Chapter 5

Complete structural
arrangements
contain a full range of internal force :
load bearing wall structure or frame axial, bending moment, shear force
ex: maximum internal volume dome with minimum surface area
(minimize wind resistance and ideal for heat conservation ) .

5.1 Introduction complete structures whose geometries

conform to the form-active shape for the
Most structures are assemblies of large principal load which is applied; arrangements
numbers of elements and the performance of which do not fall into either of these categories
the complete structure depends principally on are semi-form-active.
the types of element which it contains and on The nature of the joints between elements
the ways in which these are connected (be they form-active, semi-form-active or non-
together. The classification of elements was form-active) significantly affects the
considered in Chapter 4, where the principal performance of structures and by this criterion
influence on element type was shown to be the they are said to be either ‘discontinuous’ or
shape of the element in relation to the pattern ‘continuous’ depending on how the elements
of the applied load. In the context of are connected. Discontinuous structures
architecture, where gravitational loads are contain only sufficient constraints to render
normally paramount, there are three basic them stable; they are assemblies of elements
arrangements: post-and-beam, form-active and connected together by hinge-type joints1 and
semi-form-active (Fig. 5.1). Post-and-beam most of them are also statically determinate
structures are assemblies of vertical and (see Appendix 3). Typical examples are shown
horizontal elements (the latter being non-form- diagrammatically in Fig. 5.2. Continuous
active); fully form-active structures are structures, the majority of which are also
statically indeterminate (see Appendix 3),
flexible or rigid plan able to resist tension or contain more than the minimum number of
compression or shear >the direction of the force
(a) on the mobilization of sectional
depends
constraints required for stability. They usually
force>compressive shells, tensile cable network, and have very few hinge-type joints and many have
air-supported tensile membrane structures none at all (Fig. 5.3). Most structural
geometries can be made either continuous or
discontinuous depending on the nature of the
invariable statically indeterminate: connections between the elements.
V expensive
(b)
,difficult to consruct The principal merit of the discontinuous
that make efficient use of structure material structure is that it is simple, both to design
and to construct. Other advantages are that its Advatages of
behaviour in response to differential discontinious
structure
settlement of the foundations and to changes
in the lengths of elements, such as occur

(c)

1 A hinge joint is not literally a hinge; it is simply a joint

which is incapable of preventing elements from
Fig. 5.1 The three categories of basic geometry. (a) Post- rotating relative to each other; most junctions between
and-beam. (b) Semi-form-active. (c) Form-active. elements fall into this category. 47
 Structure and Architecture

The behaviour of continuous structures is

1
altogether more complex than that of
discontinuous forms. They are more difficult 2
both to design and to construct (see Appendix
3) and they are also unable to accommodate 3
movements such as thermal expansion and
Fig. 5.2 Discontinuous structures. The multi-storey frame foundation settlement without the creation of
has insufficient constraints for stability and would require internal forces which are additional to those
the addition of a bracing system. The three-hinge portal
caused by the loads. They are nevertheless
frame and three-hinge arch are self-bracing, statically
determinate structures. potentially more efficient than discontinuous 4
structures and have a greater degree of
geometric stability. These properties allow the
designer greater freedom to manipulate the
overall form of the structure and therefore of
5
the building which it supports. Figures 1.9 and
7.37 show buildings with continuous structures
which illustrate this point.
Fig. 5.3 Continuous structures. All are self-bracing and
statically indeterminate.
5.2 Post-and-beam structures

when they expand or contract due to Post-and-beam structures are either

variations in temperature, does not give rise loadbearing wall structures or frame structures.
to additional stress. The discontinuous Both are commonly used structural forms and
structure adjusts its geometry in these within each type a fairly wide variety of
circumstances to accommodate the movement different structural arrangements, of both the
without any internal force being introduced continuous and the discontinuous types, are
Disadvantages
into the elements. A disadvantage of the possible. A large range of spans is also
of
discontinuous discontinuous structure is that, for a given possible depending on the types of element
structure application of load, it contains larger internal which are used.
forces than a continuous structure with the The loadbearing wall structure is a post-
1 same basic geometry; larger elements are and-beam arrangement in which a series of
required to achieve the same load carrying horizontal elements is supported on vertical
capacity and it is therefore less efficient. A walls (Fig. 5.4). If, as is usually the case, the
further disadvantage is that it must normally joints between the elements are of the hinge
be given a more regular geometry than an type, the horizontal elements are subjected to
2 equivalent continuous structure in order that pure bending-type internal forces and the
it can be geometrically stable. This restricts vertical elements to pure axial compressive
the freedom of the designer in the selection of internal forces when gravitational loads are
the form which is adopted and obviously applied. The basic form is unstable but
affects the shape of the building which can be stability is provided by bracing walls, and the
supported. The regular geometry of typical plans of these buildings therefore consist of
steel frameworks, many of which are two sets of walls: loadbearing walls and
discontinuous (see Figs 2.11 and 5.16) bracing walls (Fig. 5.5). The loadbearing walls,
illustrate this. The discontinuous structure is which carry the weights of the floors and roof,
therefore a rather basic structural arrangement are usually positioned more or less parallel to
which is not very efficient but which is simple one another at approximately equally spaced
and therefore economical to design and and as close together as space-planning
48 construct. requirements will allow in order to minimise
 Complete structural arrangements

Loadbearing wall structures are used for a

wide range of building types and sizes of
building (Figs 5.6, 1.13 and 7.36). The smallest
are domestic types of one or two storeys in
which the floors and roofs are normally of
timber and the walls of either timber or
masonry. In all-timber construction (see Fig.
PROPERITIES OF CONCRET THAN TIMBER 3.6), the walls are composed of closely spaced
columns tied together at the base and head of
the walls to form panels, and the floors are
similarly constructed. Where the walls are of
masonry, the floors can be of timber or
reinforced concrete. The latter are heavier but
Fig. 5.4 In the cross-section of a post-and-beam they have the advantage of being able to span 1
loadbearing masonry structure the reinforced concrete
in two directions simultaneously. This allows
floors at the first- and second-storey levels span one way
between the outer walls and central spine walls. Timber the adoption of more irregular arrangements of
trussed rafters carry the roof and span across the whole supporting walls and generally increases
building between the outer walls. planning freedom (Fig. 5.7). Reinforced 2
concrete floors are also capable of larger spans
than are timber floors; they provide buildings
which are stronger and more stable and have
Load bearing wall the added advantage of providing a fireproof 3
structure.
Although beams and slabs with simple,
solid cross-sections are normally used for the
floor elements of loadbearing-wall buildings,
because the spans are usually short (see
Section 6.2), axially stressed elements in the
form of triangulated trusses are frequently
used to form the horizontal elements in the
Bracing walls roof structures. The most commonly used
lightweight roof elements are timber trusses
(Fig. 5.8) and lightweight steel lattice girders.
The discontinuous loadbearing wall
configuration is a very basic form of structure
in which the most elementary types of bending
Fig. 5.5 Typical plan of a multi-storey loadbearing wall (i.e. non-form-active) elements, with simple,
structure. The floor structure spans one way between solid cross-sections, are employed. Their
parallel structural walls. Selected walls in the orthogonal efficiency is low and a further disadvantage is
direction act as bracing elements.
that the requirements of the structure impose
fairly severe restrictions on the freedom of the
the spans. The bracing walls are normally run designer to plan the form of the building – the
in a perpendicular direction and the interiors primary constraints being the need to adopt a
of the buildings are therefore multi-cellular multi-cellular interior in which none of the
and rectilinear in plan. Irregular plan forms are spaces is very large and, in multi-storey
possible, however. In multi-storey versions the buildings, a plan which is more or less the
plan must be more or less the same at every same at every level. The structures are
level so as to maintain vertical continuity of straightforward and economical to construct,
the loadbearing walls. however. 49
 Structure and Architecture 1- ‫رخيص الثمن نظراً لأن المواد المستخدمة في هذا النظام‬
‫قليلة التكلفة ولا‬
1- ‫ حيث يزيد سمك الحوائط كلما‬،‫كبر الحجم الفراغي لها‬
‫اقتربنا من الأساس لزيادة الأحمال التي يتعرض لها الحائط‬. ‫تحتاج إلى تقنيات عالية في البناء‬.

