FUNDAMENTALS OF

THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT

BE Civil
I/II

Thermodynamic Cycles
Most of the devices which are used for continuous energy conversion
operate on cyclic processes.
These devices are used either to produce work output by supplying
heat from the combustion of fuel or to provide heating or cooling
effect by supplying work input usually through electrical power.

Classification of Practical Cycles

1. According to Power (Work)
Power Cycle:
A cycle is said to be a power cycle, if it produces power or delivers
work to the surroundings when the cycle is executed. Power cycle
operates the heat engine. Hence for a power cycle, network is always
positive. Common examples of power cycles are Brayton cycle, Otto
cycle, Diesel cycle, Rankine cycle, etc.
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Thermodynamics & Heat
 Refrigeration Cycle:
A cycle is said to be a refrigeration cycle, if power should supplied be
to execute the cycle. Refrigeration cycle operates the heat pump and
refrigeration. Hence for a refrigeration cycle, network is always
negative. Most common example of refrigeration cycle is Vapor
compression refrigeration cycle.
2. According to Working Substance
Gas Cycle:
A cycle is said to be a gas cycle, if the working substance remains in
gaseous state throughout the cycle. Common examples of gas power
cycles are Brayton cycle, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, etc.

Vapor cycle:
A cycle is said to be vapor cycle, if the working substance can
undergoes phase change (from liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid)
throughout the cycle. Most common example of vapor power cycle is
Rankine cycle.
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3. According to Combustion Location
Internal Combustion Cycle:
A cycle is said to be an internal combustion cycle, if the combustion
takes place inside the power producing unit. Examples of internal
combustion cycles are Otto cycle and Diesel cycle.

External Combustion Cycle:

A cycle is said to be an external combustion cycle, if the combustion
takes place outside the power producing unit. Examples of external
combustion cycles are Brayton cycle and Rankine cycle.

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Brayton Cycle
Brayton cycle is an ideal model for the power cycle consisting of a
gas turbine. It consists of two isentropic and two isobaric processes.

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Process 1-2 (Isentropic Compression)
Low pressure and low temperature air
at the low temperature heat exchanger
exit is supplied to the compressor
where it is compressed and delivered
to the high temperature heat
exchanger.
Process occurring in the compressor
is assumed to an isentropic process.

Hence, during isentropic compression

pressure of the working substance
increases and its specific volume
decreases; while entropy of the system
remains constant and its temperature
increases.
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Process 2-3 (Isobaric Heat Addition)
Heat is supplied to the high temperature heat exchanger from an
external source and the working substance is heated under constant
pressure.
Hence, during the constant pressure heating, specific volume,
temperature and entropy of the air increases.

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Process 3-4 (Isentropic Expansion)
High temperature and high pressure
air leaving the high temperature heat
exchanger is supplied to the turbine.
The turbine produces work by
consuming energy carried by the air at
the turbine inlet.
The process occurring in the turbine is
assumed to be an isentropic expansion.
Hence, during an isentropic expansion,
pressure of the air further decreases and
its specific volume further increases
whereas entropy of the system remains
constant and its temperature decreases.

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Process 4-1 (Isobaric Heat Rejection)
Exit air from the turbine is delivered to the low temperature heat
exchanger where it rejects heat to the low temperature sink such that
its initial state is restored.
Heat rejection process occurs at constant pressure during which,
specific volume, temperature and entropy of the air decreases.

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Efficiency of Brayton Cycle
Work produced by the turbine per kg of air is given by

Work consumed by the compressor per kg of air is given by

During steady state operation of the cycle, some part of the work
produced by the turbine is utilized to run the compressor. Hence, the
work delivered to the surroundings is given by

Heat supplied to the air in the high temperature heat exchanger is

given by

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Efficiency of the Brayton cycle is then given by

This equation requires temperatures of each state to determine the

efficiency of the cycle.
We can further simplify it to reduce the number of required variables.
For this, applying pressure – temperature relationship for isentropic
compression process and isentropic expansion process,

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Equating

Now using componendo and dividendo,

Efficiency can then be expressed as

We can express efficiency in terms of pressure ratio as

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Although high pressure ratio is desirable for high efficiency but in
reality high pressure ratio causes high temperature and there is a
limitation to which a real turbine blade can withstand maximum
temperature or pressure. In real gas turbine cycle pressure ratio is
usually between to 10 to 16.
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Thermodynamics & Heat
Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle is an ideal model for the power cycle consisting of a
steam turbine.

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Process 1-2 (Isentropic Pumping)
Low pressure saturated liquid from the low pressure condenser is
supplied to the high pressure boiler with the help of a pump.
Pumping process is assumed to an isentropic process. During the
pumping process, working substance remains in liquid state, its
specific volume remains almost constant, pressure increases and
entropy remains constant.

