Renewable Energy from the Sea - Organic Rankine

Cycle using Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

S.K. Wang and T.e. Hung

Department of Mechanical Engineering
1- Shou Univ ersi ty
Kaohsiung County, Taiwan 84001.
[email protected].

Abstract -Rankine cycles using refrigerant- and benzene-series water production in desalination. Tseng et al. [3] used a
fluids as working fluids in converting low-grade energy from numerical Sequential Quadratic Programming scheme to
renewable energy resources such as solar energy and ocean obtain the optimum power output of an OTEC plant.
thermal energy were investigated in this study. The main
purpose is to verify the feasibility of utilizing ocean energy (i.e.,
Takazawa et al. [4] performed experiments on a
ocean thermal energy conversion, OTEC) which can also be
barometric-type open-cycle OTEC system, and they concluded
combined with solar energy in an organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
that the existence of non-condensable gas may reduce the
to generate electricity. Parameters under investigation were
efficiency of the direct contact heat exchanger when the
turbine inlet temperature, turbine inlet pressure, condenser exit
concentration of the non- condensable gas is above 8%. In
temperature, turbine exit quality, overall irrversibility, and
spite of a pessimistic conclusion made by Odum [5] who used
system efficiency. Results indicate that wet fluids with very steep
an emergy analysis (emergy ratio indicates a net contribution
saturated vapor curves in T-s diagram have a better overall
of electric power) to suggest that OTEC is not likely to
performance in energy conversion efficiencies than that of dry
become economical in Taiwan, OTEC is still considered to be
fluids. It can also be shown that all the working fluids have a
a potentially viable option in power generation. Using
similar behavior of the efficiency-condenser exit temperature
ammonia as the working fluid, Yeh et al. [6] theoretically
relationship. Furthermore, an appropriate combination of solar
investigated the effects of the temperature and flow rate of
energy and an ORC system with a higher turbine inlet
cold seawater on the net output of an OTEC plant. They
temperature and a lower condenser temperature (as operated
concluded that a maximum output of the net work exists at a
deeply under sea level) would provide an economically feasible
certain seawater flow rate. Using R-12 as the working fluid,
and environment-friendly renewable energy conversion system.
Wu and Burke [7] used specific power - power per unit total
heat exchanger surface area - of a heat engine to be the
Keywords - Ocean thermal energy conversation, Organic Rankine objective function in the design of an OTEC Rankine power
cycle, Solar energy, Working fluids plant. Through manipulation of boiler pressure and condenser
pressure, the specific power of the OTEC plant was calculated
and an upper bound was determined. Madhawa Hettiarachchi
1. INTRODUCTION et al. [8] proposed a cost-effective optimum design criterion
for ORCs. Regardless of using geothermal heat source instead
Low-grade heat from renewable energy sources is of OTEC or solar energy, they found that the choice of
considered to be a good candidate to generate electricity. working fluid can greatly affect the objective function which
Among those sources, OTEC and solar energy are typically is a measure of power plant cost - in some instances the
utilized in converting low-grade heat into power generation differences could be more than twice.
and other applications. OTEC systems use the ocean's natural
thermal gradient to drive a power-producing cycle. As long as Solar energy on the other hand has long been recognized
the temperature difference between the warm surface water as a tangible and viable source of energy. Despite its low
and the cold deep water is greater than about 20°C (36°F), an temperature in energy collecting unit and low energy
OTEC system can produce a significant amount of power. conversion efficiency, solar energy suits perfectly to act as the
Lennard [1] identified the best locations for OTEC around the heat source in the evaporator of some low-grade heat recovery
world, and he found that the natural ocean thermal gradients system such as ORCs. However, combined cycles using solar
necessary for OTEC operation generally exist between energy and OTEC in power generation have not received too
latitudes 20 deg Nand 20 deg S. On the east coast of Taiwan, much attention until recently. Straatman et al. [9] proposed a
a steep offshore slope provides a good environment for the conceptual design of a hybrid OTEC-offshore solar pond
application of OTEC as a water depth of 800 meters and a power plant as compared with the pure solar thermal
electricity plant, and they claimed the hybrid plant can reach
water temperature of 5°C can easily be found near shore.
an improved efficiency of l2%. Yamada et al. [10] performed
Tanner [2] did an extensive review and concluded that Taiwan a computer simulation of a solar-boosted OTEC system
is one of the best markets for utilizing OTEC, and he also (SOTEC). The results show that the proposed SOTEC plant
suggested some potential applications of OTEC such as fresh can enhance the annual mean net thermal efficiency up to a
value that is 1.5 times higher than that of the conventional of the inlet temperature of the evaporator. Detailed
OTEC plant. calculations of pressure losses and heat transfer in evaporator
and condenser are also ignored since they depend strongly on
ORCs have been investigated for power generation for
materials and configurations of the system components.
years. Several ORC systems have been installed for recovering
Instead, irreveribilities of the working fluids in various major
waste heat and widely used for converting renewable energy
components of the cycle are calculated to evaluate the effects
into power. Hung et al. [11] used some cryogens as working
of those losses. Parameters under consideration are turbine
fluids in an ORC operated between two isobaric curves, and
inlet temperature, turbine inlet pressure, condenser exit
they found that the system efficiency increases and decreases
temperature, turbine exit quality, overall irrversibility, and
for wet and dry fluids, respectively, when turbine inlet
system efficiency. An ORC system using low-grade energy
temperature the main parameter under consideration
sources is depicted in Fig. 1. The system is composed of an
� �

