STATISTICS

PROBABILITY
Grade Il / Grade 12
Senior High School

Jesus P. Mercado
Author

Fernando B. Orines
Author-Coordinator
Preface, v
Acknowledgment,vii

Unit 1 Random Variables and Probability Distributions

1.1 Random Variable
19
1.2 Mass Function of a Discrete Random Variable
1.3 Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation of a Discrete
31
Random Variable
1.4 Problems Involving Mean and Variance of
ProbabilityDistribution
49
1.5 Other Discrete Probability Distributions
71
Points to Ponder
75
Extra Math: Levelsof Measurement

Unit2 Normal Distribution

2.1 The Normal Curve
15
2.2 Standard Scores
28
Points to Ponder
Extra Math: Skewness
29

Unit 3 Sampling and Sampling Distributions

3.1 Random Sampling
3.2 Parameter and Statistic 15

3.3 Sampling Distributions

3.4 The Central Limit Theorem 68
Pointsto Ponder 81

Extra Math: The Chebyshev's Theorem 86

Unit 4 Estimation of Parameters
4.1 Point and Interval Estimation
4.2 The t-Distribution....... 2
4.3 Interval Estimate of Population Mean 26
with
Unknown Variance.... ..... ...
4.4 Population Proportion .. ..... ..... .... 39

4.5 Length of Confidence Interval and Appropriate 63

Sample Size
82
Points to Ponder
94
Extra Math: The Median Test
100

Unit 5 Testof Hypothesis

5.1 Test of Hypothesis
2
5.2 Hypothesis Testing About a Population Mean When
the Variance is Known 10
5.3 Hypothesis Testing About a Population Mean When
the Variance is Unknown 25

5.4 Test Concerning Proportions 42

Points to Ponder 53

Extra Math: Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 56

Unit 6 Correlation and Regression

2
6. I Scatter Plots
12
6.2 PearsonProduct Correlation Coefficient
25
6.3 RegressionAnalysis...........
Points to Ponder
Coefficient.........•••••••••••••
Extra Math: Spearman'sRank Correlation
1
Curve Table
Appendix AreasUnder the Standard Normal
Table of t-Critical Values
Chi-Square Distribution Table
Table of Random Numbers
 'fir..

As we usher in the implementation of a new curriculum that aims to

make Filipino learners more competitive, the Next Century Mathematics
team decided to revisethe series.
The suggested unit plans are learner-centered, enriched with a variety
of activities and responsive to the needs of the.learners.
The topics are based on the Department of Education'sK to 12
CURRICULUM GUIDE for MATHEMATICSfor Senior High School.
Each unit is introduced by highlightingits importance and mathematics
connection to other fields of studies.
Discussion of topics is direct and informative. A variety of illustrative
examples, together with its easy-to-follow solutions, are arranged in
ascending degree of difficulty.
The categorized sets ofexercises are retained: Math Selfiefor individual
practice, Math Groupie for group exercises,and Math Smash for fast learners.
May the learners find the NCM series a good material for acquisition
of knowledge, meaning-making, and transfer of ideas.
 The series, Next Century Mathematics,would not have been made
possible without the following, to which it is dedicated:
the Father Almighty,the Great Provider of my wisdom, passion,
and strength
my wife Daisy, son Nuel, and mom Amelia, the source of my
inspiration in this endeavor
the Filipino students and Filipino teachers whom this series is
intended for
the men and womenbehind the production and development of
this series. One could not ask for more support.
the Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., which I work with and work
for, a partner of Filipino teachers in providing quality education.

You have greatly contributed to this labor of love which is the

ralization and fulfillment of what was once just a dream.

- FBO
 RANDOM VARIABLES AND
PROBABILITY ISTRIBUTIONS

UNIT

ndom variables and

probability distributions are important
concepts in Statistics and Probability.
When we do an experiment, we are
not only interested in the values the
random variable can assume but also
with the probabilities associated with
these values. This umt shows how
to find the sum of the products of
these values and their corresponding
probabilities/ the procedures on how
to find the variances and the standard
deviations ofdiscrete random variables,
binomial, hypergeometric, and Poisson
distributions, as well as, the procedure
on how to find the expected values of
probability mass functions. The study
of random variables in this unit exposes
us to somevery interesting real-world
problems on probability.
 Random Variable

Competencies
Ml 1/12SP-111a-2,
Ml 1/12SP-111a-1, Ml 1/12SP-111a-3,
Ml 1/12SP-111a-4
The learner will be able to:
1. illustrate a random variable (discrete and continuous);
2. distinguish between a discrete and a continuous variable;
3. find the possible values of a random variable; and
4. illustrate a probability distribution for a discrete random variableand
its properties.

