CHAPTER II

LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING

Objectives:
1. Define Logic and explain its relevance.
2. Compare logical thinking to critical thinking.
3. Define critical thinking and understand its necessity and importance.
4. Explain claim and the role it plays in critical thinking.
5. Be familiar with the basic criteria used to decide whether or not to accept, reject or suspend
judgment on a claim.
6. Identify the issue at stake in an argument and how to use argument to settle issues.
7. Explain the difference between issues which are factual and non-factual matters.
8. Differentiate claims as either objective or subjective.

I. What is Logic?

Etymologically, logic comes from the Greek word “logos” meaning, study, reason, or discourse, or
“logike” meaning, the act of reasoning.

Generally, it is defined as the science and art of correct thinking or reasoning. In view of the foregoing
definition, logic implies that it is a body of systematized knowledge, and that it is a tool, a philosophical tool
for that matter, for investigating and analyzing already existing knowledge by demonstrating and expressing it
with the correct laws of thinking.

How do we acquire knowledge or how do we arrive at truth are not the concerns of logic. It is not
about gaining insights on facts nor is it about discovering new truths and their meanings. Rather it is
concerned about ensuring that laws and methods of correct reasoning are adhered to.

Viewed thru this optics, it can be said that logic has no scope, insofar as subject is concerned, since
almost anything, if not everything, from the most trivial to the most profound must be subjected to the laws of
correct thinking.

In this regard, logic is seen thus, as a guide of the human mind which facilitates its processes making
it more efficient and effective and preventing it from the errors and pitfalls of illogical reasoning. It has the
very practical purpose of helping us think with order and ease and without error (Ramos 2010). Moreover, it
can boost our confidence since we will not feel inferior talking or arguing with others for we know that our
reasoning is logical.

Logic and Critical thinking

To think logically is to think critically. To say that the two are separate concepts is an ignorance of
both subjects. Logical or critical thinking is construed to mean as scientific investigation whose purpose is to
explore a situation, phenomenon, or a problem to arrive at a hypothesis or conclusion by following the laws of
inferential reasoning.

I. What is Critical Thinking?

First of all, it is important that we distinguish thinking from feeling. A lot of us used these as if the two are
synonymous. But feeling is usually subjective that mirrors our emotions and desires. It is generally
spontaneous and does not require the mental process that we employ when we think. It is not a bad thing
because devoid of it we will be like robots, machines that are incapable of feeling. However, it is dangerous to
substitute feeling for thinking. If all our actions will be based on what we feel or desire, either we will hurt
ourselves or we will cause pain to others.

Thinking on the other hand is a conscious mental process performed to make choices, understand
something, or settle issues. Naturally, not all thinking is free of error. But this is precisely the reason why you
have this subject: to be able to distinguish critical thinking from a simple, mere thinking.

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted,
partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or
build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of
life. Hence, it’s imperative that systematic and clear thinking is built and developed if one is to avoid the errors
and snares brought about by unreasoned thinking.

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. (Swansburg& Swansburg
2002)

It is the careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, or suspend judgment about a
claim – and the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it. (Moore & Parker)

ACCEPT REJECT SUSPEND JUDGMENT

If the claim gives us If the evidence If it does not give us

ground (reason) or provided for the claim sufficient information or
justification to is weak or not evidence at the time of
accept the claim. satisfactory in accepting or rejecting a
accepting a claim. claim.

Qualities of Critical Thinking

1. It is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to unfamiliar ideas, opinions, and situations. Thinking  critically
involves seeing things in an open-minded way. This important skill allows people to look past their own views
of the world and to adopt a more aware way of viewing the world. The ability to be open-minded is a large
part of thinking critically, and allows a person not only to seek out all possible answers to a problem, but also
to accept an answer that is different than what was originally thought. Open-minded thinking requires that a
person does not always assume that their way of approaching a situation is always best, or even right.

2. It is the ability to think rationally. Rationality requires analyzing all known evidence, not leaving something
out because it doesn’t fit your accepted view. Rationality does not rely on emotions for evidence, but instead
relies on hard proven fact.

3. Critical thinking also requires a non-judgmental and honest approach to reasoning. Being honest requires
noting and acknowledging personal goals, motives, and emotions that might color opinions or thought
processes.

