B.
IMMUNOLOGIC TECHNIQUES – Agglutination, ELISA, It is considered more accurate as compared to
immunofluorescense. biotyping , phage typing, antibiotic resistance
SOURCES ANTIBIOTICS patterns and serotyping.
1. Bacillus subtilis Bacitracin ANTIMICROBIAL (ANTIBIOTICS)
2. Bacillus polymyxa Polymyxin ■ These are chemical substances produced by a
microorganism with the capacity to inhibit
3. Streptomyces nodosus Amphotericin B.
other microorganisms (bacteriostatic) or
4. Streptomyces venezuelae Chloramphenicol destroy/kill the organisms (bactericidal), They
5. Streptomyces erythraeus Erythromycin can also be synthesized by means of chemical
procedures independent of microbial activity.
6. Streptomyces noursei Nystatin
7. Streptomyces fradiae Neomycin ■ Some antimicrobial drugs are:
8. Micromonospora Gentamicin – narrow-spectrum (bacitracin,
purpurea clindamycin, dapsone, erythromycin,
9. Cephalosporium Cephalosporins gentamicin, isoniazid, penicillin,
10. Penicillium notatum Penicillin polymyxin B and vancomycin) and
effective against a limited number of
1. BACTERIPHAGE TYPING pathogens,
■ Is based on the specificity of phage surface – broad-spectrum (ampicillin,
receptors for cell surface receptors. cephalosporins, chloramphenicol,
■ Only bacteriophages that can attach to surface ciprofloxacin, rifampicin, sulfonamides,
receptors can infect bacteria and cause lysis. trimethoprim and tetracycline) and
■ Bacteriophage: is a virus that attacks bacterial destroy different kinds of organisms.
species.
■ Procedure: that bacteria to be tested is Antimicrobial Therapy
inoculated on petri plate and a drop of 1. Narrow spectrum – only certain group is
suspension from the different phages is used. covered
2. Broad spectrum- gram positive and gram
A. NUCLEIC-ACID BASED DETECTION METHODS negative coverage
DNA probe technology identifies a 3. selective toxicity – actions on certain microbial
microorganism by probing its genetic structure ( ribosome, cell wall)
composition. 4. Bacteriacidal action – Kills bacteria without host
A single-stranded sequence from one organism help
(probe) is used to search for other 5. Bacteriostatic action – reversible inhibition
microorganism having the same sequence. ( destruction depend on the host)
It is utilized for purified DNA preparations, 6. Drug combination –
bacterial colonies and specimens such as 1. Synergism –
sputum, tissue, serum and pus. 2. Antagonism
Ribotyping – a form of strain typing; ribosomal
RNA is used to type bacterial strains by probing Antibiotic Interactions:
chromosomal DNA in Southern blotting. ■ Autonomous or Indifferent ; results obtained
with two combined drugs is equal to results
with most effective drug by itself
B. GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY ■ Antagonist – results obtain is significantly less
It involves analysis of microbial metabolites, than the autonomous results: combined action
cellular fatty acids, products of pyrolysis of is less than that of the more effective agent
whole bacterial cells. when used alone
C. PLASMID FINGERPRINTING ■ Additive – result with two combined drugs is
It identifies microbial isolates of the same or equal to the sum of action drug when used
similar strains. alone/separately
It is useful for E.coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter ■ Synergistic – result with two combined drugs is
and Pseudomonas strains. significantly greater than the sum of both
effects: drugs combination has an effect which
is both qualitatively and quantitatively different
from that of the single components.
Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents:
■ BIOLOGICAL RESISTANCE
– Less susceptible
■ CLINICAL RESISTANCE
– Resistant
■ ENVIRONMENTALLY MEDIATED ANTIMICROBIAL
RESISTANCE
– pH, Anaerobic atmosphere, Cation
concentration, Thymidine content
■ MICROORGANISM MEDIATED ANTIMICROBIAL
RESISTANCE
– Intrinsic/ Inherent/ Natural
■ Metronidazole/Sulfonamides,
Trimethoprin, Tetracycline,
Chloramphenicol/ Aminoglycosides
– Acquired
■ Gene mutation
■ Gene transfer
Untoward Reaction of Antimicrobial Drugs
■ Hypersensitivity
■ Toxicity
■ Suppression of normal Flora
Chemotherapeutic agents like antibacterial drugs are
classified as natural, semisynthetic or synthetic drugs:
■ A. NATURAL DRUGS
- Produced by bacteria or fungi
EX. Amphotericin B, erythromycin, kanamycin,
neomycin, nystatin, rifampicin, streptomycin,
tetracycline, vancomycin, bacitracin, gentamicin,
polymyxin, griseofulvin, penicillin and cephalosporin
■ B. SEMISYNTHETIC DRUGS
- These are chemically modified natural drugs with
added extra chemical groups
EX. Ampicillin, cabenicillin and methicillin
■ C. SYNTHETIC DRUGS
- Chemically produced drugs
EX. Sulfonamides, trimethoprim, chloramphenicol,
ciprofloxacin, isoniazid and dapsone
