Comparative Police System Reviewer

1998 - Asean Chiefs of Police (Aseanapol) was estabished.

      Members Aseanapol
      1. Indonesia
      2. Malaysia
      3. Philippines
      4. Singapore
      5. Thailand
      6. Brunei Darussalam
      7. Vietnam
      8. Laos PDR
      9. Myanmar
      10.Cambodia

Abu Sayyaf - Abu means father and sayyaf means swordsmith, is a

militant Islamist group based in and around Jolo and Basilan,
Philippines.

Al Qaeda - literally means the base, a global militant Islamist

organization founded by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and
several other militants.

Apostasy -  is defined as the conscious abandonment of Islam by a

Muslim in word or through deed. It includes the act of converting to

another religion by a person who was born in a Muslim family or who

had previously accepted Islam.

Arvan Tavnii Tsagdaa - The National Police Agency of Mongolia.

Created in 1965 and with its headquarters in the capital Ulaanbaatar.

Asean Police - Comparison

1. Afghanistan - Name of Police Agency - ANP (Afghanistan National Police)
                Under What Department - Ministry of the Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - 2nd Patrolman
2. Armenia -    Name of Police Agency - Police of the Republic of Armenia
                Under What Department - Ministry of Defense
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Colonel General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Junior Sergeant
3. Azerbaijan - Name of Police Agency - National Police of the Republic of Azerbaijan
                Under What Department - Ministry of the Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
4. Bahrain -    Name of Police Agency - Bahrain National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -

5. Bangladesh - Name of Police Agency - Bangladesh Police

                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
6. Bhutan -     Name of Police Agency - Royal Bhutan Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs

                Highest Ranking Officer - Gagpeon (Chief of Police)

                Lowest Ranking Officer - Gagpa
7. Brunei -     Name of Police Agency - Royal Brunei Police Force
                Under What Department - Home Affairs Ministry
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
8. Myanmar -    Name of Police Agency - Myanmar Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Major General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Private
9. Cambodia -   Name of Police Agency - Cambodian Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Brigadier General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Officer Cadet
10.Peoples Republic of China - Name of Police Agency - Peoples Armed
                                                       Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable 2nd Class
11.Cyprus -     Name of Police Agency - Cyprus Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Justice
                Highest Ranking Officer - Chief of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
12.East Timor - Name of Police Agency - National Police of East Timor
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
13.Georgia -    Name of Police Agency - Georgian National Police
                Under What Department - Department of Public Safety
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
14.Hongkong -   Name of Police Agency - Hongkong Police Force
                Under What Department - Operations and Support
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
15.India -      Name of Police Agency - Indian Police Service
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
16.Indonesia -  Name of Police Agency - Indonesian National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - 2nd Bhayangkar

17.Iran -       Name of Police Agency - Iranian National Police

                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior and Justice
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
18.Iraq -       Name of Police Agency - Iraqi Police Service
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Chief of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Patrolman
19.Israel -     Name of Police Agency - Israeli Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
20.Japan -      Name of Police Agency - National Police Agency
                Under What Department - National Public Safety Commission
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
21.Jordan -     Name of Police Agency - Public security Force
                Under What Department - Public Security Directorate of
                                        the Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
22.Kazakhstan - Name of Police Agency - National Police of Kazakhstan
                Under What Department - National Security Committee of
                                        Ministry of internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Procurator General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Ryadovoy
23.North Korea - Name of Police Agency - National Police Agency
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - Daewon (Grand Marshall)
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Chonsa (Private)
24.South Korea - Name of Police Agency - Korea National Police Agency (KNPA)
                Under What Department - Ministry of Government Administration
                                        and Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
25.Kuwait -     Name of Police Agency - Kuwait National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Lieutenant General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
26.Kyrgyzstan -  Name of Police Agency - Kyrgyzstan Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
27.Laos -       Name of Police Agency - Laos National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
28.Lebanon -    Name of Police Agency - International Security Forces
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Gendarme
29.Macau -      Name of Police Agency - Macau National Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Superintendent
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Guard
30.Malaysia -   Name of Police Agency - Royal Malaysian Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
31.Maldives -   Name of Police Agency - Maldives Police
                Under What Department - National Security and Defense Branch
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Lance Constable
32.Mongolia -   Name of Police Agency - Mongolia Public Security Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Private
33.Nepal -      Name of Police Agency - Nepal Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
34.Oman -       Name of Police Agency - Royal Oman Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Lieutenant General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Conscript
35.Pakistan -   Name of Police Agency - Pakistan Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
36.Papua New Guinea - Name of Police Agency - Royal Papua New Guinea
                                              Constabulary
                Under What Department -
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Kiap (Patrol Officer)
37.Philippines - Name of Police Agency - Philippine National Police
                Under What Department - Department of Interior and
                                        Local Government
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer 1
38.Qatar -      Name of Police Agency - Qatar National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Shurti
39.Russia -     Name of Police Agency - Militsiya
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Colonel
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Cadet
40.Saudi Arabia - Name of Police Agency - Departmemnt of Security
                Under What Department -
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -

41.Singapore -  Name of Police Agency - Singapore Police Force

                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Constable
42.Sri Lanka -  Name of Police Agency - Sri Lanka Police Service
                Under What Department - Defense Ministry
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Constable Class 4
43.Syria -      Name of Police Agency - Syria Public Security Police
                 Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Private
44.Taiwan -     Name of Police Agency - National Police Agency
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Supervisor General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Rank 4
45.Thailand -   Name of Police Agency - Royal Thai Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
46.Turkey -     Name of Police Agency - Turkish Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer\
47.Turkmenistan - Name of Police Agency - Turkmenistan National Police
                                          Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of State Security
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
48.UAE Dubai -  Name of Police Agency - National Police Forces
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - General Commander
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
49.Uzbekistan - Name of Police Agency - Uzbekistan Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
50.Vietnam -    Name of Police Agency - Peoples Police of Vietnam
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
51.Yemen -      Name of Police Agency - Yemen National Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -

Basic Functions of Criminal Justice System

1. Policing
2. Adjudication
3. Correction

Centralized Police - A country with only one recognized police force

which operates entire that country. It uses a centralized system of

policing.  Philippines is an example of centralized police because

the Philippine National Police has one central office with many
regional, provincial and local branches throughout the country.

      Decentralized police - refers to a system where police

      administrations and operations are independent from one state
      to another. It is more applicable to countries with federal
      government.

Comparative Criminology - Theories (Scheider)

      Alertness to crime theory - is that as a nation develops,
      people’s alertness to crime is heightened, so they report more

      crime to police and also demand the police become moreeffective

      at solving crime problems.

Chowkidar - in India, means one who inhabits a "chowki", police station

or guard house.

      Economic or migration theory - is that crime everywhere is

      the result of unrestrained migration and over population in
      urban areas such as ghettos and slums.

      Opportunity theory - is that along with higher standards of

      living, victims become more careless of their belongings,
      and opportunities for committing crime multiply.

      Demographic theory - is based on the event of when a greater

      number of children are being born, because as these baby booms
      grow up, delinquent subcultures develop out of the adolescent
      identity crisis. Deprivation theory holds that progress comes
      along with rising expectations, and people at the bottom develop
      unrealistic expectations while people at the top don’t see
      themselves rising fast enough.

      Modernization theory - sees the problem as society becoming too

      complex.

      Theory of anomie and synomie - (the latter being a term

      referring to social cohesion on values), suggests that
      progressive lifestyle and norms result in the disintegration
      of older norms that once held people together (anomie).

Chusai-san - the rural police officer in Japan.

Comparative Criminal Justice - it is as subfield of the study of

criminal justice systems worldwide. It studies the similarities and
differences in structure, goals, punishment and emphasis on rights
as well as the history and political stature of different systems.

Comparative Police System - it is the science and art of investigating

and comparing the police system of nations. It covers the study of
police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of various nations.

Confucian thought - The belief that social order can be achieved

through moral and political reform because man is by nature good or
capable of goodness.
Countries With Less Or No Crime
1. Switzerland
2. Japan
3. Ireland
4. Egypt - Siwa Oasis

Cybercrimes - are generally defined as any type of illegal activity

that makes use of the Internet, a private or public network, or an
in-house computer system.

      Cyberstalking - a technologically based attack on person because

      of anger, revenge, or control.

      Computer Fraud - altering data or gaining unlawful use of

      computer or services.

      Identity Theft - using another's personal information to commit

      fraud or other crimes.

