp and bend it first-to test the measurements.13:80 shows how to
deal with sheet metal in the width of the vice. lf it is wider, use strong
l b e n d i n gb a r s ( a s s e e ni n s k e t c h1 3 : 8 1 . . . ' N o w y o u
i " . t t n g r l a r m e t a 'bender'!
can go on a real

'132
CHAPTER14

Snow and water

Skis
Floats
Flyingboat hulls
Wheel pants and spats

Extendthe flying time of your sport model by equipping it for the

winter snows . . . a two legged undercarriagecan be modified to carry
skis by removingthe wheels as in 14:1.A little experimentmay be
neededto get the ski angle right, so that it does not preventthe model
rotating for take-off(short skis are better).The limit wires or rubber
bandsshouldbe tight enoughto hold the skis at the correctanglefor
landingif the model is free-flight.Chop the rear ends of the skis back
until the model almostputs its tail down.
14:-2is an alternativeconstructionwith sguare spruceon the centre
line,The wheel colletand inboardwasher(or two collets)keepthe ski
square.
14:3shows a centrepiecefrom aluminiumchannel.
L imil suspension wires

/tlox in-flight ongle

14:2
14:3

133
 dwood b lock inserted
5rHor

14:4
Bend up

Wheel collet

14:5

w Flmr lug
Coller

Shoped block

A larger section channel makes a box-like ski, when notched and

joined as seen in 14:4.Two nylon saddlescan be used as mounts, but
ply will keep the collet off the snow (lessdrag) see 14:5.

Splash!
A selection of commercial floats cater for floatplanesfor R/C. A
standardlandplanecan be convertedby adding a secondpair of legs
aft, as in 14:6. Wire or 'leaf' system may be adapted to most flat-
bottomed fuselages.
Home-madefloatsmay be neededto suit modelsof smallersize.14:7
shows how a mounting lug can be part of the keel,14:8 is built with a
separatelug and 14:9 detailsa typical bow. Use waterproofadhesives
on all these examples.
Smallfree-flightpower modelscan carry little floatsas seenin sketch
14:10.The wing loading is usually so light that the model hops off
easily and needs little buoyancy when at rest. lt may be necessary
to adjustthe anglesof the floatsfor best results,so, in view of the light
constructionused, have a truly verticalsectionof leg to be gripped in

134
 14:1 Lmve stroight seclion to ollow
pliers io grip for odiustmeni

14:11

b e t w e e n s p o r sf o r p l o t e

14:12

Conventionol U,/C fixing

Bind single ioil leg to
l o n g e r o n so r P I Y P l o t e

Conveniionol
fuselo ge Use woodworking odhesive (Coscomile) on fom ond wood

Fmm hull section

14:13 Hordwood
sproy strip
G lossfibre
over ioints

PIY
Bolso chines ond keel

14:15

pfiers,as in 14:11.lf the float is held in the hand and twisted about,
referencewill be difficult and damage could result. Aim to fix the
fandinggear so that the model sits at a slight positiveangle,as 14:12,
otherwise it may not rotate for takeoff.
Flying boat hull bottoms can be made from a foam block in a
conventionalfuselagestructure,as in 14:13,or sheetedand skinned
over in thin ply, or even made from ply alone (14:14 and 14-.1s
respectively).Sharp protruding edges to the bottom will throw the
water clearof the sides- theseare called'spraystrips'.Glassfibre cloth
cut into narrow stripswill reinforcethe joints (epoxy and fill smooth).
With just a hull, to sit upon the water, a flying boat needsstabilising
'sponsons' when
at rest. These may be used in place of the more
vulnerabletip floats.They come in for rough treatment when setting
down on grass,however,so a stout spar (spruce)should be passed
right through the fuselageas in 14:16.Alternatively,they may be

135
detachable,retained by a long nylon bolt entering a waterproofing
grommet to reach an internal blind nut {14:17). The sponsons
ihemselveswould be best carvedfrom solid balsa,facedwith %zin.ply
below.
Tip floatswill get knockedoff, so havethem captiveby allowingthem
to piuot as in 14:18.A breakablepeg or small-brassbolt keepsthem
straightuntil that gust tips her on the grass,or flotsam gets in the way.
Note-theply plateio preventthe float knockinga hole in the wing. This
will not be n6ededif ihe wing is so high and of smalltip chordthat the
float passesthe trailingedge.
'Wellies'
Wheel spats to you - These may be vac. formed from ABS sheet'
moulded in glassfibre or carvedfrom balsa.Dealingwith th.elast first,
14:19 showJ section and side view. A ply laminationor inset plate
spreadsthe load from a metal fixing plate.

Spor

14:17

l/l6"sheet skin

Sheor pin (breokoble)

14:18

Soft block flmt

l/l6"ply lominolion

1419
2:=.

Bross plote soldered

SIDEVIEW
Notch for leg to leg ond screwed lo ply

136
 l6s-w.g. wire slrul

>\Brost col lets soldered

l o b r o s sm o u n l i n g p l o l e s

PIote on wing to plq6 of foiring

Mylor or l/32"ply strip

14:22 14:23
The outer end of the axle can also support the spat as in 14:20.
Threadthe wheelon insidethe spat,then tightenthe collets.The spat
can knockup or down, but re-tightening both colletsremediesthis.The
flats filed on the axle should go deep (about1/aotthe dia. at least)for
firm seatingof the setscrews,but too deep a flat inboard will weaken
the axle.Spatscan also be supportedby a wire strut, in additionto the
soldered plate. This is seen in 14:21 and places tess strain on the
soldering.Be sure to cut a large clearanceaft of the wheel because
grassgetstrappedthereand jams the wheel.The long gap allowsit to
brushout again.
Leg 'trousers' - chilton DWI for example - can be added to
completelychangethe appearanceof an undercarriagethat is wing
mouhted. The fairing has to be loose so that it knocks off in roug6
groundor if the leg goesfar back.
Sketch'14:22shows how to make and fit the fairing.Alternatively,if
the spectatordoes not come too close,a spongeplasticversion can be
installedand fixed - it will bend as the leg moves. cheap and
expendablethis one, in 14:23.

137
 15
CHAPTER

Electricflight and COz

Motor mounting
lnstallation
Special details
Geareddrives
Folding props
Flexi-drives
Freeflight
Roundthe pole
GOz
This chapterdeals with installationdetailsfor the power plants,
includinga COzmotor.Thetvpeof airframeconstruction usedby most
followersof the art of electricflying is lightweight,but havingregard
for the weightof the batterylocallystrengthened. The threeprincipal
classesare: Aerobatic,which have 3 or 4 channelultra-lightradio
systemsand a directdrivemodelracingcar motorwhichcan run for 4
or 5 minutesper charge- see15:1.
Durationmachinesareeffectivelypoweredgliders,oftenwith geared
motorsand foldingpropellers. Lightand high aspectratiowings keep
them aloft for around 15 minuteswhen there is lift about.(15:2).

15:1

138
 l,/l6"bolso ond thrrcd

Rond off to tiongulor slrips

Engine borers

15:9

15:8
Metol soddl
3/32"sheet blended ;nro iuoe
Bondoge/pvo glue
Root oirscoop doblers to nce l/l6"sheet box fuseloe
Motor in lube \ -
Air intoke

15:12 --1
Botiery oir ol

Flight bottery l/32"ply skid /exit duct

Electricpower facilitatesthe building of reliable,if short, duration (4-5

min) scale subiectsincluding multi-enginedtypes, as in 15:3. Even
control-lineis possible.Some light modelsintendedfor free-flightand
enginesof around l/zcc.to 1cc.can carry a model car motor and flight
battery,when strengthenedlocally,see 15:4.
In fact, there are a number of vintage free flight power models
which can carry eitherdirector gear-drivenefectricsystemsand light 2
or 3 function radio. These are mostly open frame, tissue covered
machinesin the sportscategory.Motor installationis simple.The direct
drive versionsentail makinga tube to fit over the motor, leavingthe air
ventsclear.Wind a strip of ply (15:5),sheetbalsa,as in 15:6,or brown
gumstrip paper,as in 15:7,to fit actuallyon the motor. This should be a
tight fit. The gumstrip will stick to the motor unlessthe first couple of
turns are laid gum side out, then the rest gum side in.
15:8shows how to mount a motor in enginebearers(if they are the
right spacing)or on a ply plate if they are not - see 15:9.Those motors
in tubescan be built into the fuselagenoseas in 15:10;leavethe motor
in the tube while doingthis.To streamlinethe nosemore,add a conical
ring of gumstrip {formed on an ofd spinner) as in 1b:11. lt is
recommendedthat a matchingspinneris not used,as air has to pass
easilyinto the motor for cooling.
15:12shows a typical installationof motor, flight battery and radio

139
in a fuselage.Note the cooling for motor and battery {which also gets
hot under load).
In order to get the best performanceout of the model, whether it is
intended for aerobaticsor duration, drag-producingthings like pro-
truding control linkages,wing dowels and bands,undercarriagesand
over-bulkinessof the fuselage should be eliminated, Sketch group
15:13suggestsmethods of utilisingthe wing seat fillets as airscoops,
and the resilientply bottom skid as an air exit. Controlhorns are inside
the tailplane root and fuselageand the prop driver is spacedforward
with a collar to give a more tapered nose. Do not omit the collar: it
reducesthe chanceof bendingthe motor shaft on landing.
Gear or belt reductiondrives permit the use of larger more efficient
'Olympus' has a small toothed belt
slow-rewing airscrews.The British
and ballracedshaft - see 15:14for side view and ply mount. 15:55
shows an imported gear drive unit intendedfor powering gliders.The
long prop shaft has a coupling intendedto absorbthe startingjolt and
save the gears if the prop contactsthe ground power-on.
Rolled poper cone
Sides sonded ofl

Rolledpoper,rt.Yl - prop
-/n\l

15:13
,\ rilw 4,/
-

,JL-.
-tr4a

M[t
A ir scooo /root lillet

L g
I

U Air exit /skid

Horns in fuseloge ond toil root Rudder horn on toilplone rooi

M. F,A. "Olympud'belt reduclion unil

15:14

GroupnerVoriprop georedunit
Nose block Metol clomp sirip

Ploin beoring

15:15 shorr
l/8"sreel
Flexi copling

140
 The systems discussed so far have used l/tzth. scale model car
motors, but smallermotors with gearboxesare sold for use in Acoms
kits.Theseunits haveplasticbearersto which they are held with rubber
bandsfor crash resistance.
rybly ryodptlershave used theminjeelance scratch built models
with success.
15:16showsa low dragnusedetailed.Thebatteryis a six
cell flat type, intendedon the kit models to be carried externally,but
here fitted in through the side.
As sold, the prop, efficientas it is under power, does produce drag
when stationary,so those who want to make it fold like the largei
gearedtypesmay liketo try the methodshown in 15:17.Remembeito
checkthat bladeswill fold right backalongthe fuselagesides- the hub
piecemust be wide enough for this. The blade pitch will increasewith
the diameter,so trim from the centre.
Electricmotors can be placedwhere convenientand the shaft taken
to nose or tail end. Sketch15:18shows a pusher layout employed by
the author,one of severalvariations.The brasstube is fixed but free to
flex slightly,for alignmentat eachend. lt is importantto use thin piano
wire for the shaftin this example.Othershaftsof about 6in. length have
been vain.dia.,supportedonly by a short tube in the noseblolk.