2- ‫ حيث يمنع عمل أي تعديل‬،‫صعوبة التغيير المعماري فيها‬ 2- ‫سريع البناء‬.

‫كإزالة حوائط أو تعديل تقسيم المبنى من دور إلى دور دون اتخاذ‬
‫احتياطات شديدة تضمن عدم انهيار المبنى‬. 3- ‫الحوائط المستخدمة هنا تكون عازلة للحرارة‬.

3- ‫وجود الفتحات في حوائط هذا النوع من الإنشاء يضعف‬ 4- ‫ذو متانة عالية فيستطيع تحمل التغيرات المناخية والصدمات‬.
‫ وبالتالي يجب الإقلال منها وخاصة ما كان عرضه‬،‫المبنى‬
‫ لذلك لا تعمل الشبابيك عريضة ولكن يعمل ارتفاعها‬,ً‫كبيرا‬ 5- ‫توزيع الأحمال الإنشائية بانتظام على طول الحوائط‬
ً‫عالي نسبياً وعرضها صغير نسبيا‬. ‫الحاملة‬.

4- ‫تحد من التشكيلات المطلوبة في الواجهات‬.

5- ‫محدودية الارتفاع المسموح به‬.

loadbearing wall structure

Fig. 5.6 Corinthian Court, Abingdon, UK; the Baron Willmore Partnership, architects; Glanville and Associates,
structural engineers. The vertical structure of this three-storey office building, which measures 55 m by 20 m on plan and
has few internal walls, is of loadbearing masonry. The floors are of reinforced concrete.

Fig. 5.8 Typical arrangement of elements in traditional

loadbearing masonry structure.

Where greater freedom to plan the interior

Fig. 5.7 In these arrangements the floor structures are of a building is required or where large interior
two-way spanning reinforced concrete slabs. This allows
spaces are desirable, it is usually necessary to
more freedom in the positioning of loadbearing walls than
is possible with one-way spanning timber or pre-cast adopt some type of frame structure. This can
50 concrete floors. allow the total elimination of structural walls,
 Complete structural arrangements

Fig. 5.9 A typical multi-

storey frame structure in
which a skeleton of steel
beams and columns
supports a floor of
reinforced concrete slabs.
Walls are non-structural and
can be positioned to suit
space-planning
requirements.

and large interior spaces can be achieved as rectangular geometry2, positioned parallel to
well as significant variations in floor plans one another to form rectangular or square
between different levels in multi-storey column grids; the resulting buildings have
buildings. forms which are predominantly rectilinear in
The principal characteristic of the frame is both plan and cross-section (Fig. 5.9). A
that it is a skeletal structure consisting of common variation of the above is obtained if
beams supported by columns, with some form triangulated elements are used for the
of slab floor and roof (Fig. 5.9). The walls are horizontal parts of the structure (Fig. 5.10).
usually non-structural (some may be used as Typical beam-column arrangements for single
vertical-plane bracing) and are supported and multi-storey frames are shown in Figs 5.11
entirely by the beam-column system. The total to 5.13; note that systems of primary and
volume which is occupied by the structure is secondary beams are used for both floor and
less than with loadbearing walls, and roof structures. These allow a reasonably even
individual elements therefore carry larger distribution of internal force to be achieved
areas of floor or roof and are subjected to between the various elements within a
greater amounts of internal force. Strong particular floor or roof structure. In Fig. 5.12,
materials such as steel and reinforced for example, the primary beam AB supports a
concrete must normally be used. Skeleton larger area of floor than the secondary beam
frames of timber, which is a relatively weak CD, and therefore carries more load. The
material, must be of short span (max 5 m) if magnitudes of the internal forces in each are
floor loading is carried. Larger spans are similar, however, because the span of AB is
possible with single-storey timber structures, shorter3.
especially if efficient types of element such as
triangulated trusses are used, but the
maximum spans are always smaller than those 2 A plane-frame is simply a frame with all elements in a
single plane.
of equivalent steel structures.
3 The critical internal force is bending moment, the
The most basic types of frame are arranged magnitude of which depends on the span (see Section
as a series of identical ‘plane-frames’ of 2.3.3). 51
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 5.10 In this steel frame, efficient

triangulated elements carry the roof
load. Floor loads are supported on less
efficient solid-web beams with I-shaped
‘improved’ cross-sections.

Fig. 5.11 A typical arrangement

of primary and secondary beams
in a single-storey steel frame. All
beams have ‘improved’
triangulated profiles.

Fig. 5.12 Typical floor layouts for multi-storey steel frames.

Fig. 5.13 ‘Improved’ elements are used for all beams and
columns in steel frames. In this case I-section beams are used for
the floor structure and more efficient triangulated elements in the
roof. The greater complexity and higher efficiency of the latter are
justified by the lighter roof loading (see Section 6.2). (Photo: Pat
Hunt)

52
 Complete structural arrangements

Skeleton frames can be of either the Fig. 5.15 Preliminary

discontinuous or the continuous type. Steel analysis of a
discontinuous frame.
and timber frames are normally discontinuous Under gravitational
and reinforced concrete frames are normally load the horizontal
continuous. In fully discontinuous frames all elements carry pure
the joints between beams and columns are of bending and the
the hinge type (Fig. 5.14). This renders the vertical elements axial
compression. Sharing
basic form unstable and reduces its efficiency or shedding of
by isolating elements from each other and bending moment
preventing the transfer of bending moment between elements is
between them (Fig. 5.15 – see also Appendix not possible through
3). Stability is provided in the discontinuous hinge joints.
frame by a separate bracing system, which can
take a number of forms (see Figs 2.10 to 2.13).
The need both to ensure stability and to
provide adequate support for all areas of floor
with hinge-joined elements normally requires
that discontinuous frames be given regular
geometries (Fig. 5.16).
If the connections in a frame are rigid, a
continuous structure normally results which is
both self-bracing and highly statically
indeterminate (see Appendix 3). Continuous
frames are therefore generally more elegant
than their discontinuous equivalents; elements
are lighter, spans longer and the absence of
vertical-plane bracing allows more open
interiors to be achieved. These advantages,
together with the general planning freedom