      Computer Viruses - a program that copies itself and infects a

      computer.

      Denial of Service Attacks - making service unavailable to users.

      Malware - malicious software that interferes with the functioning

      of computers and sending data of user over the internet.

      Information warfare - attacks on information and computer systems.

 
Different Police Global Organizations
1. ASEAN Chiefs of Police
2. Europol
3. IACP
4. Interpol
5. UN policing

Drug Trafficking - Drug trafficking is the commercial exchange of drugs

and drug paraphernalia. This include any equipment used to manufacture
illegal drugs or use them.

Elliniki Astynomia - is the national police service of Greece.

EUROPOL - It means European Police Office or Europol. Europol is the

European Union’s criminal intelligence agency. It became fully
operational on July 1,1999. Europol only acts on request at present.

      EUROPOL's Mandate
      1. llicit drug trafficking
      2. Illicit immigration networks;
      3. Terrorism; Forgery of money (counterfeiting of the euro)
         and other means of payment;
      4. Trafficking in human beings (including child pornography);
      5. Illicit vehicle trafficking;
      6. Money laundering

Gendarmerie Nationale - is the national rural police force of Algeria.

      National Gendarmerie - is a branch of the French Armed Forces,

      in charge of public safety, with police duties among the
      civilian population.

Globalization -  is a process of interaction and integration among

the people, companies,and government of different nations, as process
driven by international trade and investment and aided by information
technology.

Hezbollah - literally means "Party of God", is a Shi'a Islamist militant

group and political party based in Lebanon.

Hongkong Police Force - It is the world's second, and Asia's first,

police agency to operate with a modern policing system.

Human Trafficking - the illegal movement of people, typically for the

purposes of forced labor or commercial sexual exploitation.

IACP - (International Association of Chiefs of Police) the world’s

oldest and largest nonprofit membership organization of police
executives, with over 20,000 members in over 80 different countries.
IACP’s leadership consists of the operating chief executes of international, federal, state
and local agencies of all sizes.

Illegal Drug Trade - the term being used in the international scene,
it is a more comprehensive term than drug trafficking as it includes
cultivation and manufacture.

International Crime - Defined as crimes against the peace and security

of mankind.

      International Crimes
      1. Aggression (by one state against another)
      2. Treat of aggression
      3. Genocide (destroying a national, ethnic, racial, or
         religious group)
      4. Terrorism
      5. Drug trafficking

International Criminal Justice - It involves the study and description

of one country’s law, criminal procedure, or justice. Comparative
criminal justice system attempts to build on the knowledge of criminal
justice in one country by investigating and evaluating, in terms of
another country,culture, or institution.

Interpol - (International Criminal Police Organization)  It began in

1923,and at the same time its name was International Criminal
Police Commission. In 1956, its name became International Criminal
Police Organization. Slowly, the name of this international organization
became famous as Interpol. Now,Interpol is the second biggest
international organization; the United Nations is the first.

Jemaah Islamiyah - (Islamic Congregation) is a Southeast Asian militant

Islamist terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a
regional Islamic caliphate in Southeast Asia.

Jolly R. Bugarin - a Filipino former President of the Interpol, from

1980 to 1984. He is the only Filipino who had achieved that feat.

Koban - is a small neighborhood police station found in Japan. Often

translated to English as Police Box. Koban are staffed by a relatively
small number of police officers (usually 3-5 officers).

      Chuzaisho - (residential police box) is usually staffed by a

      single officer. The Chuzaisho is typically located outside of
      urban districts in villages and is operated by one community
      officer, who resides with his family in this police facility.

   
 Hashutsusho -  (police box) The Hashutsusho is typically placed
      in an urban district and is operated by a number of community
      police officers who work under a shift system. The community
      officers generally live in the jurisdiction served by the
      Hashutsusho.

Model System - is used to described the countries being used as

topics of discussion.These countries are chosen not because they are
greater than others but because they are thefocus of comparison
being studied.

Money Laundering - the concealment of the origins of illegally obtained

money, typically by means of transfers involving foreign banks or
legitimate businesses.

Mutawa - religious police in Saudi Arabia whose duty is to ensure

strict adherence to established codes of conduct.

National Public Safety Commission - is the policy making and oversight

body of the national police forces in Japan and South Korea.