Ply foced bulkhmd

Acorns geored unit

15:16
Removoblecryl frm l/e"ply

ght bottery
Ply doubler

Acms prop

/ F i l l w i t he p o x y

15:17 189oli or l/&4"ply srrips

Ali chonnel
Cleon.up ond bolonce Siuddingfo propshofr
Bol lroce
l 8 - 2 0 9 . p i o n ow i r e Ploin beoring
S i l v e r s o l d e rw i r e i n

Brosstube unsupportedlost 3"

Outer tube
Wide collets with two screws
Drill for wire Bross tube soldered to wire

141
 15:19 Simple sheel crulch fuseloge

,l \
Motoy'bottery unit Rolled poper tube for unit

l2v slol cor type motor

I |/8" -t/4,,sheet
ogllryrg:9rrv49' I l/16"-l/8"sheet
con be used
Wires for
current

15:2O U/C retoined w l69 wire teiher

binding below orm(bend for trim)
Coils to ovoid frccture
of pipe nor engine
ond tonk
Epoxied nuts Airstreom lo pogs ovel
tonk ond pipe
Nolch for pipe
C02 engine

15:21
Tonk uprighl
l/l6"9ly plote
Filler nozzle (hos to be pressed hord into chorger)

Free flight and others

Evensmallermotors are sold, some completewith batteryand prop,
for use in free-flightmodels.Theserun for a very short time and to get
anythinglike long durationthe modelshouldbe light and simplelikea
small rubber powered model.
Round-The-Pole flying is an indoor activity,requiring a circle of not
less than 10 feet dia. The motors are sold specificallyfor this type of
flying and plasticprops are availablefor both direct and gearedtypes.
A basisfor startingcould be similarto a very small control line model,
but there is no elevator control. The model receives6-12v. D.C. via
enamelledcopper wires and a collectorbrush system on the top of a
short firmly basedpole.A model slot car speedcontrolleris used and
this causesthe model to climb on full power and descendwhen the
power is suddenly reduced.Sketch 15:20may indicate proportions of a
1Oin.span machine. CO2 Enginesare mentioned here becausethey
come into the free flight miniatureclassalong with the smallestelectric
models. Sketch 15:21shows a typical engine mount and providesfor
the gas tank, which should be upright, so that only gas, not liquid,
entersthe engine.The filler nozzlecan be supportedby a finger behind
it, if a hole is left in the fuselagenearby,otherwiseprovidesheetareato
grip when refuellingthe model. Duration models of up to 28in. span
can be flown and CO2is suitablefor sports and scalemodels including
'PeanutScale',but at lower duration.

142
 16
CHAPTER

'Foam'construction
Gutting cores
Reinforcement
Veneering
Joining

Whenveneered polystyrene
expanded was introduced
construction
for wings,some modellersadoptedit as a short cut to the finished
model, kit manufacturerswelcomed it and whole models were
producedby injectingthe materialinto moulds for skinlessalmost-
ready-to-flykits.Was this the end of balsaconstruction?VVell,toaml
veneerweighs more than balsa construction,is less adaptableto
compoundcurvesand is meltedby fuel and somepaints.Thischapter
showshow to adaptit to servethe model,ratherthan the reverse.
Sketch16:1 shows a couple of typical applicationsteamed with
traditionalconstruction.
Forour purpose,a suitablesheetof expandedpolystyrene foam can

16:1
Veneered fom toP blocks

{< ,liil
Iiir[
:'iii
irli
ti;ri

Wiring toPed in
16:2
Hordwood frome

Cor bottery chorger

or cor bottery

Nichrme wire Glossfibre bmrd Plotes

1rl:}
 :iryr

16:3
Reference lines on both femploiesBo*

Locoting blocks

Templotes pegged to foorn-

Poition mork

Fmm block
l/16"?lY or Poxolin imPlore

16:4

be cut to shape,with a hot wire bow seen in 16:2.There are variations

on this theme,evencommercialexamples,but the basicrequirementis
that the wire is longerthan the wing panelyou wish to cut and deeper
than the deepestaerofoil section,plus a couple of inches.The wire
must be reallytight.
Start with a pair of ply or Formicatemplates,identicalfor parallel
chord wings, or one for the root and a smallerone for the tip when the
panel has to be tapered. Divide these up into an equal number of
stations and stand a mirror near one end, so that after fixing the
tempfates in place,the bow can be slid over their smoothed edges
station-by-station,with accuracy and single-handed.Sketch 16:3
explains.lt will be observedthat should one end of the bow reachthe
end of its travel beforethe other is say, half-waythere, the aerofoil will
have a hollow or over-thinnedzone in it . . . The materialis low in cost,
so discard'mistakes'or use them for smaller parts.
It may be preferredto makethe templateswith 'lead-ins'as in 16:4,
which is helpfulwhen the leadingand trailing edges have to be wire-
trimmed for fitting balsaleadingand trailing strips.
lf the veneerhas to go round the leadingedge; study 16:5.Copydex

1M
Fi

Pins lo locote core

C homfer veneer

Bolso edges

-4
Veneer right round in one Piece
16:8
Bromstick rolled

Veneer
-4
Core

16:10
P o ck i n g

-\
Sellotopero moskoff --1 Bore orm for epoxy

Contoct odhesive
11
ry cn*r",
(Copydex type)

or similar adhesive is used and the veneer may be iAein.balsa, or

thinner obechi.The paper is to prevent premature adhesion.16:6
completesthe job.
T*.o separateveneers(for top and bottom) can be applied by using
locatingpins or stops on a perfectlyflat bench.In all cases,make sure
the core and veneer are evenly coated with the adhesive.Mix a little
food colouringwith it so that it shows on the white foam surface.16:7
shows the-stagesof applyingthe veneer.Treat each side separatelyto
avoid the fingers stickingto the core.
16:8 comparesleading edge details and shows that the veneer is
butted to the strips - trim the veneer edges flush with the core first.
The trailingedge can be formed by the veneeralone or if thin can
have 1.'/":i\.ply insertas in 16:9.undercamberedand thin wings are
more flexibleduring the veneeringstage,but packinghelpsto keepthe
core warp-free and even rolling of the veneer avoids air bubbles
(16:10).where it is requiredto join the veneerat the trailing edge, a
stronger adhesiveis recommended.Epoxy is compatible with tbam
but the Copydex acts as a resist. However, if the veneer is measured
dry a strip of maskingtape or Sellotapecan be applied prior to the
contact Copydex. Peel off the tape and apply epoxy aftei starting to
bond the veneerin place- see sketch16:11.

145
 Thinwings may needsparsin additionto the loadbearingveneer.In
the interestsof accuracy,a secondcore templatecan be used after
cuttingto aerofoilshape.The one shown in 16:12guidesthe cutting
wire at the spar positionin additionto leadingand trailingedges.In
fact,sucha wing, sectionedin 16:13,can be coveredwith lightweight
glassclothand brushedwith €poXy,whichwill not meltthe foam.Blue
foam is sold for modellingand is denserthan expandedpolystyrene.
The spar detailscomefrom a contestgliderwing and includedouble
wire joinersand carbonfibresparreinforcement (moreaboutthe latter
in the next chapter).Flat bottomedwings are easyto assembleeach
sideof a compositespar- compare16:15with 16:13,which hasto be
packedup or assembled on a jig. Flatsprucesparscanbe let in flushas
in 16:16;in this casethereis no continuous web but shortpiecesof
balsadowel are epoxiedinto holes in the core (cut the holeswith a
smallerdia. heatedrod or tube).
Tailplanescan be treatedin a similarway. 16:17is a typicalsection
with or withoutcarbonor glassfibre on the spar.Smallermodelscanbe

Templote for trimming edges

ond cutting spor slot

Removefom "bridge'\"ith shorp blode

Blue fom or exponded polysfyrene

16:13

BolsoL. E.
| /32" pl,/ webbing (exf ends
20mm beyond olli rubes)

Bolsoweb
16:14 (sponwisegroin)

l 0 s . r v . 9 .A l i .
tubes forr,
wing ioinersI
Corbon fibre

l/l 6"spruce

Veneer or gfossfibre Tepoxy skin -S-. ;. 1e16

,""'

16:15

146

#
ff'
:^-

film covered,but go easy with the heat shrinking (see Chapter 1g, on
covering).The strandsof glassfibre, or carbon fibre epoxied-in,need
Aa9!ing lape or sellotape over them, whire curing onty, as seen in
16:18,to leavea smoothersurface.
llowrpaper, of the water-resistant variety, {+}a*es a r€asonable
structuralcovering,but restrictit to the thicker type of aerofoil when
used on wings and tails.
Sparsaugmentits strengthin thinnersections,as in lG:19.The weight
of a veneered core can be reduced by fretting it out. use a very flne
tooth blade slowly and lightly (16:20).Scale modellers can apply
dummy structureover a plain veneeredwing, then use tissue or fabric
to cover it . . . Looksgood, see 16:21.
Partialveneeringwith %oin.sheet as in 16:22should onty be film
covered.