increases. Liu et al. [12] investigated the effects of several

evaporator (waste heat boiler), a turbine expander, a condenser,
working fluids on an ORC for waste heat recovery. They
and a pump. A working fluid flows into the evaporator in
found that the presence of hydrogen bond in certain molecules
which the high-temperature heat source (which may come
such as ammonia, water, and ethanol may cause these fluids
from the warm seawater or a solar pond) is utilized. The vapor
behave like wet fluids due to their large vaporization
of the boiling fluid enters the turbine expander and generates
enthalpies, and these fluids are regarded as inappropriate for
power. The exit fluid from the turbine expander then enters the
ORC systems.
condenser in which the low-temperature cooling water (i.e.,
As stated in the previously mentioned studies, ORCs using the cold seawater) is utilized to condense the fluid. Finally, a
OTEC as the high and low temperature ends are potentially fluid pump raises fluid pressure and feeds the fluid into the
feasible in recovering low-grade energy and generating power evaporator to complete the cycle. So long as a temperature
if adequate working fluids are used. The efficiency can further difference between the high- and low-temperature ends is
be improved if the high temperature end of the cycle is large enough, the cycle will continue to operate and generate
boosted by solar energy. The objective of this study is to gain power. The objective of this study is focused on
a comprehensive understanding of the thermodynamic thermodynamic analyses of the working fluids and the overall
performances of an ORC using various working fluids. System system efficiency rather than hardware arrangements such as
efficiencies are calculated for an ORC using OTEC as the heat the system integration of solar energy and OTEC. Therefore,
source and sink with and without the boost of solar energy. issues regarding material selections, component configurations,
The following analyses focus on thermodynamic frictional losses, heat transfer performances of the evaporator
performances of the ORCs as scoping calculations without and condenser, and cost analysis are not considered in this
considering detailed system integration, e.g., the solar thermal study.
pond or solar energy collector served as a boundary condition