Fig. 5.14 A typical arrangement for a discontinuous Fig. 5.16 Single-storey steel framework. Although some
multi-storey frame. All beam end connections are of the of the structural connections here are rigid, the majority of
hinge type as are the column joints, which occur at the horizontal elements have hinge joints. The regularity of
alternate storey levels. The arrangement is highly unstable the arrangement and the presence of a triangulated
and requires a separate bracing system to resist horizontal bracing girder in the horizontal plane (top left) are typical
load. of a discontinuous framework. (Photo: Photo-Mayo Ltd) 53
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 5.17 Florey Building,

Oxford, UK, 1971; James
Stirling, architect. The Florey
Building, with its crescent-
shaped plan, complex
cross-section and glazed wall,
illustrates how the geometric
freedom made possible by a
continuous frame of in situ
concrete can be exploited.
(Photo: P. Macdonald)

Fig. 5.18 Miller House, Connecticut,

USA, 1970; Peter Eisenman, architect.
Eisenman is one of a number of American
architects, including Richard Meier (see
Fig. 1.9), who have exploited the
opportunities made possible by the
continuous framework. This type of
geometry, with its intersecting grids and
contrasts of solid and void is only possible
with a continuous structure.

54
 Complete structural arrangements

Fig. 5.19 Willis, Faber and Dumas

office, Ipswich, UK, 1974; Foster
Associates, architects; Anthony Hunt
Associates, structural engineers. The
coffered floor slab is a flat-slab structure
with an ‘improved’ cross-section. (Photo:
Pat Hunt)

which a high degree of structural continuity nor form-active. The elements therefore
allows, means that more complex geometries contain the full range of internal force types
than are possible with discontinuous structures (i.e. axial thrust, bending moment and shear
can be adopted (Figs 5.17, 5.18 and 1.9). force). The magnitudes of the bending
Due to the ease with which continuity can moments, which are of course the most
be achieved and to the absence of the ‘lack-of- difficult of the internal forces to resist
fit’ problem (see Appendix 3), in situ reinforced efficiently, depend on the extent to which the
concrete is a particularly suitable material for shape is different from the form-active shape
continuous frames. The degree of continuity for the loads. The bending moments are
which is possible even allows the beams in a significantly smaller, however, than those
frame to be eliminated and a two-way which occur in post-and-beam structures of
spanning slab to be supported directly on equivalent span.
columns to form what is called a ‘flat-slab’ Semi-form-active structures are usually
structure (Figs 5.19 and 7.33). This is both adopted as support systems for buildings for
highly efficient in its use of material and fairly one of two reasons. They may be chosen
simple to construct. The Willis, Faber and because it is necessary to achieve greater
Dumas building (Figs 1.6, 5.19 and 7.37) has a efficiency than a post-and-beam structure
type of flat-slab structure and this building would allow, because a long span is involved
demonstrates many of the advantages of or because the applied load is light (see
continuous structures; the geometric freedom Section 6.2). Alternatively, a semi-form-active
which structural continuity allows is structure may be adopted because the shape
particularly well illustrated. of the building which is to be supported is
such that neither a very simple post-and-beam
structure nor a highly efficient fully form-active
structure can be accommodated within it.
5.3 Semi-form-active structures Figure 5.20 shows a typical example of a
type of semi-form-active frame structure which
Semi-form-active structures have forms is frequently adopted to achieve long spans in
whose geometry is neither post-and-beam conjunction with light loads. It can be 55
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 5.21 The efficiency of the semi-form-active portal

frame is affected by the shapes of cross-section and
longitudinal profile which are used. Variation of the depth
Fig. 5.20 The ubiquitous portal frame is a semi-form- of the cross-section and the use of I- or box-sections are
active structure. The main elements in this example have common forms of ‘improvement’. The structure type is
‘improved’ I-shaped cross-sections. (Photo: Conder) highly versatile and is used over a wide range of spans.

Fig. 5.22 A typical

arrangement of
semi-form-active
portal frames
forming the
structure of a single-
storey building.

constructed in steel, reinforced concrete or types of frame, the range of spans which can
timber (Fig. 5.21). A variety of profiles and be achieved is large. In its most common form,
cross-sections are used for the frame elements, this type of structure consists of a series of
ranging from solid elements with rectangular identical plane rigid frames arranged parallel
cross-sections in the cases of reinforced to one another to form a rectangular plan (Fig.
concrete and laminated timber, to ‘improved’ 5.22).
56 elements in the case of steel. As with other
 Complete structural arrangements

5.4 Form-active structures elements (see Fig. 7.18). In the case of large
building envelopes, the loads which are
Fully form-active structures are normally used applied are predominantly of the distributed
only in circumstances where a special rather than the concentrated type and the
structural requirement to achieve a high form-active geometry is therefore curved (see
degree of structural efficiency exists, either Chapter 4). Although a certain amount of
because the span involved is very large or variety of shape is possible with this type of
because a structure of exceptionally light structure, depending on the conditions of
weight is required. They have geometries which support which are provided, the distinctive
are more complicated than post-and-beam or doubly-curved geometry of the form-active
semi-form-active types and they produce element is something which must be accepted
buildings which have distinctive shapes (Figs by a designer who contemplates using this
iii and 5.23 to 5.25). type of arrangement.
Included in this group are compressive Form-active structures are almost invariably
shells, tensile cable networks and air- statically indeterminate and this, together with
supported tensile-membrane structures. In the fact that they are difficult to construct,
almost all cases more than one type of makes them very expensive in the present age,
element is required, especially in tensile despite the fact that they make an efficient use
systems which must normally have of structural material. The level of complexity
compressive as well as tensile parts, and form- which is involved in their design and
active shapes are frequently chosen for the construction can be appreciated by considering
compressive elements as well as for the tensile just a few of the special design problems which

Fig. 5.23 Grandstand at Lord’s Cricket Ground, London, UK, 1987; Michael Hopkins & Partners, architects; Ove Arup &
Partners, structural engineers. The canopies which form the roof of this building are form-active tensile membranes. 57
Structure and Architecture

(a) Fig. 5.24 Barton Malow Silverdome. A very large span is

achieved here with a cable-reinforced air-supported
membrane, which is a tensile form-active structure.