Joiningfoam wings
. A popularmethod.of
joiningveneeredfoamcorewingsis to gg"q-j_ein
!!"! with epoxyadhesive,then apprygrassfibretape'banoagi63""as i';
16:23.Althoughsomepreferto use polyesterresinior this fin-alstage,

16:17
l/l6"bolsc spor
Corbon fibre

Corbon or glosstows

F i l m o r t i s s u ec o ; e 1 l n s wox lightlv ofrer

cietoirine
/2<\-/.- i

ii,;i
Lightening holes fret-sown in finishedwino Veneered core r,lif
t/32"sheet aetoit JGa
:]l,

Epoxy
/stossfibre
1623

147
 Heovy gloss tope

Troiling edge seclion slrip

1625
L igrlrrweightglos cloth -2*
6:26
Hord edge to toPe
1 16:27

Corefully fothered edge

c blench strength ol
(-e

B o l s op l o n k i n g to leoding edge

Stroight topered sections ioined

polyestermelts the foam, so if there is a small gap in the veneer,the

core will be weakened.
A very securejoint resultswhen strips of light glassclothor tape are
appliedto the leadingand trailingedges,in additionto the two jointing
fayers; see the plan view in 16:24.Dihedralledwingtips, or for that
matter,the centrejoin, can be formed by sandingthe core facesvertical
and inserting a strip of pre-shapedbalsa trailing edge as in 16:25,
before applying a narrow strip of bandage. Some modellers use
medical bandageor glassfibrebandageand PVA glue as an adhesive
for the joint. This is lighter and more resilient- not quite as strong,
though.
The reasonfor using two layersof glassclothis to featherthe joint
out gradually onto the wing veneer. A sudden change in strength
causesfractures,so does an accidentalthinning of the veneer whilst
sandingthe roughnessoff the joint,as has happenedin 16:26.Masking
tape on the veneer prior to sanding and more care should result in a
section like that in 16:21.
Ellipticalplanformsarejust possible(16:28)but hardlyworth the use
of foam.

148
@i
71tl:l

Stroisht core
topered Sheet rroiling edge
1e29
cut to required plonfom
Aileron or flop orm
con be flot

Llot
rod dropped in

Wire guide loops

Ply piercing templote

Io be cul ouf Pock

Hordraood

Core
vertico I

16. 1

Initiol holes well clmr of edge

i;

if
rrl
il
ii
Veneer blended
Epoxy/micro bolloons ioint Bolso cop chomfered

)
16:33
However,if one is preparedto havea shapedflat panelat the trailing
'Spitfire'-likesilhouettescan be made
ii
edge and a straightleadingedge,
as in 16:29.The sheetarea can be used as flaps and/or ailerons.
Supposethe core is a largeand thick.lt can be fightenedby making it
il
iilf
in top and bottom halves and wire-cuttingsectionsfrom the centre,
leavinga wide strong,web. When joined, the wing is veneeredin the
usualway.Another method can be usedwhen the core is in one piece;
it is seen in 16:30.This entailsthreadingthe cuttingwire through the jr
core from root to tip to cut out the centres.A heated length of thick
pianowire will makethe startingholesfor the wire, but to ensurethat it 'ii
goes straightdown and not out through the side,the iig in 16:31 may
be used.
Do not be temptedto just melt away foam to lightenit . . . the weight
remainsthe same.Get the scalesand try it! lt has to be cut away.
Fuselagescan be built with rectangularand tapered blocks, per
16:32.Roundingis more tricky, but joints can be blended on curved
cross sections,as in 16:33.

149
CHAPTER17

More materials
Cardboard
Tubes
Twinwall
Epoxy/glass
Kevlar
Metal

This is where the old joke about forgettingthe kit and flying the box
comes to life Good quality corrugated cardboard has been
successfully used in building simple radio control models. There are
severaltypes of board, as will be seen in sketch 17:1. The building
technique starts with t7:2 which shows a flat bottomed wing; the
cardboardtakesthe placeof sheet balsa and is rather heavier,but the
rib spacingmay be wider. The double skins haveto be bent in a series
of flats, so the aerofoil section is rudimentary.Flat surfaces,such as
taifs, however,are easy,as in 17:3.Note the edgetreatmentand use of
double strips of balsa at the hinge line.

El 16;.L wrer skin

5

17:1

17:2

150
 To make a be4d, cut a narrow slit in one skin, preferablythe inner
one, as in 17:4 and fold. This bend, along the coriugations,is useJ in
the curvingof the top skin of wings. A wider sfice is iaken out from the
ill"jJ.gejor SO'tglds such as are usql1rlolming q bo:r segllon fqr ifre
rusefa_g_e. Brown gumstrip paper reinforcesthe PVA glued joint, as in
17:5. More acute bends,as for example,a wing traili'ngedte, .6n u"
made b_yagtua[vcrushingthe inner corrugatioisandilriig'rr.in-to-
skin as in 17:6.To joil at a corner,preparet-heedgeswit-hstraignicuis
and butt to a strip of balsaof the same thickness.-AOO gumstrif, insiOe
and out, as in 17:7. To kink across the corrugations to make the
transitionfrom parallelto taper,in fuselagesideslslicethiougn alm;st
up to the other skin. g"ld gpen and sand away the cut edgi slighily
with glasspaperfolded doubie.Glue and tape over when dr!, all Zr in
sequence17:9.

Cut one boy wide

17:4

/ 17:5

17:8

17:9
Fold down , odd second loyer

Glue film or epoxy

151
 "
17;10 I
I

I
I
Ply doblers I
p . V . C . r o i n w o t e rP i P e
Chomfer for ioPel
I
Block bolso
I
l
II

I
I
'\.
'\
Flot bortornsheet

I
Cut wing seol
N
\
)
'/
Hat
1T:11
ond squeeze I
I1
/a
Noseblock to chonge sect ion

17:12
Gummed poper
Joint ring notched

i
Rolled thin cord
Bolso doblers ol wing seol

I
Jol nt striP
i
I
17:.13
I
Ronytubeglossfibreor
corbonf ibre toil boms
II
Formerscan be made from the cardboardor balsa,but ply doublers
will be neededto support engine bearersif it is a power model. Balsa
stripsare recommendedat leastaroundthe wing seat,where the wear
and stress are highest, see 17:.10.PVC. rainwater pipe makes a
serviceablefuselage, as in 17:11. The shape can be improved by
tapering and filling the rear part. The materialwill soften under heat
II
and can then be squeezedto form flats.
Plain white card can be rolled into tubes and cones for fuselages
('Prop Secret' was made like this, so was a Brabazon,Comet and
Hermes).17:12explains.
Tail booms are cateredfor by speciallymanufactured'Ronytubes',
II
available in a wide range of sizes- they taper and are made from
I
152
I
I
 glassfibre.Dural arrow shafts are usefuttoo and can also be
used as
torque rods on large R/Cmodels, see 17:13.
Some kits contain fuselagehalf shells in vacuum formed plastic.
These need joining with the appropriate adhesive,
instruetirens- Ssme need a soloeoiitype adhesivs which J"i-riaker,s
- _, .rrvt\vr !

will mar the

A useful dodge is to tape the parts together at intervals,
*{tl_1jl
then introduce !,nilt.
the adhesivebetween ihe tape stripr."wr,"n,"t, 1.u1nou"
the tape and fill in the spacesit covered.liZ:lql.
Expandedpolystyreneceilingtiles, or tfrickersheetsof this material,
ma.fesimpleflat-platemoders,which, surprisingly,ffy quite weiiunoe,
radio control, or in free-flight;see tl:lS. dsmaller version (and
t a i f p f a n etso o ) c a n b e m a d e f r o m ' F e a t h e r l i t eK, a p ab o a r d , , " 6 r 7 : 1 6 ,
Twinwallplastic,.as sold for gardenglazing,is anotherflat substitute.
(17:17).Even wallpaper insulationw-orksf6r small
tree-riighi models
and indoors- 17:18.

I --F
inol glue oppl icotion

17:14

Bolso or PIY nocelle

17:15
Verticol groin
'l/l6"sheet Tope or film hinoes
edge
l-
i

Erown poper or film covering

Flot sheer exponded polystyrene l/Z"to 1,, Ihick

Dense fom core

Popey'cord svrfoces
17:17
Twin .roll plostic (gorden frome glozing)

boord (Art disploy suppliers)

17:16
Inserf hordwood
strip for fixing or
reinforcement
Exponded polystyrene
'( wollpope r insulotio
( C e
17:18 -j- _-------j- <> l/l6"sq. bolso edge

Deep ribs from E.P.

153
 Fuselagesand tail boomsfor small light modelscan be madefrom
polrTmerfitmtracing material(drawingoffice supplies).Th". basic
seciionscan be formtd from a singlethicknessof film and end plugs
from balsa or expandedpolystyrenecan be insertedto retain the
shape,see 17:19.The film is availablein a rangeof thicknesses.
Perhapsthe ultimatein constructionis in the forming.of-epoxyglg.ss
wing skins,which needlittleor no coreor ribsto retaintheir shape.The
top ind bottomskinsareload-bearing andeachis formedseparately in
its own mould. Each skin is double skinned itself, having a thin
expandedpolystyrenecore.The finishedsectionis seenin 17:20and
the mouldingset-upin 17:21.
Kevlaris anothei new materialfor laminatingwith epoxy'D' and is
lighterthan glassfibre.One World Champsentrantformed a box
'plug' mould.lt is suggested that a thin
teadingedgeovera hardwood
flexibl6 m6tal outer mould is applied to provide pressure while
moulding.The restof the wing is balsaandterminatesin a sparweb to

17:19 II
7
I
I
Mylor trocing film
rolled inlo o tuoe
Fi lm crmsed ond ioined

I
I
17:l0 Corbon Gloss/foom/gloss skins
I
{
II
U P P e rP I Y
clomP

Exponded
polystyrene
morld

Thin soft
Thin mooth
plostic sheel
f
rubbersheet

Sondwich skin of
fom with
glossclolh
eoch side P.V.C.
releose film
over sondwich

Exponded PolYstYrene
lower mold -

Ply clomp plole

One moulding unit for top skin, one for bottm skin (less cmber 1721
I
1il
f
J
completethe box structure,which
assemblyand 17:23 the.ouiJr. hasno ribs.sketch 17:22showsthe
Aluminiumand du.rarrn""i, iitho
.i durarfoif havearl
prateand thin
:l l,Jig;qo; tI
[::]H:,13,"yl:?f,l'1,r,
is laminatedontoifrin Uafsa;;;" ro,ii rruoms.
; ; ;:. Inn,some
o,' applications
appr
" icationsitit
web structureas seenin
Hr r?.";t l?lgiPgTvrlhgl 'toano
beintfi;i;i-*s'F
tt:t*: tns rrlerafshouldlgllgugr"
skin; form-both
tamination* leavinJ
raminations.strandr.it"*"rrliidJ,;H[Hri#i,i"?li"J[,,??.T:
sr'llrl:?,1:.n^,"^gs_?^uv Jsmall sap in the bafsa
such a wins is hishty;;il;;ito
warps,nJ r,r, a superfinish.
Thesefasifew lechniqu;r ;;" presented
one has to be a dedicat;dd;i"st herefor inspiration,since
troubleto make modeter to go to this amountof
? .mo.de!.a";;; event,the designof the moderneeds
proving thoroughrv before; ;;;";;;"ir* mad" of it in these
ffiTi':l.,iffiidtJ::i;:"'.'u not trresortorining
ir,.,l", canchop
1722

Kevlor leoding edge

Hordwood mould
4

r
Thin metol clomp outer
mould

Corbon fibre tows

Th icknessesexoggerore
_for cloriry
Gop in sheet or L, E.

skin down
"o
\*t
17:24 t

Gloss
Ali , durol, or litho plote

Test rodius ond gop on

norrow
strip before moking skin

17:25 \ \

155
CHAPTER18

Goveringand finishing
Tissue
Nylon
Film
Surfacing
Painting
Decoration
The coveringof open frame structuresadds rigidity and strength,as
well as keepingthe air from 'blowing through'. For many years,doped
tissue paper has been favourite for light free-flight models, some
lighter control-linemodels, small R/C and electricmodels. Jap tissue
was much used when easilyavailable,but is now virtually replacedby
'Modelspan',which has a rag content and is availablein light and
heavyweightgrades.Time was when many colours could be bought,
but now only white, and occasionallyblack,are easilyobtainable.The
trend towards radio control brought with it various alternativecover-
ings,some of which are too heavyfor the lightestof free-flightmodels.
First,then, to apply tissue.
Eachwing can be coveredin a seriesof separatepanels,cut about
1in.oversizeas in sketch18:1,which showsthe order of fixing.Where
there is dihedral,the top sheet ends will have to be trimmed to fit at a
slight curve.