Heatfrom Solar Energy

orWarm Seawater

Turbine

evaporator

Pump
2 Cold Seawater
1

Fig. 1 A schematic Flow Diagram of an ORC system

II. SELECTION OF WORKING FLUIDS inevitably toxic. A working fluid with a low toxicity
should be used to protect the personnel from the
In an ORC, a suitable selection of the working fluids is a threat of contamination in case of a fluid leakage.
critical factor for achieving an efficient and a safe operation.
Each working fluid has its own range of applicability 2. Chemical stability: Under a high pressure and
according to its thermophysical properties under the temperature, organic fluids tend to decompose,
considerations of a high efficiency and a safe operation. resulting in material corrosion and possible
Important factors of the working fluids needed to be detonation and ignition. Therefore a chemically­
considered are listed below: stable working fluid operated under working
conditions should be selected.
1. Toxicity of working fluid: All organic fluids are
 3. Boiling temperature: Some of the organic fluids have (1)
a very low boiling temperature under atmospheric
pressure. For those fluids, the temperature of cooling H2 = hi + W12 h = f (T3, X3) (2)
water in the condenser should be reduced. This can
result in a more stringent requirement for the Heat exchanger:
selection of the condenser.
Q23 = h3 - h2 h4 = f (P4, S4) (3)
4. Flash point: A working fluid with a high flash point
should be used in order to avoid flammability. Turbine expander:

5. Specific heat: A high value of specific heat represents (4)

a high load for the condenser. Hence a working fluid
with a low specific heat should be used. Overall efficiency: 11th = (W34 - WI2)/Q23 (5)
6. Latent heat: A working fluid with a high latent heat Turbine efficiency: X4a - X4� I
should be used in order to raise the efficiency of heat
recovery.
7. Thermal conductivity: A high conductivity represents (6)
a better heat transfer in heat-exchange components.
The fluids under consideration in this study are refrigerant­
series fluids such as R-ll, R-12, R-I13, R-1l4, R-123, R- (7)
152a, R-500, and R-502; and benzene-series fluids such as
C6H6, C7HS, and CSHIO. The functional dependences of
temperature will be used in analyzing the system efficiency in (S)
this study.
Overall efficiency: 11 = (W34a - WI2)/Q23
(9)
IV. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Practically, due to irreversibility in an actual
The following mathematical model is used to analyze thermodynamic system, it is impossible to convert all the
thermodynamic behavior of ORC systems. The slopes of available thermal energy into useful work. Furthermore,
saturated vapor curves in the T-s diagrams are used to identify irreversibility provides an additional means of estimating the
the types of the working fluids (i.e., wet fluids and dry fluids) system efficiency of a thermodynamic cycle. From the second
as shown in Fig. 2. Pressure drops occurred in various law of thermodynamics, the equation of irreversibility rate can
components and pipes are not considered in this model. Figure be expressed for uniform flow as follows:
3 shows the conditions of working fluids at various locations
and paths of power generation in an ORe. (10)
The mathematical model is analyzed as pump:

,
\
T
.

1
•

.
� R·1521
, TH ______ +- ____ ���--------�----�
I
·
·
•
·

,
Q. 1\·11
·
·
·
·
·
·

·
o.
TL
·
·

��------�--

Figure 2 T/Tc-s/sc Diagram of Working Fluids. Figure 3.T-s Diagram of Working Fluids in Turbine under a Fixed TH.
 Assuming that the system reaches a steady state, and there transfer in the condenser is assumed to be very efficient, and
is only one exit and one inlet for any component, Equation (10) the inlet temperature of the turbine is varied from 20 to 40°C
becomes
to simulate the heat source in the calculations. Due to a more
amount of energy is received in the evaporator, system
(11) efficiency increases nearly linearly as the turbine inlet
temperature increases for every working fluid under
where To is the ambient temperature. Since the major investigation as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. For dry fluids as
contributions of the irreversibilities are from the processes 1-2 shown in Fig. 5, refrigerant- and benzene-series have almost
and 3-4, the total irreversibility rate becomes the same efficiencies when the turbine inlet temperature is low.
As the turbine inlet temperature increases, benzene-series in
general have a better performance in system efficiency since
(12) their saturated vapor curves become almost identical to those
of the isentropic wet fluids. This can be seen in Fig. 3; CSHIO,
for example, has a saturated vapor curve with a positive slope
From Eq. (12), one can see that the heat transfer rates in
changing to a negative slope as temperature decreases. Also
the evaporator and condenser associated with the ambient
indicated in Fig. 4, efficiency curves for R-l13 and R-123
temperature are the key factors affecting the overall
irreversibility; and accordingly, the system efficiency. For the intersect at �30 °C ; below 30 °C R-123 has a slightly higher
sake of a better understanding of the effects of pressure on efficiency than R-113 and a reverse performance occurs when