4. Critical thinking necessitates creativity. Creativity is originality out of ingenuity. Creative thinkers do things
outside the traditional paradigm. They take risk and think outside the box and generate new ideas and
alternatives. And from this various alternatives, he chooses the best option for which there is the best
argument. (Joven, 2011)

Skills Involved in Critical Thinking

• Careful listening and reasoning
• Finding hidden assumptions
• Identifying the consequences of claims
• Determining the credibility of sources
• Recognizing and avoiding various sorts of rhetoric and pseudoreasoning
• Analyzing and evaluating arguments
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers

One does not become a critical thinker just because he/she can support his claims, positions or
beliefs with reasons. Everyone sane person can come up with reasons. The question is how good and
sufficient are they. Ruggiero listed the qualities of critical thinkers as opposed to non-critical thinkers:

Critical Thinkers Non – critical Thinkers

Are honest with themselves, Pretend they know more than they
acknowledging what they don’t know do, ignore their limitations and
and their limitations, and being assume their view are error – free.
watchful of their own errors.
Regard problems and issue as Regard problems and issues as
exciting challenges. nuisances or threats to their ego.
Strive for understanding, keep Are impatient with complexity and
curiosity alive, remain patient with thus would rather remain confused
complexity, and are ready to invest than make the effort to understand.
time to overcome confusion.
Base judgments on evidence rather Base judgments on first impressions
than personal preferences, deferring and gut reactions. They are
judgment whenever proof is unconcerned about the amount or
insufficient. Revise judgments when quality of evidence and cling to their
new evidence reveals error. views steadfastly.
Are interested in other people’s ideas Are preoccupied with themselves and
and so are willing to read and listen their own opinions and so are
attentively, even when they tend to unwilling to pay attention to others’
disagree with the other person. views. They always think of how to
refute other people’s arguments.
Recognize that extreme views Ignore the need for balance and give
(conservative or liberal) are seldom preference to views that support
correct, so they avoid them, practice their established views.
fair-mindedness, and seek a balanced
view.
Practice restraint, controlling their Tend to follow their feelings and act
feelings rather than being controlled impulsively.
by them, and thinking before acting.

II. What is a Claim?

A claim is a statement that is either true or false. It is a judgment made based on one’s perception of
reality, that is either in agreement or disagreement with fact. It is the subject of critical thinking. Accepting the
claim means we believe it to be true, and rejecting it means we believe it to be false. There is no such thing as
objectively true and false at the same time. (Can you think of even just one? That is, an objectively true and false
claim at the same time.)

Examples:
1. Palawan State University is the first university in Palawan.
2. Pope Francis is the first Jesuit pope.
3. Philosophy is the easiest subject in college.
4. November 31 is Bonifacio Day.

All claims are sentences, though not all sentences are claims. Some sentences cannot be classified as
claims for the simple reason that they do not have truth value, i.e., they cannot be determined as true or false.
Exercise.
I. Identify which in the following is a claim or not:
1. Chris and Liam Hemsworth are brothers from different mothers.
2. Please erase the board.
3. Pageant queens are not good girlfriends.
4. ¿Donde vives tu?
5. Ouch!
II. Give examples of claims that can be readily verified as true or false.

III. Issues and Arguments

Critical thinking about an issue involves identifying the issue, recognizing what positions people are
taking on that issue, and understanding the arguments for and against those positions.

a. An issue is any point being discussed or thought about. It is a matter of controversy or uncertainty that two
parties are disputing or arguing about.
1. Issues may be internal (between one’s self) or external (between self and others.)
2. Topics of conversation aren’t issues unless there is controversy or uncertainty that the parties are
trying to resolve.
3. Issues can usually be stated so that they begin with "whether": Whether you should eat in Jollibee
or McDonalds, or whether you should eat at all.

b. The first step in thinking clearly about an issue is the identification of that issue. In a conversation, a
newspaper editorial, or a book, more than one issue might be under consideration; or the issue may go
unstated; so it often takes work to identify the issue in question. One method begins by spotting the argument
being given.
1. Every argument addresses an issue.
2. So if you can find an argument's conclusion, you can immediately identify at least one of the issues
at stake: just put the word "whether" before the conclusion.

Identify the issue/s in the following arguments:

1. Let me tell you why Princess should enroll that Philosophy subject. First, it’s too easy, and she’ll definitely
pass it. Second, she’s going to spend the whole semester enjoying it. Third, she’ll probably get inspired
and do well in all the rest of her subjects.
2. This semester quite a number of students enrolled late with a ready excuse: they didn’t have money yet.
But I don’t think that’s true in many cases. Some weren’t able to enroll early because not a few teachers
failed to submit grades on time. While others simply were lazy and didn’t care rationalizing that classes
will be postponed anyway. So late enrollment was not simply because of lack of money but due to
multiple reasons.

Issues are settled thru argument. Educated people use words and not force or threat to settle their issues.
An argument is an attempt to support a claim by giving reasons for believing or accepting it.