->
Adhere t l l s t
(ge,p freL '.-
+ P u l lm o r i
frmwrinkles

Lr*
\rt*
-t-\-\-

156
 --Et Aerofoil ot centre

tfl

covering ponels

.--\<-- _-
Botlm or toP
/6,
t,, or.. 3("1.

Avoid cutting wood

Next brvshful

188

The adhesive used can be thinned down p.v.A. glue or thick

wallpaper paste a-ppliedsparingly.Do one panel at a tiire ano lay it
down as in 18:2.Makesurethe tissuesticksto the undercamberof each
rib (if the aerofoilsectionis undercambered,that is).
-Keepthe spanwisetension,for tautnesson the convexsurfaces- top
of any wing, and bottom as well on those of bi-convexaerofoilsection.
Saggingcoveringchangesthe aerofoilsectionto a thinner one (1g:3).
^ While.dealingwith simple shapes,considerthe flat sided fuselage.
cover the sides, using the same method, and fold over the waste,
trimmed to ,/ein.overlap.cover top and bottom and trim flush.
where the sideschangeto a curved cross section,taper the ends to
affow the tissueto curve and fill the spaces,all as in 1g:4.curved tips
are notchedto fo-ldneatly,as in 1g:5and protrudingdowels dealt with
as 18:6. Edge trimming can be done using a strlight edge or with
greatercare freehand(18:7).Tissu_e is then sprayedwitn witer gently
and allowedto tighten.Next,cellulosedope is usedto shrink it flrtner
and airproofand strengthenit, see 1g:9.

157
 The bottom surfaceof eachwing or tail panel should be doped first,
using the brush stroke patternjust shown, so that the dope goes on
evenly. lt will now dry before the top surface,which is treated in the
same way. Lightweightmodels need the dope thinned down with an
equal, or less, quantity of cellulosethinners, otherwisethe structure
will suffer. Two or three coats are usually enough. Pin or strap the
component onto a flat board when touch dry, until the shrinking is
complete(severalhours or overnight)18:9shows it bandeddown and
18:10pinned.The pins do not go throughthe wing.
lf the wing or tail shows wrinkles when forced down onto a flat
surface,you can be sure that it has a warp or will soon succumbto one.
18:11and 18:12show how to identifywhich way it will pull.To correct
and give the surfacea nice polish,rub with a rag dipped in thinnersas
in 18:13.Holdingthe offendingarea in steamwhilst twisting it to over-
correctwill also help.

Film covering
Heat-shrinkplasticfilm is availablein bright colours and can be
lighter than heavilydoped heavyweighttissue or silk or nylon (which
also have to be doped).Markingout is done per the last example,but

Pin ot ongle to
miss ihe wing

L'E' '/@
w r i n k f e s i n d i c o t e* o t x i ^
'rrrfu,
"ri, Wrinkles indicote worhout

1&11
Direction of rubbing

{:t
Srroight edge

18:15
158
 1,1

yifffi,f:T,f meet
attheedseputa reference
markasin 18:14
il:f8.
f,:ff?IIlLTf"t,H:[:i gg huqu,poseorrixinsg
I ?,:
I
i i:T i::
lii: ri";.TJ,
lg_ts,
;lg,1+:,*ljJllrggl!i'-'1-lJ#lHnil[it?lll?e,
i]j;lH f,,lif;,li'r;?::,1",:* l
I'E?,Tlfffr,TJI
ji;[#fl Til
ooe'.vn"rti"tdGil;: ffiJffii3"il:f :J,p
I,oo
Tacking is a right appfication
temporarirv. of the iron to fix the materia!
A tr..\,i[rio;"yents it skiddinsabout.18:16shows
:?gior tair:
howto starta wing curied ,r"", nl"Jir.ili'g, so have
surprusfirmto srif asin re:ii. T.lirtii;k;#iinr" prentyof
doneneatrv,is luiprisi"giv practice,butwhen
sketch18:18'whethero,i Jn""i Fu2)fiepanersaredeartwith in
"*"ry^1
o, ope9,r5r,i"-.ivr,"re a firmpanerhas
to betakeno"":,,ll"
l"qo,l*ise
bondit downfury or shrinf itli to/6t";;;;"me detaitins,
do not
bladein 18:rsoiies$,9;lirrro, *,rt ur"rl r[" scrapof barsaon
the
tnr;r.,ing-!r'iire,zo.Theunderside
lil#y:i'H,,"f,?::;;;;;;lliong , r,,-,'oiooo,,,ip
asinrc:ztana
when a srotorsmat hatch
iron wifr burnthe f'm at itrJ is encountered, the chancesare thatthe
lig'.rs,whirsitfin'i" fix the opposite
side.
iltr^-7----- t'y' -;,1
Tock
clqe Iir'D A
(f Finotrock
1l ,Seolocl OF--al
lrt6 \ TocI

t=_____!_ ,
18:16

18:,17
18:18
Spocer block glued
\
ro blode
\

1&19 Finished lower

covering

1&20

tt..a..a
Bottm of wing

Hordraood strip r./

18:21 wos,e Lop ollowonce

Fold over ond fix 18:22

Cut the film as in 18:23,then guard the oppositeedge with a piece of
card as in 18:24.Concaveareas like wing and tail fillets should be
rubbeddown firmly while hot, as in 18:25,otherwiseit may shrinkclear
in a seriesof flats.To apply a contrastingcolour,or to patch,adopt the
method shown in 18:26.

Preparation for painting

This procedure goes right back to the humble chuck glider. Any
unprotectedbalsawill absorb moisture,get dirty and probably warp, if
it is not protectedwith at least a few coats of clear dope. The sort of
finish obtained depends on the initial surface preparation.For light
sheet models,try this:
One coat cleardope,light sanding,2 coatssandingsealer,sand really
smooth, then one or two coats clear.The sealerfills the grain and the
dope bondsthe hairy bits of the surfacetogether.Alternativelyuse one
of the specialmodeller'sacrylicprimersfor balsa:this sealsand can be
sinded readyfor cleardope or painting.lf the barewood is given a coat
of primer, any grain which would normally show under lightweight
tissue should lie flat.
It is customaryto cover barewood with lightweightModelspanprior
to painting.This is appliedeither by the methods describedearlier,or
by brushing clear dope on, then after positioningthe tissue,brushing
more dope through it to bond it in place.Eventhinnersworks if there is
enough dope underneath.Primer can also be used, so can diluted
SANDABLEP.V.A.glue. You now have a fairly smooth base . . . avoid
over-sandingthis, it will exposethe wood.

S e o li n g i r o n t i P -

Fold in ts Cord
.--l i n s ul o t i o n

18:23
18:24
l=\
18:25 lron down with rounded tip
Rub with cloth whilst hot

Fold bock

[l,|.*,,,,*,,,,
'V*U'"'.,
.' Cord slid under
f irst<over ing

160
 Surfoce of fi I I er Remoininghollw
Brmk thra;gh

Hol low shows

)
18:27

Loying off strokes

In

18:29

what follows can be done over nyron, sirk

coveringsbut keepit awayfrom baretorrn or gtassfibrecroth
The filler ir i"*panded polystyrene).
of polyesterresin(and hardener)and micro
balloons'The ?_Tjfyre
latterare an'extremely
powder.Appryseverarthin coatswith light'iili", and look like white
r 6rr"h or pad and sandreaily
smooth.Re-coat anyareaswherethe fabricoi tissueis exposed
sand carefulry.Micro Bailoonsmixed to ir,i.k paste and re-
resinmakesexcellentfillets. with poryester
"
Fromthen on,.it is.justa questionof apprying
primer compatibrewiih ttr" a ceiluroseor other
f,iint, r.rnoiri-f,Jndgoing to it with the
colours'18:27showssomemiinitieo seciiJnr
of ft" finishin progress.
Brushor spray
cellulose,the traditionarmoderfinish, is not
as easy to appry by
brushas otherpa.ints;it drajs ano picls'up,'iiou"r-urustreo.
eachstrokeonto the last,on-."only'anoleive-it iust ray
paintedthe house.well, you can paint as in tg:2-g.'liyou,ve
on
resistantpaintssoldfor modelling.1g:29 -ort of the other and fuel
spraying_ d9ne.1dg, on the tvp".-otrprrv ""ptrinr.
gin L, modeffer,sairbrush
vouhave.Basicarv.!h-" paintnieosto'bei^i*"i, ;";;;;t"oiv I
than vou think,untit it iprays *itr,oriJi;i;;
;;rumbry ,orangemore
pee'
finish.of coursespraycansare there ,i pii.". I

. In any event practise i

F
161 i

!
i

'l

:l
l.r
I
first, start clearof the job, and move evenly,turning clearof the end
wheneverpossibleas in 18:30.Forlining,a draughtiman'srulingpen
can be usedas in 18:31,filling in with brushor spray(aftermasking).
The draughtsman'srule pen can savea badly maskedand spray6d
area.Get crisp end and cornersby maskingfor the pen as in 19:32.
wheneverdoing any maskingfor sprayingor brush painting,seal
over.the edgesof the maskingtape with the same colour as you are
maskingout . . No, not the exposedarea colour,the colour to be
coveredup. Got it? This sealsthe edges,and if any paint does run
underthe tape,it will be the samecolouras the background, so it will
not show. The new colour only gets as far as the maskingtape edge

18' 1
Apply solveni
ro covering,
not lelter

Cut through
troc ing ond
or lissue in
one slroke

S t e n c i l p o s i t i o n e d o n d s p r o y e db o c k g r o u n d
colour to sml edges ,,-,;{.,
Sproy top coot

Letter
bose
sproy clor lo seol Sproyed colour
. over
.--__ of letter
Peel off letter

-
Srripesfor length

1&35 Sky colorr Colour lines

162
 Groduoted full depfh_
Groduo led corners

-t8:36 1832

now sealed.Always put dark over light for better coverageand avoid
incompatiblecolours: some even blJed their colour into ihe following
one. . . test it first.ona scrapor old model. Now let's do letteringanI
trims.Tissueletteringcan be cut out as in 1g:33,so can film. Dope
on
the former, apply solvent to the film surface before positioning tne
latter. Film can be slid around easily if a light smear of washi,ig-rp
liquid is used. lt dries out and avoids wrinkies - try it on decals too.
Maskedand stencilledlettersappear in 1g:34.

