Course Title: Mechanics of Material

Submitted To: Dr. Muhammad Zubair Khan

Department Mechanical 01

 Awais Ahmed
 Muhammad Omer Amjad
Submitted By:  Muhammad Adnan Sattar
 Umer Riaz
 Shan Elahi

Suspension Bridge
Table of Contents
Background Information..............................................................................................................................3
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................3
How Bridges Work.......................................................................................................................................3
Different Types Of Bridges..........................................................................................................................4
Suspension bridges......................................................................................................................................6
Suspension cable types................................................................................................................................6
Terms related to Suspension Bridge............................................................................................................6
Structural Analysis.......................................................................................................................................7
Limitations compared to other bridge types...............................................................................................8
Advantages..................................................................................................................................................8
Disadvantages.............................................................................................................................................8
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................9
Bibliography................................................................................................................................................9
Background Information

Bridges are structures which carry people and vehicles across natural or man-made obstacles. As
early roads connected villages and towns, people traveled by foot or with carts and wagons.
Although a person carrying a large bundle might be able to cross a stream by swimming or
stepping on stones, as horse drawn vehicles with heavy loads needed to cross more dangerous
terrain, permanent sturdy bridges became an important part of transportation systems.

Early bridges were made from local materials such as wood, stone and fibers. Today, most
bridges have a concrete, steel, or wood framework with an asphalt or concrete roadway. Based
on the length of the barrier to be crossed, the amount and type of traffic as well as forces of
nature (wind, tide, flood) different materials and shapes of bridges are used.

There are many types of bridges such as arch bridges, girder bridges, truss bridges, cantilever
bridges, cable-stayed bridges, suspension bridges and moveable bridges. Many bridges are
actually combinations of different types of bridges -- and no two bridges are identical! Most
bridges are held up by at least two supports set in the ground called abutments. Some bridges
have additional supports along the middle of the bridge called piers. A span is the distance
between two supports, either two piers, a pier and an abutment or two abutments. Many short
bridges are supported only by the abutments and are called single-span bridges. Longer bridges
usually have one or more piers to support them and are known as multi-span bridges.

Introduction 

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung
below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. This type of bridge has cables suspended
between towers, plus vertical suspender cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon
which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for
additional clearance. Like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without
false work. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load
applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main cables continue
beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the
ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers. In some
circumstances the towers may sit on a bluff or canyon edge where the road may proceed directly
to the main span, otherwise the bridge will usually have two smaller spans, running between
either pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by suspender cables or may use a
truss bridge to make this connection. In the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard
main cables.
How Bridges Work

Most machines do some type of work. You know an engine, windmill or other machine is
generating a force or work because you can see the motion. Although a bridge does not have
spinning moving parts like other machines, it is still doing work.

What is a bridge's work? A bridge needs to be strong enough to support its own weight plus the
load of passengers and vehicles travelling on it against the pull of gravity. A bridge works
against the pull of gravity. If you hold a facial tissue between your hands and place a heavy book
on top of a facial tissue, you know the book will break through the tissue. The tissue is not strong
enough to support the weight of the book.

How do bridge's work? Although there are many types of bridges most bridges work by
balancing compression and tension. Place a flexible object like an eraser, sponge, or small piece
of bread between your thumb and index finger. Press your fingers together. One side of the
object will bend inwards and shorten while the other will bend outwards and lengthen. The
shorter side has been compressed, while the other side is under tension. Bridge components
experience these tension and compression stresses.

 
The Upper Side Has Been Compressed, The Lower Side Is Under Tension

Different Types Of Bridges

Arch bridges are structures in which each span forms an arch. The arch bridge is one of the
oldest types of bridges. Early arch bridges were made from stone. The spans range up to about
1700 ft.

 
Arch Bridge
Bixby Creek Bridge, Monterey, California 

Girder bridges are made of beams called girders. The ends of the beams or girders rest on piers
or abutments. The span length of girder bridges ranges up to about 1000 ft.
  
Girder Overpass Oakland, California

Truss bridges are supported by frameworks called trusses. Trusses are beams arranged to form
triangles.

 
Truss Bridge Worcester, UK 

Cantilever bridges consist of two independent beams, cantilevers, that extend from opposite
banks of a waterway. Cantilever bridges have spans as long at 1800 ft.

 
Cantilever Section of the Bay Bridge, California

Cable-stayed bridges have roadways that hang from cables. The cables are connected directly to
towers.

 
Cable-Stayed Bridge 
Sabrina Foot-Bridge Worcester, UK 
Photo Courtesy D. Locke, Bridge Building 
(www.bb.brantacan.co.uk/bridges.htm)

Moveable bridges have roadway that is moved to provide enough clearance for boats or large
ships to pass. An example of a moveable bridge is a drawbridge that tilts the roadway upward.
    
