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Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work. It has two main laws: 1) The first law states that energy is conserved and cannot be created or destroyed. It is an expression of the overall conservation of energy. 2) The second law asserts that the quality or usefulness of energy decreases in actual processes, from high to low quality or from hot to cold. Some key concepts include: pressure, temperature, density, specific volume, specific gravity, work, and the relationships between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales. Thermodynamics is applied in many engineering fields involving heat transfer and energy.

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Aron H Ocampo
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134 views

Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work. It has two main laws: 1) The first law states that energy is conserved and cannot be created or destroyed. It is an expression of the overall conservation of energy. 2) The second law asserts that the quality or usefulness of energy decreases in actual processes, from high to low quality or from hot to cold. Some key concepts include: pressure, temperature, density, specific volume, specific gravity, work, and the relationships between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales. Thermodynamics is applied in many engineering fields involving heat transfer and energy.

Uploaded by

Aron H Ocampo
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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THERMODYNAMICS

The name ​thermodynamics ​stems from the Greek words ​therme ​(heat) and ​dynamis
(power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
It simply states that during an interaction, energy can change from
one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, ​energy
cannot be created or destroyed.​

The ​first law of thermodynamics ​is simply an expression of the


conservation of energy principle.
The change in the energy content of a body or any
other system is equal to the difference between the
energy input and the energy output, and the ​energy
balance ​is expressed as ​E​in - ​E​out = ​E.​
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

-The ​second law of thermodynamics ​asserts that energy has


​ s well as ​quantity, ​and actual processes occur in the direction of ​decreasing
quality a
quality of energy.
APPLICATION AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS
SOME SI AND ENGLISH UNITS
In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter
(m), ​and second (s), respectively. The respective units in the English
system ​are the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s).

1kg = 2.205​����​��

1m = 3.281ft
FORCE

Force = (Mass) (Acceleration) or ​F = ma


In SI, the force unit is the ​newton (N)​, and it is defined as the ​force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2​.

In the English system, the force unit is ​the pound-force (lbf) ​and is defined
as the force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of
1 ft/s2.
The term ​weight ​is often incorrectly used to express mass, particularly
by the “weight watchers.” Unlike mass, ​weight ​W ​is a ​force.​ ​It is the
gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from
Newton’s second law,

W = mg
WORK
- Work​, which is a form of energy,
can simply be defined as force times
distance; therefore, it has the unit “newton-meter (N · ​m),” which
is called a joule (J).

1 J = 1 N​∙​m

- A more common unit for energy in SI is the kilojoule(kJ). In the


English system, the energy unit is the ​Btu ​(British thermal unit), which
is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of
water at 68°F by 1°F.
In the metric system, the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C is defined as 1 ​calorie
(cal),

1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics ​- is the study of heat and work

a. ​Pure substance ​- a working substance whose chemical


composition remains the same even if there is a change in
phase. (most common example is water)

b. ​Ideal gas ​- a working substance which remains in


gaseous state during its operating cycle and whose
equation of state is PV=mRT. (most common example is air)
Properties of Working Substance
Formulas:
1. ​Pressure ​- is the ratio of force per unit area.

Gage pressure ​- is the pressure reading from the gage pressure


instrument which is higher or lower than the atmospheric pressure.

ME Bd. April 2002


What is the pressure above zero?
A. Gage pressure C. Vacuum pressure
B. Absolute zero D. Atmospheric pressure

Vacuum pressure ​– is a pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure

����������
a. ​Pressure ​= ​
2​ 2
��������​ , ​
� ���/��​ , ​
� ���/����​

Absolute pressure(​��​������​) = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure


��​������ =
​ ��​������ ±
​ ��​��

b​. 1 atm = ​0 Kpag


= 101.325 Kpa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 1.033 kg/​����​��
= 760 torr
​ ​��​��​��
= ​10.34 m

c. Hydrostatic Pressure, P:
P ​= ​������​P
where:
= ​����
�� ​= Density of
fluid
�� ​= Gravity

��​= Specific weight of fluid


= ​(�� �� ��)
ℎ=​ height of fluid
Water @
kg​m
STP
kN ρ = 1000​ 3
γ​water​= 9.81 water m​
3 m
m​ = 1​
L
lb​f
lb​m
= 62.4 ​ 3
γ​water ​ ft​ = 62.4 ​ 3
ρ​water ​ ft​
ρ​water​kg
Air @ STP
kN kg​m
γ = 0.0118 ρ = 1.2​ 3
m​
air ​ 3​
m​ ​lb​f
lb​m
air
γ = 0.075 ​ 3 ρ = 0.075 ​ 3​
ft​ ft​ air
air