Fig. 5.25 Brynmawr Rubber Factory, Brynmawr, UK, 1952;

Architects Co-Partnership, architects; Ove Arup & Partners,
structural engineers. The principal enclosing elements here
(b)
are compressive form-active, elliptical paraboloid shell
roofs. (Photo: Architectural Review)

they create. The tensile envelopes, for rigidity and it means that considerable care
example, always assume the form-active shape must be taken in their manufacture to ensure
for the load which acts on them no matter that the tailoring of the membrane or network
what their initial geometry may have been. is correct. If this is not done and a membrane
58 This is a consequence of their complete lack of with a non-form-active geometry is produced,
 Complete structural arrangements

initially it will nevertheless be forced into the loading. Thus these structures must be given
form-active shape when the load is applied, the strength to resist bending stress and they
causing folds and wrinkles to develop which must be made thicker than would be necessary
are both unsightly and result in concentrations if only direct stress was present.
of stress. Many other technical difficulties, The fact that bending stress can never be
associated with the attachment of the totally eliminated from compressive form-
membranes to their supports and with their active structures means that they are inevitably
behaviour in response to dynamic loads, also less efficient than their tensile equivalents. It
arise in connection with the design of tensile also means that the adoption of a true form-
form-active structures. active shape, with all the complications which
In the case of the compressive version of this involves, such as varying radii of curvature,
the form-active structure, the penalty which is is rarely considered to be justified. A
incurred if it is not given the true form-active compromise is frequently made in which a
shape for the load is that bending stress doubly-curved shape, which is close to the
occurs in the membrane. If this happens form-active shape but which has a much
unintentionally there is a risk of strength simpler geometry, is adopted. These more
failure, and it is therefore desirable that the practical shapes achieve greater simplicity
exact geometry of the true form-active shape either by having a constant radius of curvature,
should be determined during the design as in a spherical dome, or by being
process and that the structure be made to translational forms, which can be generated by
conform to it. Two problems arise, however. simple curves such as parabolas or ellipses.
Firstly, the geometry of the form-active shape The hyperbolic paraboloid and the elliptical
is very complex and is difficult to determine paraboloid (Fig. 5.25) are examples of the
accurately, and thus difficult to reproduce latter. These shapes are simpler to analyse and
exactly in a real structure. In particular, the to construct than true form-active shapes and
radius of curvature of the surface is not by adopting them the designer elects to pay
constant and this makes both the analysis of the penalty of lower efficiency to achieve
the structure and its construction difficult. relative ease of design and construction.
Secondly, real structures are always subjected
to a variety of different forms of loading, which
means that the required form-active shape 5.5 Conclusion
changes as loads change. This does not
present an insuperable problem in the case of In this chapter the three basic types of
tensile form-active-structures because, being structural arrangement have been described
flexible, these can simply adjust their geometry and a small selection of each has been
to take up the different shapes which are illustrated. A great number of variations is
required. So long as the change in load is not possible within each type, depending on the
too extreme, the necessary adjustment can be nature of the elements of which they are
accommodated without the risk of serious composed. An ability to place a structure
wrinkles developing. Compressive forms must within the appropriate category forms a useful
be rigid, however, and so only one geometry is basis for assessing its performance and the
possible. Therefore some bending stress will appropriateness of its selection for a particular
inevitably arise in a compressive form-active application.
structure due to changes which occur to the

59
 Chapter 6

The critical appraisal of

structures

6.1 Introduction mean that the most efficient2 structure, which

produces the required load-carrying capacity
It is said, albeit usually by critics, that creative with a minimum weight of material, is
activity is enriched by criticism. The world of necessarily the best; several other technical
structural engineering, in which a very large factors, including the complexity of the
number of artefacts are created continuously, construction process and the subsequent
is, however, curiously devoid of a climate of durability of the structure, will affect the
criticism, and few engineering structures judgement of whether or not a structure is
receive anything like the critical attention satisfactory. Frequently, the technical
which is accorded to even the most modest of requirements conflict with one another. For
buildings. There is therefore no tradition of example, as was seen in Chapter 4, efficient
criticism in structural engineering comparable forms are invariably complex and therefore
to that which exists in architecture and the difficult to design, construct and maintain.
other arts1. This dichotomy between efficiency and
Design has been described as a problem- simplicity of form is a fundamental aspect of
solving activity, an iterative process in which structural design. The final geometry which is
self-criticism by the designer forms an adopted is always a compromise between
essential part. It is with this type of criticism, these two properties, and the elegance with
rather than the journalistic type alluded to which this compromise is achieved is one of
above, that this chapter is principally the principal criteria of good structural design.
concerned. It is not proposed, therefore, to In the context of architecture it affects the
deal comprehensively here with the subject of relationship between the appearance and the
structural criticism but simply to identify the performance of a structure. The factors on
technical factors by which the merits of which the nature of the best compromise
structures may be assessed. depends are reviewed here.
Engineering is principally concerned with
economy of means – a structure may be
considered to have been well engineered if it 6.2 Complexity and efficiency in
fulfils its function with a minimum input of structural design
materials and other resources. This does not
A fundamental engineering requirement is that
economy of means should be achieved. The

1 The controversy over whether or not structural

engineering is an art will not be entered into here. This
is discussed at length in Billington, D. P., The Tower and 2 As in Chapter 4, structural efficiency is considered here
the Bridge, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1983 and Holgate, in terms of the weight of material which has to be
A., The Art in Structural Design, Clarendon Press, Oxford, provided to carry a given amount of load. The efficiency
1986. See also Addis, W. B., The Art of the Structural of a structure is regarded as high if the ratio of its
60 Engineer, Artemis, London, 1994. strength to its weight is high.
 The critical appraisal of structures

