Electric

Machines
First Semester 2017-2018
 DC - Machines
27 November 2017 2
 Contents
 Overview of Direct Current Machines

 Construction

 Principle of Operation

 Types of DC Machine
Machines
Electric

 Power Flow Diagram

 Speed Control

27 November 2017 3
 DC Generator
A dc generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy (dc
voltage and current) by using the principle of
magnetic induction.

 In this example, the ends of the wire loop have

Principle of magnetic induction in DC machine
been connected to two slip rings mounted on
Machines
Electric

the shaft, while brushes are used to carry the

current from the loop to the outside of the
circuit.
27 November 2017 4
 DC Motor
DC motors are everywhere! In a house, almost every mechanical

movement that you see around you is caused by an DC (direct

current) motor.

An dc motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into

Machines

mechanical energy by supplying

Electric

a dc power (voltage and current).

27 November 2017 5
 Advantages Of D.C. Motors

 High starting torque.

 easy to control

 Rapid acceleration and deceleration.

 Speed can be easily controlled over wide speed range.

Machines

 Used in tough gobs (traction motors, electric trains, electric cars,….)

Electric

 Built in wide range of sizes.

27 November 2017 6
 Disadvantages Of D.C. Motors

 Needs regular maintenance.

 Cannot be used in explosive area.

 High cost.
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 7
 Construction of DC machine

Cutaway view of a dc motor

Machines
Electric

Stator with poles visible

27 November 2017 8
 Construction of DC machine
segments
Machines
Electric

Rotor of a dc motor

brushes

27 November 2017 9
 Construction of DC machine
Rotor is the rotating part – armature
Stator is the stationary part - field

Armature coil
Machines

Brushes
Electric

Stator: non-moving coil

Rotor: rotating part

27 November 2017 10
 ARMATURE
 More loops of wire = higher rectified voltage.
 In practical, loops are generally placed in slots of an iron core.

 The iron acts as a magnetic conductor by providing a low-reluctance path for magnetic lines of flux to
increase the inductance of the loops and provide a higher induced voltage.
 The commutator is connected to the slotted iron core.

 The entire assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called the armature.

 The windings of armatures are connected in different ways depending on the requirements of the
machine.
Machines
Electric

Loops of wire are wound around slot in a metal core DC machine armature

27 November 2017 11
 Construction of DC Machine: Armature
 The rotor or the armature core, which carries the rotor or

armature winding, is made of sheet-steel laminations.

 The laminations are stacked

together to form a cylindrical

Machines
Electric

structure.

Portion of an armature lamination of

a dc machine showing slots and teeth

27 November 2017 12
 Construction of DC Machine: Commutator
 Commutator: a mechanical

rectifier, which converts the

alternating voltage

generated in the armature

Machines
Electric

winding into direct voltage

across the brush.

27 November 2017 13
 Construction of DC Machine: Commutator

 It is made of copper segments insulated from each

other by mica and mounted

on the shaft of the machine.

 The armature windings

Machines
Electric

are connected to the

commutator segments.
Commutator
27 November 2017 14
 Construction of DC Machine: Brush
 The purpose of the brush is to ensure electrical connections
between the rotating commutator and stationary external load
circuit.
 It is made of carbon and rest on the commutator.
Machines
Electric

Commutator and Brushes

27 November 2017 15
 Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding

Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 16
 Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding

Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 17
 Construction of DC Machine: Armature Winding

Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 18
 ARMATURE WINDINGS
 Lap Wound Armatures

▪ are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current.

▪ armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current

▪ Eg: - are used is in the starter motor of almost all automobiles.

▪ The windings of a lap wound armature are connected in parallel. This permits the current
capacity of each winding to be added and provides a higher operating current.

▪ No of current path, C = 2p ; p = no of poles

Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 19
 ARMATURE WINDINGS
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 20
 ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)
 Wave Wound Armatures

▪ are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current.

▪ their windings connected in series.

▪ When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each winding
adds, but the current capacity remains the same.
▪ are used is in the small generator.
▪ No of current path, C = 2
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 21
 ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)
 Frogleg Wound Armatures

▪ the most used in practical nowadays.

▪ designed for use with moderate current and moderate armatures voltage.

▪ the windings are connected in series parallel.

▪ Most large DC machines use frogleg wound armatures.