irreversibility, the availability ratio, cp, is defined as follows temperature is above 30°C . The intersection of efficiency
curves of R-123 and R-l13 can be explained by their
thermophysical properties. Since R-123 has higher values of
¢ = rhq�3 jWI
- (13)
thermal conductivity and latent heat than those of R-l13, it
mq23 means that R-123 has a better heat transfer performance than
that of R-113. On the other hand, R-123 has a higher specific
The factor is the ratio of the available energy to the total
heat than that of R-113. Since a regenerator is not considered
energy obtained from the heat source.
in this study, the inlet condition of the working fluid would
become superheated before entering the condenser. This
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
imposes a higher load on the condenser and reduces the
A computer program employing MA THCAD was system efficiency as a dry fluid goes through an isentropic
developed to simulate the thermodynamic performances of the expansion at the exit of the turbine. Furthermore, the latent
working fluids under various working conditions. As shown in heat "bandwidth" at s low pressure on the T-s diagram also
Fig. 3, the turbine inlet condition is assumed to fall on State 3 affects the system efficiency. A broader latent heat bandwidth
which will be in saturated or superheated region. Material represents a greater amount of heat must be taken away from
requirements of the evaporator are more stringent as the the condenser. This effect is not significant since the
working fluid becomes superheated, and a lower thermal temperature is very low as the condenser is operated under a
conductivity of the superheated vapor would result in a lower low pressure. However, this effect becomes important as the
heat transfer rate as compared with the saturated vapor. Also, inlet temperature of the turbine increases. Therefore, a careful
a heat source with a higher temperature for the evaporator is selection of the working fluid under different working
required if the fluid entering the turbine is superheated. temperatures is crucial in optimizing the performances of
Therefore, the working fluid is assumed to be saturated with ORCs.
its corresponding saturation pressure at the inlet of the turbine.
As for the wet fluids, both R-11 and R-12 have a rather
The following analyses will be based on two types of energy
better performance in system efficiency than that of the other
resources: OTEC and solar energy.
wet fluids except for R-152a as shown in Fig. 5. This is
because that both R-ll and R-12 are nearly identical to
A. Case I: using OTEC as energy source isentropic wet fluids, i.e., their saturation vapor curves are
An ORC system using OTEC operates between a high virtually vertical in this region. In practical operation with a
temperature (supplied by the warm seawater) in the evaporator careful arrangement, the fluid conditions at the turbine exit
and a low temperature (supplied by the cold seawater in deep can be adjusted to fall on the saturation vapor curve. This has
sea) in the condenser. Based On the slopes of saturated vapor two obvious advantages: no occurrence of moisture during
curves and the inlet temperatures of the turbine, system isentropic expansion in the turbine, and no need for using a
efficiencies using various working fluids can be estimated. regenerator to reduce condensation load.

The inlet temperature of the pump is fixed at 5 °C , i.e., heat

 0.11

0.1

:s --C6H6
� 0.08
_ • • - C7HB
41
'u __ CBH10

ffi ___ - R-113

__ R-114

-- R-123

o .0'lt;;..1....L..I...L..L.J...I...J
20 25 30 35 40
Temperature rC)

Figure 4. Case I: System efficiency-turbine inlet temperature dependence for dry fluids.