1. The claim being argued for is the argument's conclusion, while the claim or claims given as reasons
for accepting the conclusion are premises.
2. Arguments should not be confused with persuasion or explanation. It is true that good arguments
can persuade people. But not all arguments are made for the purpose of persuading, and without a
doubt not all attempts to persuade are arguments. Briefly, an argument tries to show that some
sentence is true; an explanation tries to say why something happens or how it happens.

To identify an argument you need to identify its conclusion and its premises (or in some cases its single
premise):
 CONCLUSION Therefore, hence, thus, so,
INDICATORS consequently, finally

PREMISE INDICATORS Since, and, but, because, given that,

provided that

These indicators are only a first clue to the parts of an argument; but though they are not always present,
there are other techniques for spotting parts of arguments. What complicates things even more is that an
argument's conclusion or one or more of its premises may not be stated explicitly.

IV. Facts and Opinions

A fact is something that is empirically true and can be supported by evidence, while an opinion is a belief
that may or may not be backed up with some type of evidence.

An opinion is normally a subjective statement that can be the result of an emotion or an individual
interpretation of a fact.
Which in the following is a fact? Simply an opinion?
1. Yolanda was the strongest typhoon in history.
2. CS students are not only beautiful but also smart.
3. Sen. Grace Poe is going to be the next Philippine president.
4. Jose Rizal was an alien from another planet.
5. Palawan State University is the best school in Palawan.

Factual and Non-factual Matters

Another step in thinking about an issue requires telling the difference between factual and nonfactual
issues or questions.

Factual Matters
1. When there are established methods for settling it. Also known as objective claims. These are
statements that are true or false regardless of our personal preferences, tastes or biases.
2. When there are generally accepted criteria or standards on which the issue can be judged, even if we
are not able to tell which side – if any of them- is correct, that makes the claim objective. An objective
claim does not have to be true. But if it is true it states a fact.
3. If two people disagree and at least one of them is mistaken, the issue is factual.

Examples:
1. Seminario de San Jose is the oldest school in Palawan.
2. Osama bin Laden is still alive and living in Balabac.
3. Dr. Jeter Sespene is the first male president of Palawan State Univ.
4. PSU is the only school that offers Petroleum Engineering course.
5. The world will end next week.

Non-factual Matters
1. When there is no set of factors we could determine and no generally accepted methods or standard that
can be used or applied that would enable us to decide the issue definitively one way or the other. Also
known as subjective claims.
2. These are statements that are true only because of our preferences, tastes, likes or dislikes.
3. If two people disagree about a subjective issue, both of them could be correct or both of them could be
mistaken.

Examples:
1. Filipinas are prettier than Koreans.
 2. It is better to look just your age than younger than your age.
3. Kinabuch’s sisig tastes better than Gerry’s.
4. Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player ever.
5. Our teacher in Philosophy is not kind.

Moral/Religious Claims
Claims that deal with morality and religion are sometimes difficult to categorize as either objective or
subjective. E.g.: God exists. Death penalty is immoral. Though most of us will readily say that the two above
claims are objective and true, not a few will disagree with us since they do not believe that there is God and
consequently do not think that death penalty is immoral.

What is important is not whether moral claims are factual or not but that we are able to
defend/justify our position on the issue.

Are All Opinions Equal?

Everyone has the right to an opinion but not all opinions are equal. Remember that an argument tries
to support one position on a given issue. One argument about a nonfactual matter may still be stronger or
weaker than another one, more or less relevant, grounded on firmer or sketchier premises. So even when the
conversation turns to nonfactual issues it is vitally important to produce and evaluate arguments with the
same care you devote to arguments about factual issues.

Sometimes however people ignore the distinction between factual and nonfactual issues, with grave
and undesirable consequences.

Subjectivism is the view that two people can disagree about a factual issue and both of them still be
"right." Relativism, a subjectivism about different cultures, claims that two cultures can disagree about a
factual issue while, again, both of them are "right."

Irrelevant Factors

As a final preparation to clear thinking, watch out for the factors that might influence your decision about
a claim but are in fact irrelevant to that decision.

Human beings are commonly influenced by considerations that strictly speaking do not have to do with
the truth of a claim.
1. We take friends' and relatives' opinions more seriously than those of strangers;
2. We feel more like agreeing with people who present themselves attractively or speak well. Likewise, a
clumsy and shy delivery can make us reject what a speaker is saying.
3. Some words are more persuasive than others: two sentences may convey exactly the same claim, one
of them in neutral terms and the other in vivid language.