Machines
Electric

Frogleg wound armatures

27 November 2017 22
 FIELD WINDINGS
Most DC machines use wound electromagnets to provide the
magnetic field.
Two types of field windings are used :

➢Series field

➢Shunt field
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 23
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
Series field windings

are so named because they are connected in series with the armature.

are made with relatively few windings turns of very large wire and have
a very low resistance.
 usually found in large horsepower machines wound with square or
rectangular wire.
Machines

The use of
Electric

square wire permits the windings to be laid closer together,

which increases the number of turns that can be wound in a particular
space.

27 November 2017 24
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
Square and rectangular wire can also be made physically
smaller than round wire and still contain the same surface area.

Square wire contains more surface than round wire

Machines
Electric

Square wire permits more turns than round wire in the same area

27 November 2017 25
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
Shunt field windings

is constructed with relatively many turns of small wire, thus,

it has a much higher resistance than the series field.

is intended to be connected in parallel with, or shunt, the

Machines
Electric

armature.

high resistance is used to limit current flow through the field.

27 November 2017 26
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
When a DC machine uses both series and shunt fields, each pole
piece will contain both windings.
The windings are wound on the pole pieces in such a manner that
when current flows through the winding it will produce
alternate magnetic polarities.
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 27
 MACHINE WINDINGS OVERVIEW
Winding

armature field

Wave Lap Frogleg Self Separately

C=2 C=2p excited Excited
Machines
Electric

series shunt compound

27 November 2017 28
 Principle operation of Generator
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such
a way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux,
voltage is generated in the conductor.
The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:

▪ the strength of the magnetic field,

Machines

▪ the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field,

Electric

▪ the speed at which the conductor is moved, and

▪ the length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

27 November 2017 29
 Fleming’s Right hand rule (Generator Rule)
Use: To determine the direction of the induced emf/current of a
conductor moving in a magnetic field.

The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the

magnetic lines of flux and the direction of movement of the
conductor.
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 30
 Fleming’s Right hand rule (Generator Rule)
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 31
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
The simplest elementary generator that can be built is an ac generator.

An elementary generator consists of a wire loop mounted on the shaft, so

that it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field.

 This will produce an induced emf in the

loop.

 Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the

Machines
Electric

loop to an external circuit load in order

to pick up or use the induced emf.

27 November 2017 32
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
 The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole pieces
are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic field as
close as possible to the wire loop.
 The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE.

 The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS.
They rotate with the armature.
Machines

 The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride
Electric

against the rings.

 The generated voltage appears across these brushes.

27 November 2017 33
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (A)
An end view of the shaft and wire loop is shown.

 At this particular instant, the loop of wire (the

black and white conductors of the loop) is
parallel to the magnetic lines of flux, and no
cutting action is taking place.
 Since the lines of flux are not being cut by the
Machines

loop, no emf is induced in the conductors, and

Electric

the meter at this position indicates zero. 00 Position (Neutral Plane)

 This position is called the NEUTRAL PLANE.

27 November 2017 34
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (B)
The shaft has been turned 900 clockwise, the conductors cut through more and
more lines of flux, and voltage is induced in the conductor.
 at a continually increasing angle , the induced emf
in the conductors builds up from zero to a
maximum value or peak value.
 Observe that from 00 to 900, the black conductor
cuts DOWN through the field.
 At the same time the white conductor cuts UP
through the field.
 The induced emfs in the conductors are series-
Machines
Electric

adding.
 This means the resultant voltage across the brushes 0
90 Position
(the terminal voltage) is the sum of the two induced
voltages.
 The meter at position B reads maximum value.

27 November 2017 35
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (C)
After another 900 of rotation, the loop has completed 1800 of rotation and is
again parallel to the lines of flux.
 As the loop was turned, the voltage decreased
until it again reached zero.

 Note that : From 00 to 1800 the conductors of the

armature loop have been moving in the same
Machines

direction through the magnetic field.

Electric

1800 Position

 Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage

has remained the same.

27 November 2017 36
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (D)
As the loop continues to turn, the conductors again cut the lines of magnetic
flux.
This time, however, the conductor that previously cut through the flux lines
of the south magnetic field is cutting the lines of the north magnetic field, and
vice-versa.
 Since the conductors are cutting the flux lines of
opposite magnetic polarity, the polarity of the
induced voltage reverses.
Machines

 After 270' of rotation, the loop has rotated to the

Electric

position shown, and the maximum terminal

voltage will be the same as it was from A to C
2700 Position
except that the polarity is reversed.