2. ​Temperature ​– is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or


body

Thermometer ​– is an instrument used to measure the temperature of a


body or a substance
Pyrometer ​– is an instrument used to measure high temperature

gases ​a. Relation between ​℃ ​and ​℉ ​scales

℃ =​5​9​(℉ − 32) ������


R= ​℉ + ������
℉ =​9​5​℃ + 32
b. Absolute temperature of ℉ = 1.8 ℃ + 32
K and R: ​K = ​℃ +
c. Temperature Difference:
∆℃ =​5​9​∆℉ ∆℉ =​9​5​∆℃
∆℃ = ∆�� ∆℉ = ∆��
Density, Specific
Volume and Specific
Gravity
Density (ρ)
mass per unit
volume
Specific weight (​γ​)
weight per unit
volume
��
�� =​
��
����
�� =​��​�� = ����

volume per unit mass


Specific
Gravity/Relative Density (SG)

​ ater​(standard)
If solid/liquid : W
If gaseous: ​Air​(standard)
D. If two or more fluids are mixed together:
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
1. Find the pressure at the 100-fathom depth of water in kpag.

Solution:
Conversion: 1 fathom = 6 ft

Solving for the height, h in meter:

Solving for the pressure:

P = ​�� h
​ = 9.81 (182.87) = ​1793.95 KPa
2. Convert 750​°�� t​ o ​°�� °�� ​= 5/9 (​°�� –
​ 32)
= 5/9 (290 – 32) = 143.33
​ .395.33 ​°��
A. 390.33​°�� C
B. 410.33 ​°�� D
​ .416.33 ​°��
Solution:
Solving for ​°��
°�� ​= ​°�� + 460
750 = ​°�� + 460 °�� = °�� ​+ 273
°�� ​= 290 = 143.33 + 273 ​= ​416.33
Solving for ​°��​:
2. Convert 750​°�� ​to ​°��

A. 390.33​°�� ​C.395.33 ​°��


B. 410.33 ​°�� D
​ .416.33 ​°��

Alternate Solution:
°��​= 1.8 ​°��
Substitute:
750 = 1.8 ​°��
°��​= 416.67
��​2 ​= 780 ���������� ��​1 ������

��​
1000 �������� ​ 100 ������
= 78 ������
1 ������​

1 ������
��​1 ​= 930 ���������� ��​
100 ������
1000 �������� ​ ��​

1 ������​= 93 ������
Solution (Continuation):
��
Using standard density of air: ​��​������ =
​ 1.20 ​
� ���/��​
Since the g = 9.7 ​��/��​2​Substitute:
∆�� = ����∆ℎ
����∆ℎ
��​1 ​− ��​2 ​=​
∆ 1000
1288.6 m
∆ℎ =​��​1 −
​ ��​2

����​(1000)

Two thermometers, one Celsius and the other


Fahrenheit, are both at the same temperature, but
the reading on the Fahrenheit thermometer is
exactly twice that on the Celsius thermometer,
what is the temperature?
o​
t​F =
​ 2t​ C
t​
C ​ =160​ C
o​
t​F = ​ 1.8t​ +
C​ 32 t​
F ​ =320​ C
2t​C​= 1.8t​C ​+ 32
Convert a vacuum pressure of 110
mm of mercury into absolute
pressure. Atmospheric pressure is
10.5 m of H​2​O. ​P​abs =
​ P​atm ±
​ P​gage
10.33
P​abs ​=10.5 mH​2​O−110mmHg​(​
mH​
2​O
)
760 mmHg ​
��​������ =
​ �� �� ��​ ��​ ��

SEATWORK

PROBLEM 1.0
Determine the pressure exerted on a diver at 30 m below the free
surface of the sea. Assume a barometric pressure of 101 kPa and the
specific gravity of sea water is 1.03.

PROBLEM 2.0
If the specific weight of a liquid is 58.5 lbf per cubic foot, what is the
specific volume Of the liquid, cm​3​/g?

PROBLEM 3.0
Find the equivalent 650​0​R in O​
​ K.

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