overall level of resources committed to a The complicated geometry which must be

project should be as small as possible. A adopted to obtain high efficiency affects the
sensible balance should be struck between the ease with which a structure can be constructed
complexity required for high structural and its constituent components manufactured,
efficiency (see Chapter 4) and the ease of and its subsequent durability. For example, a
design, construction and maintenance which triangulated framework is both more difficult
the adoption of a simple arrangement allows. to construct and more difficult to maintain
It is the nature of this compromise which must subsequently than is a solid-web beam. The
be assessed by the critic who wishes to judge designer of a structure must therefore balance
the merits of a structure. these considerations against the natural desire
The aspects of structure on which efficiency to minimise the amount of material involved.
depends, where efficiency is judged primarily The level of efficiency which has been achieved
in terms of the weight of material which must should be appropriate for the individual
be provided to give a particular load-carrying circumstances of the structure.
capacity, were outlined in Chapter 4. It was It is not possible to specify precisely the
shown that the volume and therefore the level of efficiency which should be achieved in
weight of material required for a structure is a particular structure, such is the complexity
dependent principally on its overall form in of the interrelationships between the various
relation to the pattern of applied load and on factors involved. It is possible, however, to
the shapes of the structural elements in both identify two main influences on this desirable
cross-section and longitudinal profile. A basic level, namely the size of the span which a
classification system based on the concepts of structure must achieve and the intensity of
form-active shape and ‘simple’ and ‘improved’ the external load which it will carry. The
cross-sections and longitudinal profiles was longer the span, the greater is the need for
described; this allows judgements to be made high efficiency; the higher the level of load
concerning the level of efficiency which is likely which is carried, the lower can the efficiency
to be achieved with a particular structural be. These two influences are in fact different
arrangement. Form-active shapes such as aspects of the same phenomenon, namely a
tensile cables and compressive vaults were requirement to maintain the ratio of self-
seen to be potentially the most efficient, and weight to external load at a more or less
non-form-active beams the least efficient. constant level. Implicit in this statement is
A property of structures which was the idea that, in order to achieve the ideal of
demonstrated by this ordering of elements is maximum economy of means, the level of
that the higher the efficiency the more complex complexity of a structure should be the
the form3. This is generally the case even when minimum consistent with achieving a
relatively minor measures are taken to improve reasonable level of efficiency.
structural efficiency, such as the use of I- The effect on efficiency of increasing span is
shaped or box-shaped cross-sections for demonstrated in the very simple example of a
beams instead of solid rectangles, or a beam of rectangular cross-section carrying a
triangulated internal geometry instead of a uniformly distributed load (Fig. 6.1). In the
solid web for a girder. figure, two beams of different spans are shown,
each carrying the same intensity of load. The
one with the longer span must have a greater
depth so as to have adequate strength. The
3 The concept of the optimum structure provides further self-weight of each beam is directly
evidence that complexity is necessary to achieve high proportional to its depth and so the ratio of
levels of efficiency – see Cox, H. L., The Design of load carried to self-weight per unit length of
Structures of Least Weight, Pergamon, London, 1965 and
Majid, K. I., Optimum Design of Structures, Newnes-
beam (the structural efficiency) is less
Butterworth, London, 1974. favourable for the larger span. 61
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 6.1 The weight of a beam is

proportional to its depth, which must
increase as span increases. Thus, the ratio
of self-weight to imposed load carried
becomes less favourable as span is
increased.

Another way of demonstrating the same simple non-form-active structures might be

effect would be to use a beam element with a appropriate for short spans. As the span is
particular cross-section across a range of increased, elements with progressively more of
spans. The strength of the beam – its moment the features associated with efficiency are
of resistance (see Appendix 2.3) – would be required to maintain a constant level of
constant. At small spans the maximum efficiency. At intermediate spans semi-form-
bending moment generated by the self-weight active types are required, again progressing
would be low and the beam might have a through the range of possibilities for
reasonable capacity to carry additional load. ‘improvement’. For the very largest spans,
As the span was increased the bending form-active structures have to be specified.
moment generated by the self-weight would The relationship between structural
increase and an ever greater proportion of the efficiency and intensity of applied load, which
strength available would have to be devoted to is the other significant factor affecting
carrying the self-weight. Eventually a span ‘economy of means’, can also be fairly easily
would be reached in which all of the strength demonstrated. Taking again the simple
available was required to support only the self- example of a beam with a rectangular cross-
weight. The structural efficiency of the beam section, the weight of this increases in direct
(its capacity to carry external load divided by proportion with its depth while its strength
its weight) would steadily diminish as the span increases with the square of its depth (see
increased. Appendix 2.3). Thus, if the external load is
Thus, in the case of a horizontal span, which increased by a factor of two the doubling in
is the most common type of structure found in strength which is required to carry this can be
architecture, the efficiency of an element with achieved by an increase in the depth which is
a particular shape of cross-section decreases less than twofold (in fact, by a factor of 1.4).
as the span increases. To maintain a constant The increase in the weight of the beam is
level of efficiency over a range of spans, therefore also less than twofold and the overall
different shapes of cross-section have to be efficiency of the element carrying the double
used. More efficient shapes have to be used as load is greater. Thus, for a given span and
the span is increased if a constant level of load shape of cross-section, the efficiency of the
to self-weight (efficiency) is to be maintained. element increases as the intensity of load
The general principle involved here is that increases and larger cross-sections must be
the larger the span, the greater the number of specified. Conversely, if a particular level of
‘improvements’ required to maintain a efficiency is required, this can be achieved with
constant level of efficiency. The principle may less efficient shapes of cross-section when
be extended to the overall form of a structure heavier loads are carried (the relationship
and indeed to the full range of factors which between efficiency and shape of cross-section
affect efficiency. Thus, to maintain a constant is discussed in Section 4.3 and in Appendix
62 level of efficiency over a wide range of span, 2.3).
 The critical appraisal of structures

An examination of extant structures

demonstrates that the majority are in fact
designed in accordance with an awareness of
the relationship between span, load and
(a) (b)
efficiency described above. Although it is
always possible to find exceptions, it is
nevertheless generally true that structures of
short span are mainly produced in
configurations which are inefficient, i.e. post-
and-beam non-form-active arrangements with
‘simple’ shapes in cross-section and
longitudinal profile. As spans increase the (c)
incidence of features which produce increased
efficiency is greater and structures with very
long spans are always constructed in efficient
formats. This is very obvious in bridge
engineering, as is illustrated in Fig. 6.2, and (d)
can be demonstrated to be broadly true of
building structures.
The most obvious demonstration of the
influence of load intensity on the type of
element which is employed is found in multi- Fig. 6.2 The four bridges illustrated here demonstrate
the tendency for structural complexity to increase with
storey frameworks. The principal loads on the span due to the need for greater efficiency. (a) Luzancy
horizontal structural elements of these are Bridge; span 55 m, post-and-beam. (b) Salginatobel
gravitational loads and, of these, floor loads Bridge; span 90 m, compressive-form-active arch with solid
are of much higher intensity than roof loads cross-section. (c) Bayonne Bridge, span 504 m,
(from two to ten times as much). In multi- compressive form-active arch with ‘improved’ triangulated
longitudinal profile. (d) Severn Bridge, span 990 m, tensile
storey frameworks it is very common for form-active.
different structural configurations to be used
for floor and roof structures, with roof
structures being given more of the features load intensity: the higher the load carried, the
which are associated with greater structural longer would be the span at which the change
efficiency, even though the spans are the same to a more efficient type would be justified. The
(see Fig. 5.13). technical factor which determines the precise
From all of the foregoing it is possible to level of span for which a particular structural
picture a fairly tidy taxonomy of structures in configuration is most appropriate is the
which the type of structure which would be fundamental engineering requirement that
most suitable for a particular application economy of means should be achieved.
would range from the simplest post-and-beam One indicator of the extent to which the
non-form-active types for very short spans, correct balance between complexity (and
through a series of ‘improved’ non-form-active therefore efficiency) and simplicity has been
or semi-form-active types in the medium span achieved is cost. Although monetary cost is
range, to form-active structures for the longest not strictly a technical aspect of the
spans. Because the underlying requirement of performance of a structure it does give an
structural design is to produce a ratio of load indication of the level of resources of all kinds
to self-weight which is approximately constant, which will have been involved in its realisation.
the precise levels of span at which transitions Cost is therefore a measure of the level of
from less to more efficient types of element economy of means which has been achieved
would be appropriate would be affected by the and is frequently crucial in determining the 63
Structure and Architecture

