 No Brain Too Small  BIOLOGY  AS 90948

DNA Structure Cell division Meiosis continued/

Before either type of cell division, the DNA must • cells divide twice
Nucleotide = first be replicated or copied • chromosome number halved (haploid) / half the
sugar Mitosis genetic information - need half chromo. no. to
• occurs in somatic cells e.g. toe, liver, skin enable fertilisation to form zygote & so each
+ phosphate
• production of new cells for growth & repair new cell has correct no. of chromosomes.
+ base • produces 4 daughter cells, genetically different
• used in asexual reproduction (mostly plants)
• the two daughter cells genetically identical
Double helix, “twisted chromosomes replicated -
• cells are diploid / have full genetic information
ladder”, complementary now visible - & line up in
strands held together by Cell divides - one copy of each chromosome
homologous pairs on
hydrogen bonds carrying the same genes, goes into each new body
equator
cell. DNA must be accurately copied so daughter
cells have same DNA as parent cell. Sequence of
How DNA “codes” for proteins bases must stay the same because they code for
an amino acid sequence in a protein. Changes in crossing over occurs
• gene is part of the DNA molecule /
chromosome the code are a mutation - cell may no longer be
• is a sequence of bases / nucleotides able to carry out its function. chromosomes
• codes for a specific sequence of amino acids in pulled to opposite
a protein or codes for a characteristic poles. Line up
chromosomes replicate, becoming visible, nuclear
membrane breaks down, line up singularly on equator, singularly this time,
alleles – different forms of a gene - with slight
chromatids
difference in base sequence ⇒ different aa ⇒ chromatids pulled to opposite poles by spindle,
cytoplasm divides etc pulled to
different protein ⇒ different properties /
opposite
characteristic e.g. blue / brown eyes
poles
DNA Replication
• original DNA strands unzips, each side acts as
How meiosis causes variation
template for new strand
• new nucleotides add on to the original bases • Homologous pairs line up during meiosis and
(and are joined together by enzymes) exchange material during crossing over
Meiosis • One of each pair of homologous chromosomes
• order of bases in one strand determines the
order of bases in the other strand • occurs in cells in reproductive organs e.g. testis goes to a different daughter cell (segregation)
• bases of old and new strand are complementary & ovary (animals), ovary & anther (plant) Meiosis produces gametes. DNA of two gametes is
to each other, A=T and G≡C ensures new strand • produces sex cells / gametes e.g. sperm, egg, combined during fertilisation - means offspring
is accurate / exact copy of old strand pollen, ovule produced are different from both parents.
 No Brain Too Small  BIOLOGY  AS 90948
Sexual and asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction in plants Cloning - Animals
vegetative propagation & cloning in plants enucleating - microinjection - surrogate mothers
Sexual (plants & animals) (SCNT)
Asexual reproduction techniques include taking
meiosis and variation stem cuttings, splitting bulbs or tubers and tissue • nucleus transplanted into an enucleated cell -
• involves gametes produced by meiosis culture. electrical current is passed through it so that
• produces variation E.g. tissue culture: A single plant is divided into the cell starts dividing - embryo transplanted
• advantage of variation - provide offspring with small clusters of cells and placed on tissue culture. into a surrogate mother
greater chance of survival in successive The single plant can produce many identical plants. • expensive, low success rate, some problems (eg
generations in a changing environment Sometimes the original plant has been genetically premature aging), ethics surrounding humans!!
• “slow” as offspring have to grow and become engineered for a required gene.
sexually mature before breeding can occur

Asexual (plants and cloned animals)

mitosis and a lack of variation
• advantage - faster
• produces genetically identical plants / animals
• produces / grows plants very quickly / plants
fruit sooner than from a plant grown from a
Selective breeding – plants / animals
seed - benefits the grower - always get desired
phenotype of plant & produce more plants to Breed together individuals that have desirable Artificial twinning
make a bigger profit or more plants in a shorter phenotypes / characteristics e.g. cows with more
Egg from a desirable cow is fertilised by the sperm
time meat or better milk yields, or a e.g. potato with
from a desirable bull. Fertilised egg is allowed to
• disadvantages – e.g. plants all genetically resistance to disease & potato with a firm texture.
divide several times. The undifferentiated ball of
identical, so susceptible to same diseases. Less Slow process – occurs of numerous generations. At cells is then broken up. Each cell is then grown and
variation – may be less suited to future changes each stage individuals are selected with the desired transplanted into surrogate cows. Advantage: best
in environment. characteristics. characteristics of animals can be selected and new
Cross pollinate potato plants. Seeds grown / animals produced
KEY WORDS - for this part of the standard geminated. Potatoes grown from these seeds that faster than
allele, asexual, characteristic, chromosome, clone, show both desired characteristics can then be traditional
complementary, diploid, fertilisation, gamete, reproduced asexually to (quickly) produce a crop. methods. NOTE:
gene, haploid, karyotype, meiosis, mitosis, Calves are clones of
replication, selective breeding Both selective breeding & cloning processes (see each other but not
semi-conservative, sexual, trait, variation, zygote opposite) reduce genetic diversity of a breed by of the parents.
eliminating certain genes / combinations of genes.