A Knowledge Issue:
REAL LIFE! Makes knowing something difficult inherited ambiguity controversy
bias prejudice lack of information, language experimental methodology NAME
IT!
B Ways of knowing:
Good analysis, treatment, arguments, counter arguments implications awareness
of underlining assumptions.
C Knower’s perspective
PERSONAL use of argument examples, knowledge group? Your culture your
background compare to other. What have u learnt? Areas of knowledge
D Connections
Approached from different perspectives. Claims, counter-claims> implications
present situation has upon future. If x decides to … then the question arises… .
Points to cover from the book:
The problem of Knowledge:
Common sense – consist of vague and untested beliefs based on prejudice,
hearsay and blind appeals to authority.
(Paradox of cartography – if a map is to be useful, and then it must of necessity is
imperfect.)
Certainty – problems with our common–sense picture of the world, we should
only belief in what we are certain about. Maybe question class, might be easy? See
for yourself, quiz. Leads to the way of knowing.
Second Hand knowledge
Authority worship
Culture tradition
School - difference between education and indoctrination
The Internet - urban legends / no quality control.
Expert opinions –
News media - focus on bad news create bad news bias, extraordinary
news, relevant news.
Limitations:
Never be an original source of knowledge.
Language
Creative and open-ended.
Vagueness –
Ambiguity –
Secondary meaning – denotations connotations euphemisms.
Metaphors –
Irony –
Meaning and interpretation – why should we care?
Labels and stereotypes.
Using language to influence and persuade:
Emotionally laden language.
Weasel language.
Grammar :
Many villages were bombed – we bombed many villages.
Revealing and concealing.
Language at war
Liberate – invade. Reporting guidelines = censorship. Language is power!
Perception
Empiricism – all knowledge is bases upon practical experience.
Common-sense realism – perception is passive and relatively straightforward.
Perceptual illusion
Sensation – provided by the world.
Interpretation – provided by our minds.
Expectations.
The role of the unconscious
Seeing and believing
Eyewitness testimony.
Distinguishing appearance from reality
Misinterpret
Fail to notice
May misremember what we seen.
Conformation by another sense – use second sense to confirm the evidence of a
first.
Coherence – if it doesn’t fit in you are mistaken.
Independent testimony – what other people saw.
Ultimate reality
Psychology of perception
What is really out there?
Pain, taste and colour
The tree the forest
The tables in the classroom
Theories of reality
Common-sense realism
Scientific realism
Phenomenalism
What should we believe?
Reason
Premises - there are no Ifs and buts the conclusion has to be that it’s true.
Rationalism – reason is the most important source.
Fallacies – invalid patterns of reasoning.
Deductive reasoning
General to the particular
Truth and validity.
Belief bias.
Deductive reasoning preserves truth.
Enthymeme – incomplete argument assume that premises are true.
More certain, but less informative.
Inductive Reasoning
Particular to the general.
More informative, but less certain than deduction.
Informal Reasoning
Post hoc ergo propter hoc – after this, therefore on account of this.
Ad hominem fallacy – attacking a persona, rather then the argument.
Vested interest
Circular reasoning – assuming the truth of something that u r supposed to be
proving.
Special pleading – justifying his behaviour that he wouldn’t accept if it were
given by somebody else.
Equivocation - word is used in two different senses in an argument.
Ad ignortantiam – prove something is true on the ground that there is no
evidence to disprove it.
False analogy – two things are similar, they must also be in some further aspect.
False dilemma – assuming that only 2 alternatives exist,
Binary thinking – World is split up in people who do and don’t.
Loaded questions – a question, which is bias because it contains a built-in
assumption.
Reason and Certainty
Fallacies can arise on reasoning.
Prison of consistency
Lateral thinking – think outside the box.
Vertical thinking –think inside a box.
Emotion
Primary emotions:
Happiness
Sadness
Fear
Anger
Surprise
Disgust
The James-Lange theory - primary emotions have facial expression.
Empathise?
The role of belief – pet dog no emotions, but dog emotions.
Emotional energy – provide us with energy. Enthusiasm.
Emotions as ways of knowing
Emotions as an obstacle to knowledge.
Perception can be influenced by emotional colouring.
Reason - prevent you from being open-minded, be too open-minded ‘My
theory is right or wrong’ attitude
Language – slanted emotional language.
Rationalisations – strong emotions tend us to be subjective.
Irrational behaviour – some emotions are short and can not only distort our
beliefs,but also lead us to make and decisions.
Stoics use apathy – without passion.
Emotions as a source of knowledge.
They are close
Intuition
Core Intuitions – our most fundamental intuitions about life, the universe and
everything.
Subject-specific intuitions – the intuitions we have in various areas of knowledge
such as science and ethics.
Social intuitions – our intuitions about other people what they are like, whether
or not we can trust them.
Natural and educated intuitions
How reliable are our intuitions?
Expert intuition is more reliable that natural intuition.
HISTORY
Evidence – too little or too much, misinterpret.
Significance – everything no just significant – point of view.
Explaining it – why it happened?
History gives us a sense of identity.
It is a defence against propaganda.
It enriches our understanding of human nature.
Self-realising expectations – someone said can’t be change you won’t try.
How can the past be known?
Primary sources – was there
seconday sources – written about it.
Fallible eye witness – different perspectives.
Social bias – records reflect the interest of one paricular soucal group rather than
society as a whole.
Deliberate manuoulation.
Hidsight – what he finds unrelevent might be relevant in the future, lack of
information.
Hidsight bias - …
Some are bias
Topic choice bias
Confirmation bias only appeal to evidence which appeals his interest.
National bias cultural and political prejudices.
A pluralistic approach
Cubist history – from different perspectives.
Economic detrenisim?
Own Points:
Poor and rich might see it differently – poor it is not democratic, free trade.