balance of efficiency and complexity which is economy within which the structure is
appropriate in a particular case. constructed, strongly influences the ratio of
Cost is, of course, an artificial yardstick load carried to self-weight which is appropriate
which is affected by the ways in which a society within a particular economic regime. This is a
chooses to order its priorities. These are likely, major factor in determining the spans at which
increasingly, to be related to the realities of the transition from less to more structurally
shortages of materials and energy, and to the efficient forms are made.
need to reduce levels of industrial pollution. This can be illustrated by considering the
Cost, which, in the economic context of the relationship between material and labour costs
modern world of the twentieth century, was for a particular structure. Consider, for
largely unrelated to these aspects of reality example, the problem of a single-storey
and which was eschewed by critics of building of moderate span – an example might
architecture as a measure of the worth of a be the Renault Centre (Fig. 3.19). It may be
building, may, in the twenty-first century assumed that a steel framework is a sensible
become an important consideration in the form of structure to support such an enclosure
assessment of the appropriateness of a but the range of structural possibilities
structure. available to the designer is very large. Simple
As with other aspects of design the issues post-and-beam forms with parallel-sided
which affect cost are related in complicated beams would be the least structurally efficient
ways. For example, in considering cost in option. Semi-form-active portal frameworks
relation to structural design, the designer must with triangulated elements would be more
take into account not only the cost of the efficient. A cable supported structure or tent
structure itself but also the effect of the would give the greatest efficiency in the use of
selection of a particular structure type on other material. The higher the efficiency, the greater
building costs. If, for example, it proved the complexity and therefore the higher would
possible to reduce the cost of a multi-storey be the design and construction costs.
structure by slightly increasing the structural The relationship between material and
depth of each floor, this saving might be labour costs of all kinds is represented
counteracted by an increase in the cost of the diagramatically in Fig. 6.3. The optimum level
cladding and other building components. If a of efficiency corresponds with the minimum
structure type were selected which, although point in the curve indicating the total costs;
more expensive than an alternative, allowed this will correspond to a particular type of
the building to be erected more quickly (e.g. a structure. Figure 6.3 also illustrates the effect
steel rather than a reinforced concrete frame), of a variation in labour cost. The effect of an
the increase in the cost of the structure might increase in labour costs, relative to material
be more than offset by the savings involved in costs, is to reduce the level of efficiency at
having the building completed more quickly. which the optimum level of economy of means
The issue of cost, in relation to structural occurs. This effect accounts for variations in
design, must therefore involve a consideration patterns of building in different parts of the
of other issues besides those which are solely world. The higher the cost of materials in
concerned with the structure. Such factors are relation to labour, the greater is the incentive
especially important when the cost of the to achieve high efficiency and the smaller is
structure itself may form a relatively small the span at which the transition from less to
proportion of the total cost of the building. In more efficient and therefore more complex
spite of these reservations, it is nevertheless configurations is justified.
possible to make certain general observations Extreme examples of this are found in tribal
concerning the issue of purely structural costs. societies in which the economic conditions are
Cost, and in particular the relationship such that very complex structural forms are
64 between labour costs and material costs in the used for structures of relatively short span. The
 The critical appraisal of structures

Total cost when Fig. 6.3 The relationship

Total
design and construction between structural efficiency
cost
and structural costs for a
Cost

cost is higher Higher design

and construction structure with a particular span
costs and load condition are shown
here diagramatically. The
Design and quantity and therefore cost of
construction material decreases as more
costs efficient types of structure are
used. The latter have more
complex forms, however, so
the cost of construction and
design increases with
Material costs increased structural efficiency.
The curve showing total cost
Structural has a minimum point which
efficiency gives the level of efficiency
which is most cost-effective for
Efficiency level for that particular structure. If
lowest cost structure labour costs increase in
relation to material costs, the
location of the minimum in the
total cost curve is displaced to
Efficiency level for lowest cost the left indicating that a
structure when design and structural form of lower
construction costs are higher
efficiency will now be the most
cost-effective.

Bedouin tent, the igloo (Fig. 1.2) and the yurt

(Fig. 6.4), all of which are form-active
structures, may represent the very many
examples which might be cited. The availability
of ample reserves of labour to build and
maintain complex structures and the fact that
they are the most effective ways of using
locally available materials are responsible for
this use of a wide range of different forms for
short spans, all of them very efficient.
The situation in the industrialised societies
of the developed world is that labour is
expensive in relation to material. This favours
the use of forms which are structurally
inefficient but which are straightforward to
Fig. 6.4 The yurt is the traditional house of the nomadic
build. The majority of the structures found in
peoples of Asia. It consists of a highly sophisticated
the developed world are inefficient post-and- arrangement of self-bracing semi-form-active timber
beam types, an excellent example of the structural elements which support a non-structural felt
profligacy with material of the industrialised skin. It is light and its domed shape, which combines
culture. maximum internal volume with minimum surface area, is
ideal for heat conservation and also minimises wind
It is possible to suggest that for a particular
resistance. When judged by purely technical criteria this
span and load requirement and within a building-type will stand comparison with many of those
particular set of economic circumstances there produced by the so-called technological societies of the
will be a limited number of appropriate structure late twentieth century. 65
Structure and Architecture

types. These will range from the simplest post- inappropriate for the span or load involved
and-beam non-form-active types for the shortest might be that the building had to be built
spans, to form-active shells and cable structures quickly. Where speed of erection is given the
for the largest spans. The majority of buildings highest priority, a lightweight steel framework
conform to this pattern but there are exceptions. might be a sensible choice even though other
Some of these could be regarded as simply ill- considerations such as the shortness of the
considered designs. Others can be justified by span might not justify this. The use of
special circumstances. lightweight steel framing for short-span
For example, if there is a significant buildings such as houses, of which the
requirement for a lightweight structure, this Hopkins House (Fig. 6.5) is a special case, is an
would justify the use of a more efficient example of this.
structural form than might otherwise be Sometimes, where the structure is part of
considered appropriate for the span. Perhaps the aesthetic programme of the building, a
the most extreme example of this is the structure type is selected for its visual features
backpacker’s tent, an extremely short-span rather than from a consideration of purely
building for which a tensile form-active technical issues. Many of the structures which
structure (the most sophisticated and most are found in so-called ‘high-tech’ architecture
efficient type of structure) is used. The fall into this category. It is always possible to
requirement for minimum weight is, of course, find examples of buildings in which a client
the justification in this case. Other examples was prepared to pay excessively and therefore
are buildings which are temporary or which commit excessive resources in terms of either
must be transported, such as those which are materials or labour, in order to have a
designed to house travelling exhibitions (see spectacular structure which would be
Fig. 7.24) or travelling theatres. unjustified on purely technical grounds.
Another reason for adopting a structure type A technical issue which has not so far been
which might otherwise be considered considered, but which should form part of any