Ngā Pirihimana o Aotearoa - it literally means "the policeman", is the

national police force of New Zealand. Policing in New Zealand started
in 1840.

Palermo Protocols - are three protocols that were adopted by the

United Nations to supplement the 2000 Convention against Transnational
Organized Crime. They are:
      1. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
         Persons, especially Women and Children; and
      2. The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land,
         Sea and Air.
      3. The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking
         in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition
  
POLRI - (Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia) Indonesian National Police.
The Chief of Police of Indonesia is called Kapolri.

Police Box - is a British telephone kiosk or callbox located in a public

place for the use of members of the police, or for members of the public
to contact the police. Most are disused at present with the advent of
two way radio and mobile phones.

Polis Diraja - the Royal Malaysia police.

RA 8792 - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000.

RA 9208 - The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003.

RA 9165 - Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002.

RA 9372 - Human Security Act of 2007.

RA 9995 - Anti-Photo and Voyeurism Act of 2009.

Schupo - (Schutzpolizei), the state level police of the German States.

Taliban - means "students", is an Islamic fundamentalist political

movement in Afghanistan.

Terrorism - the unofficial or unauthorized use of violence and

intimidation in the pursuit of political aims.

Transnational Crime - It is a term that has been used in comparative

and international criminal justice study in recent years to reflect
the complexity and enormity of global crime issues. It is defined
by the United Nations (UN) offences whose inception, proportion
and/or direct or indirect effects involve in more than one country.

      Examples of Transnational Crimes

      1. Money laundering
      2. Drug trafficking
      3. Terrorism
      4. Human trafficking
      5. Cyber crime

Transnational Organized Crime - involves the planning and execution

of illicit business ventures by groups or networks of individuals
working in more than one country. These criminal groups use systematic
violence and corruption to achieve their goal. Crimes commonly
include money laundering; human smuggling; cyber crime; and
trafficking of humans, drugs, weapons,endangered species, body parts,
or nuclear material.

Types of Court Systems of the World

1. Adversarial System - the accused is innocent until proven guilty.
2. Inquisitorial System - the accused is guilty until proven innocent.

Vetting - is the process of performing a background check on someone

to ensure that they are suitable for a job requiring secrecy, loyalty,
or trustworthiness.

Well Known Organized Crime Group

1. Russian Mafia - Around 200 Russian groups that operate in nearly
   60 countries worldwide. They have been involved in racketeering,
   fraud, tax evasion, gambling, drug trafficking, ransom, robbery
   and murder.
2. La Cosa Nostra - Known as the Italian or Italian-American mafia.
   The most prominent organized crime group in the world from the
   1920’s to the 1990’s. They have been involved in violence, arson,
   bombings, torture, sharking, gambling, drug trafficking, health
   insurance fraud, and political and judicial corruption.
3. Yakuza - Japanese criminal group. Often involved in multinational
   criminals activities,including human trafficking, gambling,
   prostitution, and undermining licit businesses.
4. FukChing - Chinese organized group in the United States. They
   have been involved in smuggling, street violence, and human
   trafficking.
5. Triads - Underground criminal societies based in Hong Kong. They
   control secret markets and bus routes and are often involved in
   money laundering and drug trafficking.
6. Heijin - Taiwanese gangsters who are often executives in large
   corporations. They are often involved in white collar crimes,
   such as illegal stock trading and bribery, and sometimes run
   for public office.
7. Jao Pho - Organized crime group in Thailand. They are often
   involved in illegal political and business activity.
8. Red Wa - Gangsters from Thailand. They are involved in
   manufacturing and trafficking methamphetamine.
The term “comparative policing” may at first glance seem very simplistic, simply a
compare-and-contrast exercise in which similarities and differences between the
selected cases or variables are analyzed. Are comparative studies of policing or its
institutions an exercise that is purely at the discretion of the analyst or is there a
need for some grounded constructs on which comparisons can be made? Without
an understanding of the influences these constructs exert on policing, comparative

INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM

The term “comparative policing” may at first glance seem very simplistic, simply a
compare-and-contrast exercise in which similarities and differences between the
selected cases or variables are analyzed. Are comparative studies of policing or its
institutions an exercise that is purely at the discretion of the analyst or is there a
need for some grounded constructs on which comparisons can be made? Without
an understanding of the influences these constructs exert on policing, comparative
studies will be lacking philosophical and theoretical substance.
COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM
 It is the science and art of investigating and comparing the police system of
nations. It covers the study of police organizations, training's and methods of
policing of various nations.