Ghangingthe appearance
. study the wings in 18:35for inspiration,if the wing you have is not
the shapeyou would have liked.
'trompe l,oeuil,
. Fuselagestoo can be given the treatment,darkening
the cornersto give them the appearanceof being rounded as in 1g:36,
-1g:31.
or fulfy graduate{ !o appear round or oval as in A prictised eye
and handinesswith an airbrush helps here. The rather siark tuselaie
side views in 18:38 h-averespondedin part to cotour ,.r,"-", but a
slight modificationwithout changing the flying characteristicswould
have combinedwith colour rineslo give so-eihing better.
Given a reasonableshape, the Jttitude can G made to appear
differentby anglingthe colour schemelinesas in 1g:39.
These notes have been brief, but derive inspiration from other
models and ful,l-sizemachines.rt would be a sad world if models were
uniform.
CHAPTER19

Propellersfor rubberpower
Pitch plotting
Garving
Folding blades
Prop stops
some modelplansgive detailsof the 'blank'of balsawoodfrom
whichto carvethe propellerof a rubberdrivenmodel.othersmay
s_pecify
a commercialequivalent in plastic,
usuallythesmallervariety.
Othersmerelyspecifydiameterandpitch.Howthendoesoneestablish
thecorrectbladeangles,
which,it will benoticedfromotherexamples,
startsteepat the hub and changeto a flatterangleat the tip? lmagine
any part of the prop blade making one completerevolution.The
distanceit will travelforwardin thatoneturn is the pitch.Now it should
be obviousfrom sketch19:1that if a pieceof paperis rolledto makea
tubeof the tip diameterandcutto matchthe pitchlength,a straightline
Pitch ongle (distonce trovelled foruord in one revolution)

19:1 -
l/2 prop dio.

L e s sp i t c h
\4orepirch-+l

Someblode smoll hub

1il
ffi

can be drawnfrom one cornerto the diagonallyoppositeone when it

unrolledand is laid flat. This is the pitctrangle,as'in 1g-.2.
The pitch
angle is thus a combinationof circumference (not dia.) and length
travelled(height).Somemodellersmay modifythe pitchunknowinily
- wh€n eusingF+normaffixedletadeprogtomake-afofung version. Hori
muchis lostor addedby the hubwill promotethis change.f 9:3 shows
wla! happens whenthe hubis reduced and 19:4whent6e hub is large.
Trimmingthe tips of the prop afterenlargingit with an oversizefrib
will not reducethe extendedpitchat all,soleavethe tips aloneand cut
the root endsto accommodate the new hub.
A propcanbe laminatedfrom stripsof balsaspreadas in 1g:b,using
a line drawnfrom cornerto cornerat the tip to'matchthe pitctranglE
(chosenand plottedon a strip of paper).Note how the centreof i-he
laminations is reducedin width- thisset-upis nearerto what is known
as true geometricpitch,but for practicalreasons,cannotbe takento
zeroat the centre.19:6showsa simpleblankfrom one pieceof balsa.
Note how weak it is at the centre.197 is deeperand has the ends
thinnedto bring the end to the correctproporiionsto suit the pitch
angle.Morerefinedis that in 19:gwherethe hub is reduceda litile to
avoid the aerofoilsectionbeing too thick there. The tips are also
reducedon bothfront and backas well as beingtaperedin sideview.

19:5

Stock of lominolions spreod

to suit required pitch ongle

Tip
19:6 \
\
tffil

19:7 Iips thinned

Iips thinned frm deep centre

d
19:8

Centre ond tips thinned

165
 Rectongulor block

19:9 morked ol

19:1O

l:J',,:i::::l::'i,"19:11
enoble them lo be re-
eslobl ished on cut foce

Now let's start carving.Rememberthat the prop usually rotatesin a

counter clockwisedirectionwhen viewed from the front. This means
that from the back,the leadingedge of each blade will be on the right
and furthestforward.Twist a strip of paper in the fingersto prove this.
Markthe blockout as in 19:9.The widestpart is usuallyat mid-blade
and the deeperthe block,the higherwill be the pitch for a given width.
The angle of this diagonalcan be checkedfrom half the length of the
base line {circumference)on the diagram in 19:2. This governs the
overallcrosssectionof the basicblock.The tip anglecan be markedon
the ends, resultingin a rectangle(shown shaded).The initial cuts to
taperthe block,as enlargedin 19:10,will removethe guide lines,so to
arriveat the shapein 19:11;it is wise to carryall linesover the ends,so
that they can be re-drawnon the cut faces(19:10)prior to finishingthe
tapering.
The next step is to mark the back and front faces for referencenear
the centre. The first part of carving proper is the flat back surface of
eachblade,which goes from cornerto corner.Remembertoo, which is
the leading edge.
Some of the hard work can be reducedby making severalsawcuts
with a fine tooth saw {junior hacksaw}as seen in 19:13.Cuttingaway

166
 Diogonol sowcuts neor lo corners

19:13
Corved reor foce

Root ond tip

ongles cmpored

Pitch /
Suitoble tin con

Leoding edge
Bind in ploce with soft
string ond tope ends Mid blode onole
Dtooe r@l

Dry in
slow
oven

C h e c ki n g i i 9

| / 32" sheet lom i notions

(2 fo smoll models, 3 for

s,o,s""-ffi6rff:
l4in. ond up proP dio.)
Apply wet with P.V.A. glue

Cmmerciol nylon hinge in

7-/
:?,t4,
la- Notch to key binding

Ply hub chonnel

l/32"ply root focing

19:17
Hord bolso core
19:18
the intervening wood with a wide bladedpenknifeproducesa flat but
helicalsurface.Theoppositesurfaceis then carvedawayto an aerofoil
section,thickening towardsthe hubfor strength.A slightundercamber
canthenbe sandedon the rearfaces,checking with caldtemplatesand
calipersandby holdingup to a brightlight,tobbtaina similaithickness
and balanceon each blade.The shaft hole is best made beforethe
fronts of the bladesare carved.

Mouldedprops
A quickand economicalmethod,if not as accurate,is to obtain a
suitabletin can,old saucepan,or stonewarejar for use as a forme.
Workout the relativetip androotanglesof the propblade(theseblades
are usuallyintendedfor folderprops).
- Taketangentsto the surfaceof the formeandpositionlaminationsas
in 19:14.

167
 Checkthe finishedbladeon a jig derivedfrom sketch19:2as in 19:15
and build up the rootswith triangularstrip, re-sandedto set the root at
the correctangle{19:16}.Bladehingeingcan be simplefor small props,
thanksto R/Chinges(19:17!., or more substantialas in 19:18.
Otherhubs are showh,e.g. 19:19,which hasto be assembledaround
the blade roots. Note how the root matchesthe hub section'foreaseof
setting up the correctanglesof pitch and true running of each blade.
That hub has to be wide enough to allow the bladesto lie closeto the
fuselagewhen folded. lf it is too short the bladetips will stick out and
producedrag. Too wide and the bladeswill not fair in neatly.
Sketch19:20showsa pieceof alitube slit and bent to form a hub. The
bladescan be shod with tube of the next sizedown, or boundwith glass
cloth and epoxied.10BAbolts can be used as hinge pins (19:21).
Some designshavesinglebladedprops,the bladebeing balancedby
a counterweightwhich can be bent back slightly to obtain smooth
running under power. Sketch 19:22 shows this. The blade can be
retainedby a fine wire'keeper'or pieceof plastictube pushedonto the
wire hinge pin. The pin faces the direction of rotation, for safety.
A double bladeversionhas a separatehinge arm bound and soldered
to the shaft after the latter has been formed to make a loop (19:23).
A l u m i n i u mt u b e

Tinplote hinge bind

ond epoxy to blode

l 8 9 . p i o n ow i r e
bind ond epoxy
to hub

ff-
Aluminium tube or
epoxy cloth binding
io blode root
1921
Woshers
Shoft forms hinge orm
Bind with threod or
gloss cloth ond ePoxY

1923
Blode keepers
192. 2 0s . w . 9 . Bend to fit hinge orm
l6 s.w.9. shoft
Bolonce om
l8 s.w.g.

Bind oll wire ioints with

Lod bolonce
l/4 prq dio. weight fuse wire ond solder

168
 Driver orm ond Siop screw
shoft movs Moin bush S\oft forms Stop peg or hole in
foruord slop orm
foce of noeblock

Moin bush

Pressure of shoft
1 driver om Prevenis
stop pin moving
19:25
5top spring Bross tube
Bross tube L o o pf o r " S "
hook for motor
19.24 Noseblock moy be
orsembled in 2 holves to
209. wire stop spring

oid wire bending sfoge

p
Plostic tube covering
Bind tightly with
moll rubber bond
/R\
Cmmerciol plostic bobbin
19:26 R u b b e rb o n d b i n d i n g

View frm reor

,
Hord bolso
\:}r I
.\
wedge
Rubbermotor

In both theseexamplesthe blade roots havewire pins to rest against

the centreof the hinge arm to preventthe bladesleaningforward.
Earlier models had free-wheelingpropelfers,but these produced
more drag when the motor run was ended.The windmilling blades
promoted unwantedturbulence.A few models had featheringblades,
but this was consideredan unwanted complication.Some of today's
experts have devised variable pitch props to take advantageof the
varying strengthof the motor as it runs down; these may also fold.
What rs importantis the needto stop the propellerrotatingat the end
of the usefulpower run, so that it can alwaysfold at the same position,
so preservingthe glidetrim. Most systemsrely on a spring overcoming
the pull of the now slackenedrubber motor. 19:24shows a traditional
method,where the shaft is pulled forward.
More effectiveis the 'Montreal' stop. This has a stop pin which is
spring loadedto slide backand engageon a peg or drop into a hole in
the noseblock.Sketch19:25shows the construction.The pin is pulled
forward afterwinding the motor and the pressureof the shaft'sdriving
arm,which might normallybe placedon the hub,jams the pin so that it
cannotslide backuntilthe power is exhaustedand its hold relaxed.The
shaft does not have to slide, so there is less chanceof it bending or
upsettingthe balance.
The motor can be carriedby a wire 'S' hook covered in plastictube to
preventit cutting,as in 19:26,or taken over a plasticbobbin on an 'S'
hook. The advantageis that the motor runs true and can be wound
without the propellerassembly.Hook the latter on before freeing the
winder thoughl .19:271. Small models can just have a plain hook on
the shaft, protectedwith plastic tube.