Drawbridge and Closeup of Drawbridge Mechanism Larkspur, California

Suspension bridges 

It is the most impressive type of bridge with their long main span and beauty. These bridges
have a roadway that hangs from steel cables supported by two high towers. The difference
between suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges is that suspension bridge cables are not
directly connected to the towers. The cables of a suspension bridge are not connected to the
bridge - the cables pass through a hole in the top of the towers.

A suspension bridge has at least two main cables. These cables extend from one end of the
bridge to the other. Suspender cables hang from these main cables. The other end of the
suspender attaches to the roadway.

Suspension cable types

The main suspension cable in older bridges was often made from chain or linked bars, but
modern bridge cables are made from multiple strands of wire. This contributes greater
redundancy; a few flawed strands in the hundreds used pose very little threat, whereas a single
bad link or eye bar can cause failure of the entire bridge. (The failure of a single eyebar was
found to be the cause of the collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River). Another reason is
that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into position, whereas wire
strand cables can be largely prepared in mid-air from a temporary walkway.

Forces acting on suspension bridges

Three kinds of forces operate on any bridge: the dead load, the live load, and the dynamic load.
Dead load refers to the weight of the bridge itself. Like any other structure, a bridge has a
tendency to collapse simply because of the gravitational forces acting on the materials of which
the bridge is made. Live load refers to traffic that moves across the bridge as well as normal
environmental factors such as changes in temperature, precipitation, and winds. Dynamic load
refers to environmental factors that go beyond normal weather conditions, factors such as sudden
gusts of wind and earthquakes. All three factors must be taken into consideration when building
a bridge.

Terms related to Suspension Bridge

Side span: segment between two pylons at the ends of a bridge.
Centre span: segment between two pylons at the centre of a bridge.
Side pylon: tower-like vertical construction situated at the side. usually supporting the cables of a
suspension bridge.
Foundation of a pylon: very durable lower part of a tower.
Suspender: support cable.
Suspension cable: set of braided wire that supports a bridge.
Pylon: tower-like vertical support that usually supports the cables of a suspension bridge or a
cable-stayed bridge.
Stiffening girder: tightener beam. 

Structural Analysis
The main forces in a suspension bridge are tension in the main cables and compression in the
pillars. Since almost all the force on the pillars is vertically downwards and they are also
stabilized by the main cables, they can be made quite slender. 
In a suspended deck bridge, cables suspended via towers hold up the road deck. The weight is
transferred by the cables to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the ground.
Most of the weight or load of the bridge is transferred by the cables to the anchorage systems.
These are imbedded in either solid rock or huge concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the
cables are spread over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from
breaking free.

Structural Failure
Some bridges have in the past suffered from structural failure due to combination of poor design
and severe weather conditions.
Collapse of the bridge also depends upon a phenomenon called resonance. It is the phenomenon
when a body vibrates at its natural frequency & it shatters.
To avoid these types of failures today all new bridges prototypes have to be tested in a wind
tunnel before being constructed. 

Quality Control in Suspension Cable 

The main suspension cable in older bridges was often made from chain or linked bars, but
modern bridge cables are made from multiple strands of wire. This contributes greater
redundancy; a few flawed strands in the hundreds used pose very little threat, whereas a single
bad link or eyebar can cause failure of the entire bridge. 
Another reason is that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into
position, whereas wire strand cables can be largely prepared in mid-air from a temporary
walkway.
The cables are made of thousands of individual steel wires bound tightly together. Steel, which is
very strong under tension, is an ideal material for cables; a single steel wire, only 0.1 inch thick,
can support over half a ton without breaking. 
Advantages over other bridge types 
Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge.
May be better able to withstand earthquake movements than can heavier and more rigid bridges. 
The center span may be made very long in proportion to the amount of materials required,
allowing the bridge to economically span a very wide canyon or waterway. 
It can be built high over water to allow the passage of very tall ships. 

Limitations compared to other bridge types 

Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge deck
vibrating under high winds.
The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other types of bridges makes it more difficult to
carry heavy rail traffic where high concentrated live loads occur.
Under severe wind loading, the towers exert a large torque force in the ground, and thus require
very expensive foundation work when building on soft ground.

Advantages
A suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and common wire rope.

 Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge
 Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve,
leading to a reduced construction cost
 Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below is
required during construction, for example allowing a waterway to remain open while the
bridge is built above
 May be better to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid bridges

Disadvantages

 Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge

deck vibrating under high winds
 The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of bridges
makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic where high concentrated live loads occur
 Some access below may be required during construction, to lift the initial cables or to lift
deck units. This access can often be avoided in cable-stayed bridge construction
Conclusion
Longer spans of up to 2000 ft-7000 ft is possible.
They are ideal for covering busy waterways such as Gulf, Strait, Lake, etc.
These bridges are mainly meant for light & heavy roadways rather than railways.
The main forces in a suspension bridge are tension in the main cables and compression in the
pillars.

Bibliography
http://www.answers.com 
http://www.howstuffworks.com 
http://www.inventionfactory.com 
http://www.spiritus-temporis.com 
http://www.thevisualdictionary.com