0.11

0.1

0.09
S
>-
..
0.08
c:
CD ---- R-ll
'u
IE 0.07
w
_. _. - R-12

0.06 ____ - • R-152a

_ • • _ • • R-500
0.05

0.04
20 25 30 35 40
Temperature (t: )

Figure 5. Case I: System efficiency-turbine inlet temperature dependence for wet fluids

Based on the analysis stated above, three factors are temperature end, 40°C for the high temperature end, and a
believed to have major impacts on the system efficiency
saturation state for the turbine inlet. Figure 6 shows the
according to the thermophysical properties of the fluids under
dependence of the system efficiency and turbine efficiency on
investigation: the slope of saturation curve, specific heat, and
the quality of the fluids at turbine exit. As the exit quality
latent heat. Under a broader range of working temperature
reaches 1, i.e., a high-efficiency turbine is not necessary, R-
between TH and TL, latent heat can vary significantly. It has a
152a has the lowest system efficiency of6.7 % while R-ll and
direct influence on the energy absorbed in the evaporator, and
C7Hs have the highest system efficiency around 8.5 %. An
the "bandwidth" of the saturation curve in the T-s diagram at
isentropic fluid such as R-ll expands in the turbine
the low temperature end; and consequentially, the net work
isentropically to a low pressure with a quality very close to 1.
done by the cycle.
Therefore, design constraints are less stringent for such fluids.
As stated above, isentropic fluids in general have a better When the quality at the turbine exit drops, turbine efficiency
performance in efficiency. Wet fluids also perform well in must be reduced accordingly in order to have an exit quality
system efficiency. However, a major problem with the wet close to 1. R-152a on the other hand has a rather slowly­
fluids is the possible damage to the turbine blades due to varying positive slope of the saturation vapor curve; this
corrosion from the moisture of the two-phase state of the results in a very low quality at turbine exit. The situation can
working fluids as they do not follow a saturation curve during be improved by operating the fluid in super-heated region
expansion in the turbine. Therefore, emphasis is also focused before it entering the turbine. In practice, it can be designed
on the influence of the "quality" of the wet fluids on turbine that the fluid at turbine exit is saturated vapor in order for R-
efficiency. Here, the working conditions are: 5°C for the low 152a to operate under a low temperature range.
 )/'-152a( II t)
� C1H8( II t) ·l:\::.R-ll<llt)
" ,
, .
,..-... O.
I=::-
'6'
,
�1H8 �) .R-lJ( ..)�" II
'-'
'
,

6
,,
>. ,

u ,
,
c ,
a.>
0.09 �,
u ,
,
.......
,
,
.......
c..::l 0.08
�

0.07

0.96

Figure 6 Case I: System Efficiency and Turbine Efficiency on Quality.

As stated above, heat transfer rates in the evaporator and increase as the pressure increases, and so do their respective
condenser are the key contributions to the system irreversibilities.
irreversibility. The following calculations are based on a 10 For the sake of a better discussion, the availability ratio
MW heat source. The irreversibility in a system differs from defined in Eq. (13) is also used as a guideline in selecting a
component to component. Figure 7 shows the irreversibilities suitable working fluid. Figure 9 shows the variations of the
contributed from the major components of an ORC under system efficiency and availability ratio versus turbine inlet
various turbine inlet pressures for the fluid C7Hs. It shows that pressure for the fluid CsHIO. As expected, the availability ratio
the condenser has the major contribution of irreversibility; and decreases as the turbine inlet pressure increases. Therefore, an
thus, improvement of the cond enser performance is an optimal choice of the working fluid may be achieved by taking
important concern when the upper end of the cycle is operated the intersection of the efficiency curve and the availability
under a high pressure. Figure 8 shows the irreversibilities for ratio curve. From Fig. 9, it seems that a system pressure below
various working fluids under a wide range of turbine inlet 500 kPa is adequate for recovering low-grade energy if CsHIO
pressures at a constant turbine inlet temperature. It is clear that is used as the working fluid.
the enthalpies of the fluids at point 3, i.e., the turbine inlet,