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Process 2-3 (Isobaric Heat Addition)
Heat is supplied to the boiler from an external source and the boiler
produces steam by heating the liquid water. Heat addition in the
boiler occurs at constant pressure.
Hence, during the constant pressure heating, specific volume,
temperature and entropy of the steam increases. The state of the
steam is generally assumed as saturated vapor, but if the rate of heat
supply to the boiler is increased, the steam at the boiler outlet may be
superheated.

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Process 3-4 (Isentropic Expansion)
High temperature and high pressure steam produced by the boiler is
supplied to the steam turbine which produces work by consuming
energy carried by the steam at the turbine inlet. The process
occurring in the turbine is assumed to be an isentropic expansion.
Hence, during an isentropic expansion during which pressure of the
steam further decreases and its specific volume further increases
whereas entropy of the system remains constant and its temperature
decreases.

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Thermodynamics & Heat
Process 4-1 (Isobaric Heat Rejection)
The steam form the turbine exit is delivered to the condenser where
it rejects heat to its surroundings (cooling water) and gets condensed
back into the saturated liquid.
Heat rejection in the condenser occurs at constant pressure during
which specific volume, and entropy of the steam decreases while its
temperature remains constants.

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Rankine Cycle with Superheated Vapor at Turbine Inlet

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Efficiency of Rankine Cycle
Work produced by the turbine per kg of steam is given by

Work consumed by the pump per kg of steam is given by

During steady state operation of the cycle, some part of the work
produced by the turbine is utilized to run the compressor. Hence, the
work delivered to the surroundings is given by

Heat supplied to the steam in the boiler is given by

Efficiency of the Rankine cycle is then given by

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Thermodynamics & Heat
Air Standard Internal Combustion Cycle
Operation of Four Stroke Engines
In case of petrol engines, fuel is ignited by the electric spark
produced by the spark plug. Therefore, petrol engine is also called
spark ignition (SI) engine.

Operation of Four Stroke Diesel Engine

In case of diesel engines, diesel is exposed to high temperature air at
the end of the compression stroke, gets self burnt. Therefore, diesel
engine is also called compression ignition (CI) engine.

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 Compression
Suction
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 Exhaust
Power

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Air Standard Analysis
During the normal operation of the petrol and diesel engines, the
mass of the fuel per unit mass of air i.e. fuel-air ratio, is very small
(0.08 to 0.025) and therefore the properties of the fuel air mixture
before combustion approximates closely to those of air.

The properties of the products of combustion also do not differ much

from those of pure air.

Therefore, simplified analysis of such cycles can be carried out by

considering only air as its working substance.
The idealized analysis of the cycle considering only air as the
working substance is called an air standard analysis. Efficiency
resulting from such analysis is called an air standard efficiency.

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Assumptions of air standard analysis
1. The cycle consists of fixed mass of air.
2. The expansion and compression processes are isentropic.

3. The combustion process is replaced by an equivalent heat

addition process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by an equivalent heat rejection
process to an external sink.
5. The properties of air (cp, cv. R, etc.) remains constant.

Although the air standard analysis differs from the actual operation,
it gives basic idea about the variation of efficiency of the cycle with
different parameters.

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Air Standard Otto Cycle
It is an idealized model for the operation of
petrol engines. It consists of two isentropic
and two isochoric processes.

Process 1-2 (Isentropic Compression)

At the beginning of the compression, piston
will be at the BDC and the cylinder
contains the mixture of air and petrol.
When the piston travels from BDC to TDC,
the mixture inside the cylinder is
compressed under isentropic condition.
During the isentropic compression, pressure
of the system increases, its volume
decreases, temperature increases and
entropy remains constant.
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Process 2-3 (Isochoric Heat Addition)
At the end of the compression stroke, spark plug provides an electric
spark and petrol gets burn instantaneously. Therefore, heat addition
for an ideal Otto cycle is considered as an isochoric process. During
the heat addition process, pressure, temperature and entropy of the
system increases.

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Process 3-4 (Isentropic Expansion)
Due to the impact of burning, piston gets expanded from TDC to
BDC and the process is assumed to be an isentropic expansion.
During the expansion process, pressure of the system decreases,
volume increases, temperature decreases and entropy remains
constant.

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Process 4-1 (Isochoric Heat Rejection)
Heat is rejected by the system to the surroundings through the
exhaust gas and this process is replaced by an equivalent constant
volume heat rejection process to complete the cycle. Hence, during
isochoric heat rejection process, temperature, pressure and entropy of
the system decrease.