27 November 2017 37
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (A)
After another 900 of rotation, the loop has completed one
rotation of 3600 and returned to its starting position.
The voltage decreased from its negative peak back to zero.

Notice that the voltage produced in the

armature is an alternating polarity. The

Machines
Electric

voltage produced in all rotating

armatures is alternating voltage. 3600 Position

27 November 2017 38
 Elementary Generator (Conclusion)
 Observes
▪ The meter direction.
▪ The conductors of the armature loop.
▪ Direction of the current flow.
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 39
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
 Since DC generators must produce DC current instead of AC current, a device must be used to
change the AC voltage produced in the armature windings into DC voltage.

 This job is performed by the commutator.

 The commutator is constructed from a copper ring split into

segments with insulating material between the segments.

 Brushes riding against the commutator segments carry the

power to the outside circuit.

 The commutator in a dc generator replaces the slip rings of the

ac generator. This is the main difference in their construction.
Machines
Electric

 The commutator mechanically reverses the armature loop

connections to the external circuit.

27 November 2017 40
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
The loop is parallel to the magnetic lines of flux, and no
voltage is induced in the loop.

Note that the brushes make contact

with both of the commutator
segments at this time. The position
Machines

is called neutral plane.

Electric

00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)

27 November 2017 41
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
As the loop rotates, the conductors begin to cut through the
magnetic lines of flux.
The conductor cutting through the south magnetic field is
connected to the positive brush, and the conductor cutting
through the north magnetic field is connected to the
negative brush.

Since the loop is cutting lines of flux,

Machines

a voltage is induced into the loop.

Electric

After 900 of rotation, the voltage

reaches its most positive point.
900 Position (DC)

27 November 2017 42
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the voltage decreases to zero.

After 1800 of rotation, the conductors are again parallel

to the lines of flux, and no voltage is induced in the loop.

Note that the brushes again make

contact with both segments of the
commutator at the time when there is
Machines
Electric

no induced voltage in the

conductors.
1800 Position (DC)

27 November 2017 43
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
 During the next 900 of rotation, the conductors again cut through the magnetic lines of
flux.
 This time, however, the conductor that previously cut through the south magnetic field is
now cutting the flux lines of the north field, and vice-versa.
 Since these conductors are cutting the lines of flux of opposite magnetic polarities, the
polarity of induced voltage is different for each of the conductors. The commutator,
however, maintains the correct polarity to each brush.

 The conductor cutting through the north magnetic field

will always be connected to the negative brush, and the
conductor cutting through the south field will always be
connected to the positive brush.
Machines
Electric

 Since the polarity at the brushes has remained constant,

the voltage will increase to its peak value in the same
direction.

2700 Position (DC)

27 November 2017 44
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the induced voltage again decreases to zero
when the conductors become parallel to the magnetic lines of flux.
Notice that during this 3600 rotation of the loop the polarity of voltage
remained the same for both halves of the waveform. This is called rectified
DC voltage.

 The voltage is pulsating. It does turn on and

off, but it never reverses polarity. Since the
Machines
Electric

polarity for each brush remains constant, the

output voltage is DC.

00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)

27 November 2017 45
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
Observes
▪ The meter direction.
▪ The conductors of the armature loop.
▪ Direction of the current flow.
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 46
 Effects of additional turns
 To increase the amount of output voltage, it is common practice to
increase the number of turns of wire for each loop.
 If a loop contains 20 turns of wire, the induced voltage will be 20 times
greater than that for a single-loop conductor.

 The reason for this is that each loop is

connected in series with the other loops.
Since the loops form a series path, the
voltage induced in the loops will add.
Machines

 In this example, if each loop has an induced

Electric

voltage of 2V, the total voltage for this

winding would be 40V
Effects of additional turns
(2V x 20 loops = 40 V).

27 November 2017 47
 Effects of additional coils
When more than one loop is used, the average output voltage is higher and
there is less pulsation of the rectified voltage.
Since there are four segments in the commutator, a new segment passes each
brush every 900 instead of every 1800.
 Since there are now four commutator segments in
the commutator and only two brushes, the voltage
cannot fall any lower than at point A.