Fig. 6.5 Hopkins House,

London, UK, 1977;
Michael Hopkins,
architect; Anthony Hunt
Associates, structural
engineers. The very short
spans involved here would
not normally justify the
use of complex
triangulated elements for
the horizontal structure.
Ease and speed of
erection were the main
technical reasons for their
selection. The visual
excitement which they
produce was,
nevertheless, the principal
reason for their adoption.
(Photo: Anthony Hunt
Associates)

66
 The critical appraisal of structures

thorough assessment of a structure, is its As has been discussed in Section 6.2, the
durability. Both the durability properties of the measure of a good structure is not that the
individual constituent materials and the highest level of structural efficiency has been
durability implications of combinations of achieved, but that an appropriate level has been
materials must be considered. In some cases, achieved. The judgement of the latter can only
where a structure will be subjected to a be made from a position of knowledge
particularly hostile environment, the question concerning the factors which affect efficiency. A
of durability will be given a high priority at the few examples are now considered to
design stage and will affect both the choice of demonstrate the use of the system for the
material and the choice of form. More often, appraisal of structures.
choices will be dictated by other criteria – such The Forth Railway Bridge4 (Fig. 6.6) is a
as span and load – and the question then to spectacular example of a work of more or less
be answered is whether the material has been ‘pure’ engineering which makes an
used sensibly. If, for example, the material appropriate beginning. Although the general
selected is steel, which, in its unprotected arrangement of the bridge may seem very
state is one of the least corrosion-resistant complex, it may be seen to be fairly
materials, the problem of durability should be straightforward if visualised in accordance
recognised. This would mitigate against using with the concepts of ‘form-action’ and
steel exposed on the exterior of a building, ‘improvement’. The principal elements of this
especially in humid climates. structure are paired, balanced cantilevers.
The structure should be capable of fulfilling This configuration was adopted so that the
the function for which it is designed bridge could be constructed without the use
throughout the intended life of the building, of temporary supports. The structure was
without requiring that an unreasonable self-supporting throughout the entire
amount of maintenance be carried out on it. construction process. The cantilevers are
This raises the question of what is reasonable linked by short suspended spans, a clever
in this context, which brings us back to the arrangement which allows the advantages of
question of economy of means and relative structural continuity to be achieved in a
costs. So far as durability is concerned, a discontinuous structure5.
balance must be struck between initial cost The arrangement was therefore non-form-
and subsequent maintenance and repair costs. active and potentially inefficient. Given the
No definite best solution to this can be spans involved, extensive measures were
specified, but an assessment of the justified to achieve an acceptable level of
implications for durability must form part of efficiency. These took several forms: the profile
any serious assessment of the merits of a of the main structure was made to conform to
structure. the bending-moment diagram resulting from
the principal load condition (a uniformly
distributed gravitational load across the whole
6.3 Reading a building as a structure) and the internal geometry of this
structural object profile was fully triangulated. The rail tracks
were carried on an internal viaduct – itself a
The idea that structural criticism should be an
aspect of the standard critical appraisal of a
work of architecture requires an ability, on the
part of the critic, to read a building as a 4 See Macdonald, Angus J. and Boyd Whyte, I., The Forth
structural object. The classification system Bridge, Axel Menges, Stuttgart, 1997 for a more
proposed in Chapter 4 provides a basis for complete description of the structure and discussion of
its cultural significance.
this. The system is based on a categorisation 5 See Section 5.1 and Appendix 3 for an explanation of
of elements according to structural efficiency. the terms continuous and discontinuous structures. 67
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 6.6 Basic structural

arrangement of the Forth Railway
Bridge, Firth of Forth, UK. This
structure is a post-and-beam
framework but, as with the Renault
Headquarters (Figs 3.19 & 6.8), it has
been ‘improved’ at various levels.
There is more justification for the
complexity in this case due to the
large span involved. (Photo: A. & P.
Macdonald)

68
 The critical appraisal of structures

non-form-active structure ‘improved’ by In the twentieth century, by contrast,

triangulation – which was connected to the efficiency in the use of material was given a
main structure only at the nodes of the high priority partly in a genuine attempt to
triangles. Thus, the principal sub-elements of economise on material in order to save cost,
the structure carried either direct tension or but also as a consequence of the prevalence of
direct compression. The individual sub- the belief in the modernist ideal of ‘rational’
elements were given ‘improved’ cross-sections. design. The overall geometry of the inefficient
The main compression sub-elements, for non-form-active post-and-beam form is so
example, are hollow tubes, most of them with convenient, however, that it has nevertheless
a cross-section which is circular, which is the continued to be the most widely used type of
most efficient shape for resisting axial architectural structure. It was normal in the
compression. Thus, the structure of the Forth modern period, however, for at least the
Railway Bridge has a basic form which is horizontal elements to have some form of
potentially rather inefficient but which was ‘improvement’ built into them. This was
‘improved’ in a number of ways. especially true of steel frameworks in which the
The most common structural arrangement beams and columns invariably had ‘improved’
in the world of architecture is the post-and- I-shaped cross-sections and much use was
beam form in which horizontal elements are made of the technique of internal triangulation.
supported on vertical columns or walls. In the In the Centre Pompidou, in Paris (Figs 6.7
most basic version of this, the horizontal and 1.10), the basic arrangement of the
elements are non-form-active, under the action
of gravitational load, and the vertical elements
are axially loaded and may therefore be
regarded as form-active. Countless versions of
this arrangement have been used through the
centuries, and it is significant that the greatest
variations are to be seen in the non-form-
active horizontal elements where the
advantages to be gained from the
‘improvement’ of cross-sections and
longitudinal profiles are greatest.
The temples of Greek antiquity, of which the
Parthenon in Athens (see Fig. 7.1) is the
supreme example, are a very basic version of
the post-and-beam arrangement. The level of
efficiency achieved here is low, and this is due
partly to the presence of non-form-active
elements and partly to the methods used to
determine the sizes and proportions of the
elements. The priorities of the designers were
not those of the present-day engineer, and the Fig. 6.7 Load, bending moment and structural diagrams
for one of the principal elements in the floor structure of
idea of achieving efficiency in a materialistic the Centre Pompidou, Paris, France. This is a non-form-
sense was probably the last consideration in active beam but the relatively long span involved justified
the minds of Ictinus and his collaborators the incorporation of ‘improvements’. Height restrictions
when the dimensions of the Parthenon were prevented the matching of the longitudinal profile to the
determined. The building is perhaps the best bending moment diagram, except in the cantilevered
‘gerberette brackets’ at the extremities of the structure.
illustration of the fact that the achievement of Triangulation was the only form of ‘improvement’ which
structural efficiency is not a necessary was feasible here for the main element (see also Figs 1.10,
requirement for great architecture. 3.17, 7.7 and 7.8). 69
Structure and Architecture