169
 20
CHAPTER

Linkagetips
Gontrol line
Radio control
Free flight

Oneof the primerequirements modelsis

for reliabilityin control-line
the correctmountingof the controlbellcrank.Not only doesthis have
to be securelymounted,so that the model/control-line linkwithstands
manytimesthe 'G' forceexertedby the modelwithoutfailing,but so
thatthe bellcrankis freeto pivoteasilyandwithoutslop,to ensurethat
the controlis positiveat all times.
A basicbellcrankshapeis seenin sketch20:1 and is typical.Note
how the distancebetweenthe pushrodand pivot is less than the
distancebetweenthe control lines and the pivot. Sometimesthere is
an alternativepushrodholeto makethis difference
the option of u_sing
more pronounced.
Whenthe bellcrank is mountedon a bolt,a pieceof brasstubeshould
be usedto form a smoothbearing,as in 20:2,ratherthan allowingthe
bellcrankto run on the bolt thread,where it would soon wear to a
sloppyfit.

20:1 Pushrod to elevotor

2O:2
Bmre plote
Lock ing nuts

2O:3
L .-
Sleeve

Nut soldered to bross bellcronk

Additionol nuts

170
 'iI

Soldered wosher

Pushrod

Bend right over ond solder 20:6

22 s.w.g. piono wire keeper
bind ond solder to pushrod

2O:8

Keeper presses Pushrod

end ogoinst hole edge

2O:9 ENLARGEDVIEW
2O:1O

Sketch20:3showsan extraply mounting platefor bettersecurity,not

forgetting the bearingsleeveof course.Sketch20:4 shows how a brass
or steelbellcrankcan be solderedto a nut, so that it has a betterbearing
surface on the bolt. The fact that the bellcrank will rise and fall
fractionallyon the thread is insignificantcompared with the advant-
ages of being self-retainingand matchedto its bearingsurface.
The wires which come from the bellcrankto connectwith the control
lines themselvesare called 'leadouts'.Where these are of thin piano
wire, the connectioncan be made as seen in sketch20:5.Yes,the wire
will wear the hole in prolonged use, but as the leadoutsand control
lines are under tensionin flight, the resultwill not be sloppy control.
Holes in the bellcrank can be bushed with scraps of brass tube,
solderedif the bellcrankis steelor brass,but if it is aluminiumalloy or
dural, the bushesshould be riveted over at each end to securethem.
Some modellersfit a pop rivet and drill it to suit the wire.
The elevatorpushrodcan be retainedby solderinga washerwhen in
situ, as in 20:6. A more workman-likejob is made by using a
commercialball link (often adjustable)as sold in model car or radio
control departmentsof the model shop l2O:71.The other end of the
pushrodcan be retainedin the elevatorhorn b)'fitting it with a 'keeper'
wire as in sketch20:8.Controlhorns were discussedearlierin Chapter
10, but bear in mind that the wire pushrodend should be a smooth,
slop-free fit in the horn hole(s). Where space does not permit
conventionalhorn and pushrod linkage arrangement,the bent wire
systemmay be used,scaledup or down to suit the type of model- see
20:9. The elevator horn may wear after protracted use which will
introducesloppinessinto the system; sketch20:10 offers a solution.

171
 Vibrationcan alsocausethe leadoutwires,rulrningwithinthe wing,
to wear piecesof the wing,ribsaway,resultingin a wing that contains
'confetti'and showsup badlywhentissueor clearfabricdoped.Scraps
of Paxolinwill providewear-resistant guidesas in 20:11.The same
methodis usefulon aileronpushrodsin radiocontrolmodels.At the
wingtip, leadoutscan be supportedin the correctpositionby a wire
guide which servesto positionexternalleadoutsas seenin 2O;12.
Internalleadoutscan exit throughthe wingtipvia brasstubes.
Thefore and aft positionof the leadoutscan be adjustedto obtainthe
bestattitudeof the modelin relationto its lines(i.e.nose-outor nose-in
to the true tangentthat it makeswith the flight circle).The method
shown in 20:13 should enablethe model to be correctlyset-up.
Roundedblockscan be fitted,slbttedand hollowedon the line-sidetip.

Goupledflaps
Stunt controlline modelscan benefitfrom the use of largetrailing
edgeflapson the wings,arrangedto go in the oppositedirectionto the
elevator,so that the model derivesextra lift to help it aroundsharp

\\\i Leodout or pushrod

R Poxolin or Formico

2O:,11
s
Wing rib

Coptive nul
Wire leodout guide-
epoxied inro rip block
20:12

rotio
Select hole to set flop/elevolor

Bellcronk

2O:15 Slotted orm pivot

D r i v ep i n i n -
bel lcronk move Pushrodto flops
slotted orm

Elevoior pushrod
in bel lcronk

Pushrod to elevotor

Bellcronk pivol

172
 20i:17
Conlinuous piono wire Pushrod

Trop end under wire

Bind wirh lhreod

ond cemenl

2
Hord bolso striPs io guide Pushrod

2O:2O

20:22

manoeuvres. lt is usualto havethe flapsmovingthrougha smallerarc

thanthe elevators, andthe linkageseenin 20:14is typical.
To avoidexcessflap angleat maximumelevatorthrow,while giving
plenty near neutral,a more complexlinkagecan be used;20:15
expfains.Comparethe relativemomentswith 20:16.
Pushrodswhich bend will reduceeffectiveness. Wire pushrodson
C/Lmodelscanbe stiffenedwith a strip of wood as in 2Ol.17. Wherethe
pushrodis wood,with separatewire ends,as is often seenon radio
controflinkages, the firm joiningof wire to wood is important.20:18
showsan improvedwire bendto preventunevenseatingof the wire.
Finishingoff with threadbindingand epoxy or even balsacement
can be doneas in 20:19.Heat-shrink sleevingcan be usedif tight.
It is oftenconvenientto makelargecut-outsin fuselageformersfor
installationof the pushrod,thenwhenset,up guidescanbe addedas in
20:20.Openframefuselagescan be givenguidesin a similarmanner,
see 20:21.Be sure to allow clearancefor the pushrod(s)to move
laterallyto accommodate the movementof the bellcrankor servo.
Pushrodsshouldalwaysgo in as direct a line as possible.lf the
fuselagedictatesa crankin the line,the wire part will most probably
bendand losemovement120:22). Notehow in 20:23the wire is on the
outerside of the rod and bends are minimal.

173
 Tube and cablelinkages(sometimescalled'snakes')are a convenient
means of linkagein R/C models,but make sure that the tube or cable
outer sleeve is secure, either by gluing it to the fuselage side at
intervalsor to the formers. Avoid unnecessarybends in the cable (it
stiffens up the movement) and be sure to fix it at both ends,otherwise
the inner will try to stay still and the outer creep fore and aft.
Sketch20:24gives some guide-lines.
Buildersof contestR/Cglidershaveon occasionsfound that a plastic
fuselage boom or the fuselage itself had a different coefficient of
expansion to that of the control pushrod to elevator or rudder. This
gave unwantedcontrol neutralshift when the model was in hot or extra
cofd conditions.An answerto this can be seen in 2A;25.Here,the servo
is supportedon a 'return pushrod'of the same materialas the pushrod
itself,thus the fuselageis independentof the system and the 'return
pushrod'and pushrodexpandat the same rate,resultingin zero neutral
change.Notethat the servois not firmly attachedto the fuselage,so the
latter can move as much as it likes.

Auto rudder
Freeflight models may also need linkages,the simplestof which is
the auto rudder on towline gliders. The purpose is to keep the tow
straight,then changeto circlingflight on castingoff the towline.There
are various methods, of which that in 2O:26 is typical. lt does not

Cotton tighily bound

ond cyono'ed
Stroight os possible Bolso gussel
20:24

Servo guide pin

Servo slide

Return rod fi
Return rod, some lengfh ond moteriol os pushrod plosti) to fuseloge here
frseloge
2Q:25 Return rod fixed to servo
Inseri pocking to 3et tor ond glide trims
Rubber bond
\.
T h r e o d t o r i m e r s t o r#t
\ Woshersor lop \'-

Bind ond ePoxY

to ply inside

Aulo rudder line

,e
1 4 s .w . g . p i o n o
w i r e towhook
Threod or nylon
2O:26

174
 Timing discs
Timer mechonism
Adiustoble timing discs B r o s sp l o t e f i x e d t o t i m e r

Brosstubes
solderedto

To engine
flod-off
or cul-oul Scroll for
u/ | ttmtng

2027 - Y:'""':n::' I
-
5croll grod:olly winds
D/T trigger wire clor Timer broke pin G Slreo.er

Toilplone

To timer P O W E RO N Boih oms spring lmded

Limit thrmd

2028
DETH ISED
ERt"{AL

imposea load on the linkagewhilsttowingand if the flight is to be

limitedby a clockwork timer('dethermaliser'orD/T),the timerdoesnot
start until the model is free of the line, when the flight is officially
begun.
Contestpowermodelsneeda timerto cut the engineas requiredby
the contestrules.Earliermachinesrelied haphazardlyon a limited
amountof fuel, but the sureway is to use a clockworktimer specially
madefor the purpose.Thesetimersalso havethe facilityfor 'DIT'as
well.Contestmodellershavedevisedvariousmethodsof changingthe
flighttrim duringthe power-onclimb.Thetimeris madeto firstcut the
engine,either by flooding fuel into the carb, or by breakingthe
supply. Almost immediatelythe tailplanechangesto a negative
incidenceand sometimesthe ruddersettingis changedtoo; finally,
much later,the tailplaneis allowedto pop up into a steepnegative
angle for D/T action.There are many permutationsof mechanical
triggeringto arrangethis sequence,referredto as V.l.T. {variable
incidencetail). lt is stressedthat these systemsare for the contest
experts,requiring100/"reliabilityof the engineand skillin launching,
otherwisethe modelwill probablywreckitself.
Sketch20:27showsjust one of many methodsof makingone timer
perform the sequenceand 2O:28the tail end releasemechanismof
V.l.T.and D.T..