 Therefore, the ripple is limited to the rise and fall

between points A and B on the graph. By adding
Machines
Electric

more armature coils, the ripple effect can be

further reduced. Decreasing ripple in this way
increases the effective voltage of the output.
Effects of additional coils

27 November 2017 48
 The Practical DC Generator
The actual construction and operation of a practical dc
generator differs somewhat from our elementary generators.

Nearly all practical generators use

electromagnetic poles instead of the
permanent magnets used in our
Machines

elementary generator.
Electric

Four-pole generator (without armature)

27 November 2017 49
 The Practical DC Generator
The main advantages of using electromagnetic poles are:

▪ increased field strength and possible to control the strength

of the fields.

▪ By varying the input voltage, the field strength is varied.

Machines
Electric

▪ By varying the field strength, the output voltage of the

generator can be controlled.

27 November 2017 50
 DC Motor Operation
In a dc motor, the stator poles are supplied by dc excitation
current, which produces a dc magnetic field.
The rotor is supplied by dc current
through the brushes, commutator and
coils.
The
Machines

interaction of the magnetic field

Electric

and rotor current generates a force

that drives the motor.

27 November 2017 51
 DC Motor Operation
 The magnetic field lines enter into the rotor v
a
B

from the north pole (N) and exit toward the S N

1
30 Vdc

2
south pole (S). b

v
 The poles generate a magnetic field that is Ir_dc
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)

perpendicular to the current carrying B

a
conductors.
S N

2
v 30 v Vdc
 The interaction between the field and the
Machines

1
Electric

current produces a Lorentz force, Ir_dc

 The force is perpendicular to both the

(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)

magnetic field and conductor .

27 November 2017 52
 DC Motor Operation
 The generated force turns the rotor until the v
a
B

coil reaches the neutral point between the

S N
poles.

1
30 Vdc

2
 At this point, the
b
magnetic field becomes v
practically zero together with the force. Ir_dc
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)

 However, inertia drives the motor beyond the

B
neutral zone where the direction of the a

magnetic field reverses.

S N

2
Vdc
Machines

v 30 v
Electric

 To

1
avoid the reversal of the force direction, the b

commutator changes the current direction,

Ir_dc
which maintains the counterclockwise
rotation. (b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)

27 November 2017 53
 DC Motor Operation
 Before reaching the neutral zone, the current v
a
B

enters in segment 1 and exits from segment 2. S N

1
30 Vdc

2
 Therefore, current enters the coil end at slot a b

v
and exits from slot b during this stage. Ir_dc

(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)

 After passing theneutral zone, the current enters
B
segment 2 and exits from segment 1.
a

 This reverses the current direction through the S N

2
v 30 v Vdc
Machines

1
rotor coil, when the coil passes the neutral zone.
Electric

Ir_dc
 The result of this current reversal is the
maintenance of the rotation. (b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)

27 November 2017 54
 Multi-Pole Machines
If p is the number of poles, then p/2 cycles of variation of the
Machines flux are encountered every complete mechanical rotation.
Electric

27 November 2017 55
 Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝑚𝑓𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑚𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∗
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑃 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑁𝑚 𝑍 𝑃 ∗ ∅ ∗ 𝑍 ∗ 𝑁𝑚
𝐸𝑚𝑓𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∗ =
60 𝑎 60 ∗ 𝑎
Where
Machines

P -number of poles.
Electric

Z-total number of armature conductor.

a-number of parallel paths, 2 for wave and p for lab.
Φ-flux per pole (weber).
Nm-speed of motor in the revolution per minute (rpm).

27 November 2017 56
 Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage
2𝜋𝑁𝑚 𝜔𝑚 60
𝜔𝑚 = 𝑁𝑚 =
60 2𝜋
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 57
 Developed (or Electromagnetic) Torque
Consider the turn shown in the following Figure.
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 58
 Production of Unidirectional Torque and Operation of an Elementary

Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 59
 Classification of DC Machine
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 60
 Classification of DC Machine
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 61
 Classification of DC Machine
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 62
 DC Machine Representation
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 63
 Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 64
 DC Motors Equations
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 65
 DC Motors Equations
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 66
 DC Motors Equations
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 67
 DC Motors Equations
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 68
 DC Motors Equations
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 69
 DC Motors Equations
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 70
 Power Flow and Efficiency
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 71
 Power Flow and Efficiency
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 72
 Torque-Speed Characteristics
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 73
 Torque-Speed Characteristics
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 74
 Torque-Speed Characteristics
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 75
 Starting of DC Machine
Machines
Electric

27 November 2017 76