structure is such that all of the horizontal compressive instability, which is a bending
elements are straight, non-form-active beams phenomenon. The cutting of circular holes from
and this configuration is therefore potentially its web (see Fig. 3.19) is another form of
very inefficient. The triangulation of the main ‘improvement’. A similar breakdown of the
girders and the use of ‘improved’ shapes in cross-section occurs in the vertical elements,
cross-section and longitudinal profile of the but in these the compressive components are
cantilevered gerberettes (see Fig. 3.17) circular hollow sections instead of I-sections.
compensates for the potential inefficiency of This is again sensible because these
the form, however, and the overall level of components are subjected to a greater amount
efficiency which was achieved may be judged of compression than their counterparts in the
to be moderate. horizontal elements, and the circle is an ideal
The framework of the Renault Building at shape of cross-section with which to resist
Swindon, UK (see Fig. 3.19), may also be compression. The choice of basic form, that of
regarded as a post-and-beam frame as the a semi-form-active rectilinear framework, is
basic form of the structure is rectilinear (Fig. potentially only moderately efficient but, as in
6.8). The beam-to-column junctions are rigid, the case of the Centre Pompidou, a number of
however, and provide a degree of structural measures have been adopted to compensate
continuity, so that both horizontal and vertical
elements are subjected to a combination of
axial and bending-type internal force under the
action of gravitational loads. The latter are
therefore semi-form-active. Because the basic
shape of the structure is markedly different
from the form-active shape6, the magnitudes of
the bending moments are high and the
structure is therefore potentially rather
inefficient. The longitudinal profiles of the
horizontal elements have, however, been
‘improved’ in a number of ways. The overall
depth is varied in accordance with the bending-
moment diagram and the profile itself is
subdivided into a combination of a bar element
and an I-section element, the relative positions
of which are adjusted so that the bar element
forms the tensile component in the combined
cross-section and the I-section the compressive
element7. The circular cross-section of the bar
is a sensible shape to carry the tensile load,
while the I-section of the compressive part is a
suitable choice in view of the need to resist

Fig. 6.8 Load, bending moment and structural diagrams

of the Renault Headquarters building, Swindon, UK. The
basic form of this structure is a post-and-beam non-form-
6 The load pattern on the primary structure is a series of active frame. ‘Improvements’ have been introduced at
closely-spaced concentrated loads. The form-active several levels: the overall profile of the structure has been
shape for this is similar to a catenary. made to conform to the bending moment diagram for
7 The bar element is sometimes above the I-section and gravitational load, the structure has been triangulated
sometimes below, depending upon the sense of the internally and some of the sub-elements have been further
bending moment and therefore upon whether the top ‘improved’ by having I-shaped cross-sections and circular
70 or the bottom of the combined section is in tension. holes cut in their webs (see also Figs 3.19).
 The critical appraisal of structures

for this. The question of whether an appropriate that the principal objective of engineering
overall level of efficiency has been achieved in design is to provide an object which will
this case is discussed in Section 7.2.2. function satisfactorily with maximum economy
‘Improvements’ to element cross-sections of means. This is summed up in the old
are seen less often in buildings with reinforced engineering adage that ‘an engineer is
concrete structures because concrete is both someone who can do for £1 what any fool can
lighter and cheaper than steel, so there is not do for £3’.
the same incentive to achieve even the The assessment of whether or not a
moderate levels of structural efficiency of steel reasonable level of economy of means has
frameworks. Coffered slabs are used in the been achieved involves the examination of a
Willis, Faber and Dumas building (see Figs 1.6 number of different aspects of the design of an
and 5.19), however, and are examples of artefact. It is principally a matter of being
‘improved’ non-form-active elements in a post- satisfied that a reasonable balance has been
and-beam, reinforced concrete arrangement. achieved between the quantity of material
Versions of this type of ‘improvement’ are used, the complexity of the design and
incorporated into most reinforced concrete construction processes, and the subsequent
structures if the span is greater than 6 m. durability and dependability of the artefact. In
These few examples of structural the context of structural engineering, the
classification serve to illustrate the usefulness achievement of economy of means is not
of the system described in Section 4.4 as a simply a matter of minimising the amount of
means of assessing the level of efficiency material which is required for a structure, but
achieved in a structure. It should never be rather of making the best possible use of all
assumed, however, when judging the the material, effort and energy which are
appropriateness of a structural design for a involved in its production. Because these
particular application, that the most efficient factors are interrelated in complicated ways,
structure is necessarily the best. Even in the the overall judgement required is not
case of a ‘purely’ engineering structure, such as straightforward.
a bridge, other factors such as the level of One measure of the extent to which
complexity of the construction process or the economy of means has been achieved is cost,
implications of the form for long-term since the cost of the structure in monetary
durability have to be considered and there are terms is related to the total input of resources
many situations in which a simple beam with a to the structure. Cost is, of course, almost
rectangular cross-section – perhaps the least entirely an artificial yardstick dependent on the
efficient of structural forms – constitutes the current market prices of labour, energy and
best technical solution to a structural support materials. It is always related to a particular
problem. The question to be decided when a economic culture, but also to the resources,
technical judgement is made about a structure both human and environmental, which a
is not so much one of whether the maximum society has at its disposal. All of these
possible level of efficiency has been achieved considerations are subject to change over
as of whether an appropriate level has been time.
achieved. It is possible to argue that from a purely
engineering point of view the structure which
is cheapest constitutes the best solution to the
6.4 Conclusion problem of supporting an enclosure. In most
cultures the majority of ‘ordinary’ buildings are
Any formulation of the criteria by which the in fact constructed in such a way as to
merits of a structure could be judged is minimise cost. The judgement of whether or
inevitably controversial. Most people would, not a particular structure constitutes good
however, feel able to agree with the statement engineering could therefore be made by 71
Structure and Architecture

comparing it to the mainstream of It must always be borne in mind that

contemporary practice. If it is broadly similar engineering is not about image making. It is
to the majority of comparable structures it is about the provision of artefacts which are useful.
probably well engineered. If the problem to be solved is very difficult
By this criterion the standard and technically – e.g. a very long span building, a
ubiquitous portal-frame shed, which is used vehicle which must move with great speed or fly
to house supermarkets and warehouses through the air, or a structure which supports
throughout the industrialised world, would life in an inhospitable environment – then the
qualify as good engineering and the so- object which is created is likely to be spectacular
called ‘high-tech’ supersheds which in some way and, if a building structure, may be
appeared in the architectural journals in the visually exciting. If the problem is not technically
1980s would not, and would at best be difficult – e.g. a building of modest span – then
regarded as expensive toys. It is necessary to the best engineering solution will also be
bear in mind that what is being discussed modest although it may nevertheless be subtle;
here is engineering and not architecture if it is well designed and elegant from an
although, in the context of the need to engineering point of view it will be exciting to
evolve forms of building which meet the those who appreciate engineering design.
requirements of sustainability, these Twentieth-century modernists who believed that
disciplines may have to become more closely the ‘celebration’ of the ‘excitement’ of
related in the future. If there were more technology was a necessary part of all
contact between these two extremes of architectural expression applied different criteria
building strategy, this might benefit both the to the assessment of structure.
visual and the engineering environments.

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