175

ili

ifr
 21
CHAPTER

Riggingand checking
Truing up
Balance
Gontrol surfacecheck
Riggingaids

lf a model has been assembledwith its flying surfacesmisalignedor

if those surfacesare warped, then its performancewill be poor or it
may even be impossibleto trim for properflight. Firstan 'eyeballcheck'
. . . Lookat the model head-on.Hopefullyit does not appearas in sketch
21:1.Rememberwhat was noted in Chapter2 regardingwashout and
wash-inand its appearance.lf at first sight the model seemsto be quite
true, align it with a known level line behind it, such as the edge of the
ceiling or windowsill. Tilt the nose up or down to check the tail in
refationto the wings, as in 21:2, though this will not show that the
fuselageis misalignedto both.
Some free flight models are designedwith deliberatevariationsin
alignment, for example, the tailplane of a rubber powered duration
model or a contestpower model,may be tilted in relationto the wing to
promote a naturalturn, as seen in sketch21:3.Such models have the

Wing smt tilted

Toil sst tilted

Wosh-in
Undercorrioge legs
21:1 not molched for ongle

21:2

Equol thicknss shors

176
 V I E W F R O MR E A R

213 foil tilt promotesturn

(more pronounced with oft
centre of grovity ond
lorge toilplone)

21:4 Wing ond toilplone

porollel, bui both
Meosure frm eoch tip slewed on fuseloge
ot leoding ond troiling edges

Check 90o

-/l
t> :..\ ^; , ..
_1\
I Meosure rcch
rif\
Check wing smt Check toil seot

.I
t
M e o s u r e e o ch ,r;I
(
t.
21:5 Set squore It

balance point far aft on the wing, consequentlythe tail is made to

support more of the weight. Being tilted, the tail end ,slidesdownhill,
towards the low tip, producinga turn without undue bank. on a radio
controlledmodel,this would lead to inconsistency,as the tail is made
to producelift and anti-liftaccordingto what pitch control is given.The
tilt would causeturn in either direCtionwhen it was not wanted.
Turn can also be-accidentallyintroducedby slewing the wing, tril oj.
fusefageas in 21:4.In this particularsketchwing ani tail are
but the fuse-lageis misaligned.This model will p-robablybankieftf,arallel,
and
try to turn right!
lf the model is placedon a truly level and flat table, measurements
may be checkedas shown in 21:5 and card or draughtsman,sser
squ.ares, or carpenter'ssquares,used to align fuselageind fin. Datum
and centrelinescan be markedwith a chinalraph peicil as a means of
reference.

177
 !
i

Front lrlock mcY be mcde

Rubberbon&
io sl ide io sui I differenf models

Fvseloge
aA,,
-1J2
/
Sight thrwgh

Wing
C h e c k i n g s t r i P so l € c h
*.ingiip
Threod Pendulum

21:7
T u r n prop l80o Meosuremenls. lo ProP tiPg
Poinl on fuseloge centre
/ line nor toil
l-@- .........-_-...-
\/

-1_-@-
21A

Such a test will establishwhetheror not the wing seatslevel,that the

tips have the same amount of washout and the tail is similarlyset up.
To checkthe wing and tail seatingson the fuselage,lay stripsof straight
wood lr/oin.sq. o; so) acrossat leadingand trailing edggsand measure
down from the tip of each to the table. Left and right tips of gac.hstrip
should be the same distance.lf, say, the tail is also at zero incidence
and the fuselagehas its datum parallelto the table as set up, then all
the tail strips should be equidistantfrom the table.
Flat-bottomedwings and tails are relativelyeasy to checkfor warps
and washout,sOare those which are undercambered, but bi-convexOr
'datum' line that can be
symmetricalflying surfacesneed an artificial
seen. Sketch 2t:6 sfrows sighting or measuring strips made from
straight spruce or hard balsa and fitted with one fixed block and one
slidiig block which may be set to rest under or over the wing or tail
leadingedge ancitrailing edge respectively.Packingca.nbe introduced
to bring the checkingstrip exactlyparalleltothe wing datum.Usuallya
compa;ative check ii sufficient.Sketch 21:7 shows how a second strip
may be used to checkthe wing. Move the strips out equally on each

178
 wing, for checkingequal amounts of washout. Now pface one at the
root and move the other out progressivelyto check the amount and
commencementof washout or to detect wash-in. Either strip may be
alignedwith the fuselagedatum line to checkincidenceanglesand the
-p+otraeterlplumb-bobprovide a poirrr-tfpointangular eha-k Of fus
lag9,wingg and tail. Needlessto say, the model shbuld remain packed
up for all these checks,which relateeach part to the other
Sketch21:8 shows how to checkside or downthrustin a conventional
fuselage.Rememberthat enginesbehindthe c.G. need oppositeoffset.
The closer a motor is to the C.G.the less effective is the ofrset, but the
more effectiveis its height above or below that point.
Balancingthe model is accordanceto the designedCentreof Gravity
point is easyenoughwith the conventionalhigh wing layoutas in 21:g.
support the model on the fingertips or on blunt towels against a
convenientrib each side of thi fuselage.lt should sit level. Batance

Bolonce with fuseloge horizontol 21:1Q

219
Low wing model inverted to bolonce

21:11

Move model to obtoin equol reluctonce to t ilt

Checking strip

Control surfoce tip

Control surfoce
21:12

21:13
Cord reference scole

179
 Wing incidence ship

Toil incidence striP

points are shown variously on plans as a chequeredcircle or arrow

head. Mark the edge of the wing seat on the finished model, having
drawn a line verticallyfrom the point shown on the plan. A low wing
model can be balancedupside-downas in 21:10,but those mid-wing
models needto be movedfore and aft over the balancingsupportsuntil
they tift either way with equal ease.121:11l..
Rememberthat the balancetest is not to establisha new balance
point, but to show the needto add weight to the nose or tail to ensure
that the model balanceswhere it is designedto.

Ghecking control neutrals

Some designshavewing and tail tips which extendto coverthe ends
of the control surfaces- see sketch 21;12.The tip can thus be used to
align the trailing edge of aileron,elevatoror rudder.lf, however,as is
quite common, the control surface goes right to the tip, a miniature
version of the wing check strip can be used. This time, the support
block sits just forward of the hinge line. A card referencescalecan be
a d d e da s s e e ni n 2 1 : 1 3 .
All-moving tails are not so easyto check,so mark the fuselageor fin
carefullyfrom the plan and alignwith a pin in leadingand trailingedge
of the moving tail.
The checking strip can also be used to show up small angular
'T'tail layouts).
differencesagainstthe fuselage(or a point above it in
Sketch 21:14shows how a checkingstrip from the wing and one from
the all-moving tail can be combined to give a referenceangle,which
can be comparedwith the drawings.In fact the checkingstrip method is
'wing
one of the few methodswhich enablethe more recentmethod of
twist control'to be set up. Here the wings twist in oppositionto each
other for bank and togetherin oppositionto a FIXEDtailplanefor pitch
control.

180
t
CHAPTER22

Minor repairs
Dents in block
Repairdoublers
Sheet patches
Lightweight treatment
Tissuetips

Balsablockareaswhich may havebeendentedcan sometimesbe

returnedto near normalshapeby applyingwater,which swellsthe
compressed fibresagain.on drying,the surfacemaythenonly needre-
finishing.Splits,however,can benefitfrom a ply or hard balsa,stitch,
insertedintoa transversesawcutas in sketch22:1.Smallcrackscanbe
dealt with by a drop of cyanoadhesive,which will be drawn in by
capillaryactionand hardenthe area.
_ Largerareascanbe cutl/zin.
backanda wedgeshapedpatchinsertedas in
22:2.fndentations up to acrosscan be cut out with a hole-ounch
and.newwoodpunchedfrom scrapsheetand insertedin its place,all
as shownin sketch22:3.
"V" notch
22:1
Inserl wedge section
Sowcut
\-/

Sond down to motch

t); 22:2
Cut owoy deeper thon replocemenf plug

22:3
Domoged port

181
 split area, but
Sheet fuselagescan be patched inside a crackedor'doubler'
bewareof having a suddenstep at the edgesof such a patch.
This will promote a further weak point. Chamferthe edges off, but in
'knife-edge'to the patch, or it may curl away.at the
doing so, avoid a
edge as in 22:4. Finish the chamfer after gluing, as in 22:5. Medical
bandageand white glue can make a sound repair inside and such
treatmenttakes up little space.
Damageto leadingedge sheetis a common happening.Providedthe
leadingeOgestrip is intact,a new piecemay be let in. Guessat the area
required as in 22:6, pin the patch in place and cut both patch and
ragged edge to match as in 22:7,finally insert support strips.cutfrom
croJs-grainstrips as in 22:8. When these are set, glue in the patch
whichlhould now fit. The sheetfrom which the patch is cut should be
of similar hardnessand flexibilityto the wood it replaces,otherwisethe
camber may be changed. Sometimes the damaged sheet can be
pushed straight from below, provided that accesscan be gained via a
small hole. Cyanothen can be used on the repair.
It may be found that a rib or riblet has been crushed,or the leading
edge strip broken.In this case, repairingthe sheet alone will leave a
weak area.