POLICE
 Police can be defined as an entity created by law, funded by government for the
specific purpose of maintaining social order and to enforce the law.

POLICING
 Policing refers to the actions taken by a police agency to fulfil a legal mandate
of which the end result is maintenance of order and keeping the peace.

THEORIES IN COMPARATIVE POLICING SYSTEM

The first observation in comparisons is that it should be based on theory
and vested within a specific methodology. Walk (1998) writes, “To write a good
compare-and-contrast paper, you must take your raw data — the similarities and
differences you’ve observed — and make them cohere into a meaningful argument”.
One can perform a comparison at the inter-organizational level such as between
Poland and Belgium or at an intra-organizational level, meaning comparing variables
within the same organization within a country.
For example how does policing in Warsaw differ from policing in Gdansk?
Analyses can also be made by focusing on smaller areas or just one or more particular
aspect such as budgets, human resources, crime or strategies. Walk five elements
required for this process.
Frame of Reference.
“The frame of reference may consist of an idea, theme, question, problem, or
theory; a group of similar things from which you extract two for special attention;
biographical or historical information”.

Grounds for Comparison

The rationale behind your choice, the grounds for comparison, lets your reader
The rationale behind your choice, the grounds for comparison, lets your reader
know why your choice is deliberate and meaningful, not random.
Thesis
A compare-and-contrast analysis depends on how the things you have chosen to
compare actually relate to one another. “Do they extend, corroborate, complicate,
A compare-and-contrast analysis depends on how the things you have chosen to
compare actually relate to one another. “Do they extend, corroborate, complicate,
contradict, correct, or debate one another”?

Organizational Scheme
Walk, states that there are two basic ways to organize such comparisons. • In text-
by-text, discussing all of A, then all of B. • In point-by-point, alternating between
points about A with comparable points about B. To discuss the comparable points
one needs to link A and B. All argumentative analyses require you to link each
point in the argument back to the thesis. Without such links, your reader will be
Walk, states that there are two basic ways to organize such comparisons. • In text-by-
text, discussing all of A, then all of B. • In point-by-point, alternating between points
about A with comparable points about B. To discuss the comparable points one needs
to link A and B. All argumentative analyses require you to link each point in the
argument back to the thesis. Without such links, your reader will be unable to see how
new sections logically and systematically advance your argument.
In a compare-and-contrast, you also need to make links between A and B in the
body of your essay if you want your paper to hold together. To make these links, he
suggests that use should be made of transitional expressions of comparison and
contrast (similarly, moreover, likewise, on the contrary, conversely, on the other
hand) and contrastive vocabulary. For instance during apartheid the police in
South Africa… conversely after 1994… or the Militia in Poland focused on
perceived enemies of the communist regime, on the contrary, the new police unit in

In a compare-and-contrast, you also need to make links between A and B in the body
of your essay if you want your paper to hold together. To make these links, he
suggests that use should be made of transitional expressions of comparison and
contrast (similarly, moreover, likewise, on the contrary, conversely, on the other hand)
and contrastive vocabulary. For instance during apartheid the police in South
Africa… conversely after 1994… or the Militia in Poland focused on perceived
enemies of the communist regime, on the contrary, the new police unit in Poland
focused on building a lasting partnership with the Polish people.
Policing in Societies

What determines policing in societies?