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Thermodynamics & Heat
Efficiency of an Air Standard Otto Cycle
Efficiency of an internal combustion cycle can be determined as

Heat rejected and heat added during the cycle are given as
and

Substituting qL and qH

This equation requires temperatures of each state to determine the

efficiency of the cycle. We can further simplify it to reduce the
number of required variables.
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Applying temperature – volume relationship for isentropic
compression process 1-2 and isentropic expansion 3-4 process,

Equating

or,

Now using componendo and dividendo,

Efficiency is then given as

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We can express efficiency in terms of volume ratio as we can
express efficiency in terms of volume ratio as

where r = V1/V2, is called

compression ratio.
Although high compression
ratio is desirable for high
efficiency but in reality high
pressure ratio causes high
temperature and there is a
limitation to which a real
engine cylinder can
withstand maximum
temperature or pressure.
In real petrol engine cycle
compression ratio is usually
between 8 to 12.
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Expression for Compression Ratio

The stroke volume is given by

Substituting expression for stroke volume, we get an expression for

compression ratio in terms of engine dimensions as

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Air Standard Diesel Cycle
It is an idealized model for the operation of diesel engines. It consists
of isentropic compression, isobaric heat addition, isentropic
expansion and isochoric heat rejection.
Process 1-2 (Isentropic Compression)
At the beginning of the compression,
piston will be at the BDC and the
cylinder contains air. When the piston
travels from BDC to TDC, the air inside
the cylinder is compressed under
isentropic condition. During the
isentropic compression, pressure of the
system increases, its volume decreases,
temperature increases and entropy
remains constant.
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Thermodynamics & Heat
Process 2-3 (Isobaric Heat Addition)
At the end of the compression stroke, the
temperature of the air reaches greater than
the self ignition temperature of the diesel.
At this state, fuel injector nozzle supplies
diesel into the cylinder and the diesel get
self burnt. However in this case,
combustion of the diesel cannot complete
instantaneously and the piston move from
TDC to towards the BDC simultaneously
with heat addition. Therefore, heat
addition for an ideal diesel cycle is
modeled as an isobaric process. Hence,
during the constant pressure heat addition
process, volume, temperature and entropy
of the system increases.
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Process 3-4 (Isentropic Expansion)

Due to the impact of burning, piston gets further expansion

isentropic condition. During the expansion process, pressure of the
system decreases, volume increases, temperature decreases and
entropy remains constant.

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Process 4-1 (Isochoric Heat Rejection)

Heat is rejected by the system to the surroundings through the

exhaust gas and this process is replaced by an equivalent constant
volume heat rejection process to complete the cycle. Hence, during
isochoric heat rejection process, temperature, pressure and entropy
of the system decrease.

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Efficiency of an Air Standard Diesel Cycle
Efficiency of an ideal diesel cycle is given as

Heat rejected by the system during constant volume process 4-1 is

given by

Heat added to the system during constant pressure process 2-3 is

given by

Substituting

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Applying temperature – volume relationship for isentropic
compression process 1-2

where r = V1/V2, is called

compression ratio.
Applying temperature – volume relationship for isobaric heat
addition process 2-3
where  = V3/V2, is called cut off ratio.

Applying temperature – volume relationship for isentropic expansion

process 3-4

Substituting V4 =V1,

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Multiplying temperature ratios,

Expression for the efficiency of diesel cycle can be given as

Mean Effective Pressure of Internal Combustion Cycle

Mean effective pressure is one of the parameter used for the
comparison of different internal combustion cycles. It is defined as
the magnitude of the constant pressure that would produce same
work as that produced by the actual pressure varying cycle.

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Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Vapor compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle
for heating and cooling of the desired space.
The working substance used to run the cycle is called a refrigerant.

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Process 1-2 :Isentropic Compression
Exit vapor from the evaporator is supplied to the compressor,
where it is compressed with the help of work input usually
provided by the electricity. The compression process is assumed to
be an isentropic process, during which pressure, temperature and
enthalpy of the refrigerant increases while its entropy remains
constant.

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Process 2-3 : Condensation at constant pressure

The high pressure and high temperature refrigerant from the

compressor outlet is delivered to the condenser. Condenser can
interact with its surroundings and the high temperature refrigerant
rejects heat to the surroundings. While rejecting heat vapor at the
condenser inlet gets condensed. Condensation process occurs at
constant pressure, during which entropy and enthalpy of the
refrigerant decreases.

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Process 3-4 :Throttling process( Isenthalphic process)

The high pressure liquid at the exit of the condenser is delivered to

the expansion (throttling) valve. During the throttling process,
enthalpy of the refrigerant remains constant, its pressure and
temperature decreases and entropy increases.

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Process 4-1 : Evaporation at constant pressure

The low pressure and low temperature refrigerant from the

expansion valve enters into the evaporator. The low temperature
refrigerant inside the evaporator can take heat from its
surroundings. During the absorption of heat, refrigerant gets
evaporated. Evaporation process takes place at constant pressure
during which entropy and enthalpy of the refrigerant increases.

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If the cycle is used for the heating of a desired space then its COP is
given as

If the cycle is used for the cooling of a desired space then its COP is
given as

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Common Features of Power Cycles
All practical cycles undergo the following processes in series:
compression, heat addition, expansion and heat rejection.
For ideal analysis of all power cycles, expansion and compression
processes are assumed to be isentropic processes.
Hence the practical power cycles can be differentiated only with
reference to the conditions at which heat is supplied to the system
and heat is rejected by the system.

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