A random variable is a variable whose possible values are determined

by chance. A random variable is typically represented by an uppercaseletter,
usuallyX, while its corresponding lowercase letter in this case, x, isused
to representone of its values. For example, a coin is tossed thrice.Letthe
variableX represent the number of heads that result from this experiment.
1" toss 2 nd toss 3 rd toss Final Number of
Outcome Heads (X)
3

HHT 2

HTH 2

HTT 1

THH 2

TEIT 1

TTH 1

0
TTT
In the illustartionabove, random variable is represented by the upper
-2,
case X. The lower casex represents the specific values. Hence, x
x = 1, x = 2, x = I, x = 1, and x = 0.
 The sample space for the possible outcomes is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HIT, THH, .
The value of the variable X can be 0, 1, 2, or 3. Then, in this examp e,
X is a random variable.
Random variables can either be discreteor continuous.

A discrete random variablecan only take a finite(countable)

number ofdistinct values. Distinct values mean values that are exact
and can be represented by nonnegative whole numbers.

The following are examples of discrete random variables.

I. Let X = number of students randomly selected to be interviewed
by a researcher. This is a discrete random variablebecause its
possible values are 0, 1, or 2, and so on.
2. Let Y number of left-handed teachers randomly selected in
a faculty room. This is a discrete random variable because its
possible values are 0, 1, or 2, and so on.
3. Let Z number of defective light bulbs among the randomly
selected light bulbs. This is a discrete random variable because the
number of defective light bulbs, which X can assume, are 0, 1, 2,
and so on.
4. Let X = number of women randomly selected in a political rally.
This is a discrete random variable because its possible values are
O, 1, or 2, and so on.

A continuous random variable can assume an infinity number of

values in an interval between two specificvalues. This means they can
assume'hlues that can be represented not only by nonnegative whole]!
numbers but also by fractions and decimals. These values are often
results of measurement.

The following are examplesof continuous random variables:

1. Let Y the weights of randomly selected students in pounds.
This is a continuous random variablebecause its values can be
between any two given weights. Also, weights are measured using
a weighing scale. The weight of a student for example can be
150.5 1b but due to limits of measuring devices, the measurement
is always an approximate. The weights of students can range from
100 to 180 1bincluding all the decimal places that come between
these two values.
 2. Let X = the lengths of randomly selected shoes of senior
in centimeters. The lengths of shoes of the students can
be
between any two given lengths. The values can be obtained
by
using a measuring device, a ruler. Hence, the random variable
Y
is a continuous random variable.
3. Let Z = the hourly temperatures last Sunday. Z is a continuous
random variable because its values can be between any two given
temperaturesresulting from the use of a thermometer.
4. Let Y the heights of daisy plants in the backyard. This is a
continuous random variable because its possible values can
be between any two given heights resulting from the use of a
measuring tool, a yardstick.

EXAMPLE
1 Determine if the random variable X or Y is discreteor
continuous.

number of points scored in the last season by a randomly

selected basketball player in the PBA
b. Y = the height of a randomly selected student inside the library
in centimeter
c. X = number of birds in a nest
d. Y= the weights in kg of randomly selected dancers after taking
up aerobics
Answers:
areO'
a. This is a discrete random variable because its possible values
l, or 2, and so on.
any
b. This is a continuous random variable because it can assume
value between two given heights such as 167.64 cm•
are
c. This is a discrete random variable because its possible values
l, or 2, and so on.
any
d. This is a continuous random variable because it can assume
two given
value including all decimal values that are between dancers
weights. After taking up aerobics, the weight ofone of the
could be 56.9 kg.
with
A listing of all possible values of a discrete random variable along •

distribution

their corresponding probabilities is called a discreteprobability

tabular, grap
The discrete probability distribution can be presented in
.__ —•Y or formula form.
 The following properties must be satisfied before-a drstn uttonpik, ,
can be copsidered a discrete probability distributiom
a. The probability of each value of a discrete random variable
is between 0 and 1inclusive.

b. The sum of all the probabilities is 1.

EXAMPLE
1 Consider the following table.

1 2 3

0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2

In the table, the random variableX assumes the values 0, 1, 2, and 3.

The corresponding probabilities of these values are 0.2, 0.3, 0.3, and 0.2,
respectively.These corresponding probabilities are each less than 1 but
greaterthan 0 and when added, the sum is 1.

Ep(x) 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.3+ 0.2

2
EXAMPLE The given spinner is divided into four sections. Let X be
the score where the arrow will stop (numbered as 1, 2, 3,
and 4, in the drawing below).
a. Find the probability that the arrow will stop at 1, 2, 3, and 4.
b. Construct the discrete probability distribution of the random
variable X.

1 2

3 4