A particular policing philosophy or strategy is derived from superordinate
constructs emanating from the major order components of society such as the
politico-legal system. Diagram 1 below (designed by the author) indicates the
main variables that determine the type of policing in a particular society. In an
analysis it is important to look at these aspects in a systematic manner. The way to
understand the diagram is to look at the fundamental constructs, namely
philosophy, culture, politico/legal variables. These are constituent variables which
are inter-dependent and inter-dynamic. They affect one another. Emanating from
each one of these variables is a number of sub-categories such as Politico/legal that
have a continuum of political ranging from liberal democracy to dictatorships and
the legal component that has common, civil, religious laws etc. Then there are the
contextual constructs that are influenced by the fundamental constructs. These are
crime, demography and economy. Equally these have sub-categories such as
A particular policing philosophy or strategy is derived from superordinate
constructs emanating from the major order components of society such as the
politico-legal system. Diagram 1 below (designed by the author) indicates the main
variables that determine the type of policing in a particular society. In an analysis it
is important to look at these aspects in a systematic manner. The way to understand
the diagram is to look at the fundamental constructs, namelyphilosophy, culture,
politico/legal variables. These are constituent variables which are inter-dependent and
inter-dynamic. They affect one another. Emanating from each one of these variables is
a number of sub-categories such as Politico/legal that have a continuum of political
ranging from liberal democracy to dictatorships and the legal component that has
common, civil, religious laws etc. Then there are the contextual constructs that are
influenced by the fundamental
constructs. These are crime, demography
and economy. Equally these have sub-
categories such as capitalism, socialism
and communistic economies.
Fundamental Constructs of Policing
Understanding the fundamental
constructs will enable the analyst to
clearly
Understanding the fundamental
constructs will enable the analyst to
clearly understand the motivational factors behind:
 Policing philosophy (community, intelligence driven, zero tolerance, etc.);
 Policing style (oppressive, participative, discretionary, etc.);
 Open or closed institution;
 Perceived police role.
CULTURE AND RELIGION
An analyst should be looking at the dominant culture in a society. Parenti10 asserts
that “What we call ‘our culture’ is largely reflective of existing hegemonic
arrangements within the social order, strongly favoring some interests over others”.
He continues by raising a very fundamental aspect of culture: A society built upon
slave labor, for instance, swiftly develops a racist culture, replete with its own peculiar
laws, science, and mythology, along with mechanisms of repression directed against
both slaves and the critics of slavery. After slavery is abolished, racism continues to
fortify the inequitable social relations — which is what Engels meant when he said
that slavery leaves its “poisonous sting” long after it passes into history.11 To
contextualize this, it is important to note that slavery in early England and
America12 was defended on religious and cultural grounds and the same applies to
apartheid. Where culture is racist, sexist and ethnically based one is bound to find a
political system based on these prejudices. Policing will be oppressive and police
ranks will have few female officers. Examples of such policing are found in pre-1994
South Africa and still today in aboriginal communities in Canada, America and
Australia. The perpetuation of culture comes through the entrenchment within
institutions. To this end Parenti13 asserts that: We get our culture from a network of
social relations involving other people: primary groups such as family, peers, and
other informal associations within the community or, as is increasingly the case, from
more formally articulated and legally chartered institutions such as schools, media,
churches, government agencies, corporations, and the military. Culture can direct
politics and give rise to a particular style of policing. It often takes the development of
a contra-culture and conflict to change such societies.

POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Political philosophy culminates in a political ideology and eventually into political
systems. The five most common political systems around the world are described by
Donavan:14 In a comparative study one should be fully conversant with the types of
political systems in force in the country/countries involved in the analysis.

1. Democracy Representative Democracy:

These democracies have regular elections where citizens elect representatives
who then become the law makers and put together a government. The policing
system in such democracies tends to be decentralized such as in America and
Great Britain. Metropolitan and municipal police agencies are often responsible
to the mayor or a committee. Partnership policing, community policing,
problem orientated policing and the rule of law (particularly constitutional
law)15 are fundamental components of policing.

2. Republic
Republics are obviously democracies and have constitutions. These are
referred to as constitutional democracies. It is however important to note
that some countries calling themselves republics do not qualify as such.
Republics imply accountability to the electorate through candidates nominated
 by competing parties and that regular free and fair elections are held. The
People’s Republic of China is an example where there are no opposition
parties. Some of the types of republics that you might see include: • Federal
(the United States is often referred to as a federal republic) — decentralized
policing Parliamentary Republics (South Africa and Poland — centralized
policing). In South Africa the provinces are not federal territories. Such
territories have much more power in federal systems. So the power of
federalism can clearly be seen in the USA some states have the death penalty
in force, but others not. Each federal state has the power to decide on certain
matters.