�ooo

Conden$tlr
2500

�
2000

�
.�
:0 lSoo
'�

�
l'!
- QQO

£00

100 7·00 1300 1900 2£00 3100

I nl et turbine pressure (kPa I

Fig. 7 Distributions oflrreversibilities in the Major Components of a Rankine cycle for Fluid C7H8 at TH = T3 + 15 r-
 3000

'-'.H.
'600 L II.
�
e:.< ('.U,
>-
noo -'
�
, .. . - �
.- -'
:c
III
. .--
J( . I ' "

di 1800

�
:> , / ./ ' ____ Ril-'
�
"-
140C
,'/ ' /
1000

0 O.S 1.5 2.S 3.S "

Inlet turbine pressure (MPa)

Fig. 8 Irreversibility versus Turbine Inlet Pressure at TH = TJ + 15 L

2& ClO
,-.,
88
I"::- 2q
',-, �
. 85 "
22 '"
>. ;,sq <if
[
u 20
c:
V 87
.- lA .2"
U 80 :>:l
.- '"
"- lb ....
- 78 o·
'""-l
lq Ib
�
12 7�

10 12

a soo 1000 1 500 2000 2500 3000

Inlet turbine pressure (kPa)

Fig. 9 System Efficiency and Availability Ratio versus Turbine Inlet temperature for fluid C8HIO

1-152a< 11 t) C7R8 ( 11 t)
0.11 l\ R·ll< 1/ t)
r-... >.
l=::- O. t 0.9
u
c::
V
o. u
0.8 .....
-
-
c..L:I
0.7 V
c::
.-
- .!:l
� 0.07
O.S I..
::J
E--o
O.O§. ':":95���..w..:U..I.J....I..U..u..u 0.5
Fig. I0 Case 2: System Efficiency and Turbine Efficiency on Quality

B. Case 2: Solar energy as high-temperature reservoir for turbine inlet temperature. The study shows that benzene­
series fluids have a better performance in efficiency than that
In this case the energy source of an ORC system is
of the refrigerant-series fluids. Among the wet fluids, R-ll has
supplied by solar energy in the evaporator. The high
the best performance. This result is similar to Case 1. Figure
temperature source may be from a solar pond or a solar
10 shows the dependences of the system efficiency and turbine
collector. As a scoping calculation, the operation conditions of
efficiency on turbine exit quality. Compared with Case 1, the
the ORC are: 20n for pump inlet temperature and 40 to 60n
difference is the turbine exit quality; resulting from different k = thermal conductivity
slopes of the saturation vapor curves at a new temperature
m = mass flow rate
range (between TH and TL). A suitable working fluid can thus
be selected based on a consideration of the system efficiency p = pressure
in order to meet the required efficiency of the turbine.
q23 = heat added to evaporator
A composite system which combines OTEC and solar
s = entropy
energy to serve as an aRC system with a higher temperature
difference between TH and TL, i.e., an evaporator with a x = quality
higher operation temperature supplied by solar energy and a
condenser cooled by cold water in deep sea, is believed to 11th = thermal efficiency
yield an even better performance. In this case, the system W34 = work done by turbine
efficiency can be as high as 11 to 15 % if the operation
temperature of the evaporator is between 40 and 60n. As <p = availability ratio
shown in Fig. 10, isentropic (or nearly isentropic) fluids have
higher efficiencies. By comparing R-ll and R-113, R-ll has a Subscripts
better efficiency performance than that of R-113. This can be
1�4 locations of states
explained from the T-s diagram in which R-l13, a dry fluid,
becomes superheated at the turbine exit, and this reduces the 0 ambient
area of net work in the T-s diagram. Furthermore, R-ll has a
sys system
higher thermal conductivity and latent heat than those of R-
113. Therefore, an optimal operation of high efficiency can be t turbine
achieved with a proper selection of the working fluid in the
combined system. H High

L Low
V. CONCLUSION
tot total
System efficiency can be optimized by selecting a proper
working fluid operated at suitable working conditions. In
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hfg = latent heat