22:5
V
Chomfer ofter
gluing on doubler

22:4
Potch sheet somethickness
Tope on blode to sei
cul no deeper thon sheet thicknesses

Potch ond existing sheet

trimmed ot some lime

22:6
22:7

1<-- Add bocking strips before inserting potch

22:8

182
 Lightweightmodels can have new pieces of rib and leading edge
joined in by makingsimplescarfor 'V' joints as in 22:9.Note how the
new pieceextendswell into the supportedarea near the spars,and in
the leading edge, towards the next ribs. Thin splints each side of a
Oamag€d some strength-Beware-oflhe model tLaf :ts_
heavy,or if radiocontrolledand subjectto more stressthan a light free-
flight machine:repairsto vital structurafmemberscould be dangerous.
Far saferto rebuildthat whole panel or sectionof tail-boom.More will
be at riskthan a slow flying free-flightmodel.Radiomodelsare heavier,
faster,havelargerenginesand are sometimesflown nearother models
and people. Sudden loss of control through structuralfailure could
result in an accident,besidesriskingthe radio equipment itself.
Open frame models having tissue covering can be temporarily
repairedon the spot when the covering gets torn locally.The doped
surfaceis fairly stiff and can be coaxedback into placewith a pin as in
22:11.Balsacementshrinksthe edgestogetheras it sets.The result is
not pretty, but maintainsstrength until a neat repair can be done at
home. This will entail cutting a neat patch and trimming away the
damaged tissue, so that there is a small overlap around the edges.
Whereit is practicaltorepaira small areain the centreof a bay between

"V" ioint new

piece of rib
Solints sch side with chqmfered en&
Scorf ioin new
loding edge

22:9

22:1O

183
 l/l6"ply cutiing bord
inserled under tissue

22:12

ribs and spars,a cleantrimming cut can be aided by insertinga small

pfy'cutting board' as in 22:12.Otherwisecut backto the nearestrib or
spar and patchthat area.
Finally, never attempt to repair foam wings near the centre,
particularlyif the model is radiocontrolled.Oncecrumpled,the foam is
difficultto rejoinand the veneer,which is the main structuralpart, may
have nothing to support it. Furtherout on the wing, new sectionsof
core can be spliced in with vertical spanwise reinforcementwebs
inserted in sawcuts made vertically in the core. The new veneer edges
can then be reinforcedwith epoxy and light glassfibrecloth.Remember
that such a repairadds weight and the wing will need balancingwith a
small tip weight in the oppositewing.
Do not forg-etto fuel-proof the surfaceof any repair if it is made to a
previously pioofed part of the model. Fuel may have already soaked
into the wood at the moment of crashso before using adhesives,soak
'Thawpit' and blot away the
the offendingpart in cteaningfluid such as
oil. lf wood G slightly moist from water then cyano glue can bond, but
oif and grease are a barrierto most glues.

184
CHAPTER
23

Workshoptips
Planninga workspace
Benchand boards
Buildingaids
Storage
Field kit

It will not be long before that which started as 'kitchen table

modelling' becomesoustedfrom the kitchen. . . Sawdust neverwas a
good garnishfor cookingand gravy spoilsa paint finish.
In the interests of safety, for both models and small children,
aeromodellingis best done in a small bedroom,boxroom,or sound,
dry and properlyheatedand ventilatedshed.The plan shown in sketch
23:1showshow to spreadyour modellingwings, in a spaceabout7ft x
11ft.Modellingbenchescan be condensedinto smallerspaces,which
can be shut away, such as in a double wardrobe spQceor alcoveat the
side of a chimney.For heavy work a 'workmate'folding bench can be
usedtemporarilyand fitted with a metal working vice in additionto its

23:1

Building bmrd (rmovoble) sirs in bcnch

Cutting bord
Storoge chest of drowers

<- Doormot Porking spoce for building boor4 on stout brockets Smoll bench
(heovy) a
Spore bmr& used os shelves /
Shelves over 4"frorn floor ond up Clmronce for sowino lt
/ f

-lr.L:---:t
I
=ffi
iH \s

185
 Window cill

Reor legs token up p o s t c i l I

23:,2 _- , o
1
nd screwed fimly ' t o i t
Bench top

o
/
o
',

/l ',
l Woll \ A i' I
Bench bmrer

Skirting boord

,Floor
Broce
,i,r"s,
Fronl :'"L:

23:3

23:4 2"xI" spocers

own. Some storage space is important for keeping small building

boards with part-constructedmodel components upon them, while
building is lnteruptedfor such mundanethings as work and domestic
activities.
Above all, the modeller's'holy of holies' needs to be locked safely
away from inquisitivesmall fingers.
Ouite a small 'heavywork'bench will suffice.The most arduoustask
it servesis for the light metalworkinvolvedin forming thick pianoWire
parts and a little rruoodworkinvolved in making plywood parts. More
experiencedor experimentalmodellerstend to demand more bench
area for work, which could well be done in the space where a
removablebuilding board sits.
Now to fix a bench . . . Modern housestend to have light cellular
blockwalls, so anything needinga firm attachmentrequiresthe use of
toggle bolts.An alternativeis to utilisethe windowsilland skirtingboard

186
F

as a meansof attachment,as in 23:2.The bench top does need to be

firm for it needsto supportthe vice.A lightly securedvice is worse than
a badly made vice.
The buildingboard itself must be firm and flat. lf there is no firm table
lorit*rhen useaready made domestic f|ush dssrJorthe-boardr€r m€ke
one, as sketch 23;3. Note the pin-board surface (D.l.Y.shops or the
woodyard). The board should be about 24 x 48in., but smaller will
suffice .14x 40in.)in which casetry some mini boards as in z3:4 . . .
some of these, in addition, can be stacked to save space without
disturbingthe parts like tailplaneswhich they carry.
Another useful board is the dihedral board. This can be made from
blockboardsurfacedwith pinboardand hingedflush, so that wings can
be built in one piecein one session.The dimensionsare typical,but
depend on the largestwing one is likely to be building in this way.
(23:5).They are also useful at the doping stage.
To easethe accurateconstructionof fuselages(and in some cases
other components)a buildingjig can prove an asset.The one designed
for making oneselfis shown in 23:6. Being magnetic,it is instantlyset
up for width and angle.Low cost magnetsare availablefrom Proopsor
Whistons Ltd. One of the wood support blockscan be used to collect
stray pins if placed in a plastic bag. when collected,the pins are
retainedin the bag which is turned inside-outin removingthe magnet-
carrying block.
ThB block can also be stood on the jaws of a vice as a drilling guide
(usefulif the workshop has no drill stand).

Recessedhinges

up os required

2 / 1 " 2 " x 3 / 4 " p i n e3 " - 4 " r o l l

Blockboord bose
lr4oke2 blocks per
Length io suit
l/4" x3/32" (opprox) sreel metol strip
ships let in flush
6" c en fres

mognet flush

187
 2"xl/2" Pine Psition of drill bit

Workpiece (engine beorer)

23:7

An 'L'-shapedwood blockalso servesto guide a drill bit in a hand

drill as in 23:7.The blockis placedin line with the hole and the bit.
guided
- by the innerangleof its sides.
Storageof the many tiny nuts, bolts and screws,R/Caccessories,
wheel collets, washers and tiny useful offcuts of tube and metal
sections,can be distractingto the eye and memory. Empty film
containers(35mmtype) are easilycollectedfrom photographers and
for
friends,and makeexcellentcontainers small items.A rotatingrack
13in.longwill holdabout36containers - seesketch23:8.Removeeach
containerfrom the undersiderow to avoidspillingthe contents.
Largeritems and hand tools can be kept in a neat folding wall
cupboard,built as in 23:9,andsizedaccordingto the user'sneedswith
a maximumof say6ft.wide bV Zft.tall and 6in.deepwhen open(12in.
deepclosedx 3ft.long).Usehardboardor 1/ein. ply and%in.thickwood
for the shelveson smallversions,up to 3/ain.
thickfor the largest.
lf you want to grade balsawood into comparativehardnessor to
weighsmallcomponents, try the simplemulti-purpose BalsaTesterin
23:10.

Tools
Basicaeromodelling can be donewith few handtools,but collecta
good rangeof modellingknifeblades.For carving,use a firm blade
knife,keptimpeccably sharpand usea 'stanley'typeknifefor work on
thin ply. A razorsaw is neatto use,but reserveit for balsa,Junior
hacksaws and largerwill alsobe needed,so will a modellingplanefor
balsaand a smallcarpenter's planefor shapinghardwoodstrip.
lf it canbe afforded,a modeller'smini drill aridstandis a greatasset,
so is a discsander,for producingaccurateendsfor iointing.
As wasshownin the wireworkpartof Chapter13,do not expeetsmall
needle-nose pliersto copewith pianowire of greaterthicknessthan
18s.w.g.. . . The sameappliesto cuttingthe wire.
Onecannothavetoo largea selectionof drill bits,but go gentlywith
thoseunderl/szin.dia.This list is by no meansexhaustiveand closes
with a vital item . . . FaceMasks.Balsadust is unpleasantto inhale,yet

188
it is so light that without a mask and appropriatefilter pad, it floats in
like smoke.Glassfibredust is BROKENGLASSand some paint finishes
are toxic . . , You want to enjoy the flying bit, don't you?
This is not going to stop you modelling,though.Treatthe dust and
ftrmeswittrttre sameresBecrasthc scelpefblade5usedincutti.ngbalsa
. . . lf there is much sanding to be done, take it outside when the
weather permits.

Outward and onward

Modellershavebeenknown to turn up at the flying sitewith their tool
kit and spares in a plastic carrier bag or bucket.A simple 'field box'

,'tE"'

Plostic film contoiners

Iock conloiner I ids
lo strip

Remove frm below

Metol
brocket
'I]
" .qroru pine strip
free lo rofole in brockels

Hordbord bock

3/xl/2" pine frome

ond shelves

NOT TO SCALE
tt* O u n c e w e i g h i n gp o i n r
?'l- v_ t),,

Grom weighing point

Poper scole col ibroted

3 / 1 6 " o . d . w o s l i e ro t 4 5 o frm known weights
soldered or epoxied
Hordnas scole is
20s.w.9. piono wire pointer lies

23:10 flush with bottm edge when ol resl

Turn lesler upside down for weighing
Wox wire over lhis porl P r e s st h i s e d g e l e " e l o n f o b o l s o s h e e r ( l r l 1 6 " + ) ,
ond epoxy in slol in ply reod hordness where pointer stops

189
li
';i*,JF,t*i
\- Sooce for ironmitter Soddles for siorter
I Box for fuel conloiner

23:11
E
Spoce for

>) cloning rogs

Control po*t fl..rorr".,

fqel pump ond I
plug supply I

--'l !

Dower f or spores ond tmls

Thick polythene sheel io Loae shelf

cotch dropped bits

suchas that in 23:11 is not difficultto makeand reflectsthe careyou

put into buildingthe models.
As more and more models are built, proven, enioyed and re-
membered,you may find your own ways of makingbuildingeasier.
Developnew modeldesigns. . . Sharethe enioyment.
The Argus SpecialistPublications range of modellingmagazines
couldbe interested in well proven and nicelypresented
designs.They
even pay for those photographsand plansacceptedfor publication.
Don'tforgeta S.A.E.though. . . HAPPYAEROMODELLING.

190