3. Monarchy
There are distinctions between ceremonial monarchies, such as Belgium and
the Netherlands and absolute monarchies like Brunei, Andorra (in the
Pyrenees mountains separating France and Spain), UAE and Swaziland. In
these monarchies, the king has the final say. There is a variant on this, called
constitutional monarchies16 where the constitution limits the powers of the
monarch. Denmark, Kuwait, Sweden, Belgium and others are examples.

4. Communism
There is a difference between Western European and Eastern and Asian
communism. Communism is based on Marxist/Leninist philosophy and in its
basic form is undemocratic and exercise strict control over citizens. The state
is dominated by the communist party and there are no free and fair elections
with competing political parties. The economy is controlled and strict controls
are exercised on who is leaving and entering the country. Part of police work
is to control and spy on citizens and visitors. This violates the trias politica
where there should be a separation between the different arms of government.
For example in North Korea, the police force is under the control of the
Communist Party17 and is a repressive force, exercising complete control over
citizens. Free social media, freedom of speech, and peaceful assembly is out of
the question.

Dictatorship
Another authoritarian form of government is the dictatorship. Dictators are not
restricted by constitutions or parliaments. Elections are often held with one
candidate only or with high level intimidation of opposition candidates and
supporters. Currently, the rulers of Eritrea, Syria, Sudan, Zimbabwe and a few
others are considered as dictators.
The police in dictatorships are loyal to the dictator and are used as a force to
protect and ensure that opposition to the dictator is quenched. Violation of
human rights is the order of the day. In Dictatorships, the position is that the
military forces and the police operate in conjunction or often the police are
subject to the military. This is the case for instance in Egypt where a
military junta is in
 power following the ousting of Mubarak. Also in Eritrea, the military has
effectively taken over the police role with military units stationed at each police
station. Citizens are harassed and the rule of law does not apply. Police have
vast powers of arrest and detention. Warrants are not always sought and visits
to detainees are highly regulated and often refused. Torture to extract
confessions is standard practice. While authoritarian political systems have the
advantage of quick decisions being made, many citizens prefer other forms of
government — those that allow them greater participation in the political
process.

Hybrid systems
The Vatican, ruled by the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, is an independent
city state. It is a religious monarchy. One of the remarkable aspects of policing and
security is that Swiss guards (thus from a foreign state) are deployed in the Vatican.
Another religious democracy is Iran. It has a supreme religious leader assisted by
The Vatican, ruled by the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, is an
independent city state. It is a religious monarchy. One of the remarkable
aspects of policing and security is that Swiss guards (thus from a foreign state)
are deployed in the Vatican. Another religious democracy is Iran. It has a
supreme religious leader assisted by advisers. The supreme leader is assisted by
an elected parliament.

Legal systems
Another fundamental construct influencing policing is the legal system of a
country. A variety of legal systems exist in the world. The main issue here is
that law, linked to politics, will determine the police mandate. To compare
policing agencies one should on what legal basis they operate. In the analysis
establish which legal system (s) forms the basis for policing.
Common law
The nations that use this form of law are those that developed from the British
colonies and can be considered as having Anglo-American Justice. Former
British Colonies such as Australia, New Zealand, India, America, Nigeria,
South Africa and India were all influenced by the Peelian doctrine of policing.
In many of these countries the police are decentralized in line with the
democratic principle of devolution of power. There are over 4000 policing
agencies in the USA and a total of between 16,000–18,000 state and local law
enforcement agencies.20 These include local (town/city police and county
policing such as the New York Police Department (NYPD) the Drug
Enforcement Administration, game rangers etc. There are federal agencies that
co-ordinate particular aspects of policing such as the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The common
law tradition is that judgment is made by precedent and rests on the principle of
evidence presented within an independent judicial system. Police under this
 kind of system are required to respect the law, adhere to the rule of law, human
rights and, for the most part, also have a community policing philosophy.
Civil law

There are distinctions between ceremonial monarchies, such as Belgium and

thNetherlands and absolute monarchies like Brunei, Andorra (in the Pyrenees

5. These democracies have regular elections where citizens elect representatives

who
6. then become the law makers and put together a government. The policing
system in
7. such democracies tends to be decentralized such as in America and Great
Britain.
8. Metropolitan and municipal police agencies are often responsible to the mayor
or a
9. committee. Partnership policing, community policing, problem orientated
policing
10.and the rule of law (particularly constitutional law)15 are fundamental
compone