PLL Phase Locked Loop

The phase locked loop or PLL is a particularly flexible circuit building block.

The phase locked loop, PLL can be used for a variety of radio frequency
applications, from frequency synthesizers to clock recovery and FM demodulation.

As a result the phase locked loop is found in many items of radio frequency
equipment including radio receivers, test equipment and other items of radio
frequency electronics.

Phase locked loop development

The phase locked loop, PLL, was not used in early radio equipment because of the
number of different stages required. However with the advent of radio frequency
integrated circuits, the idea of phase locked loops, PLLs, became viable. Initially
relatively low frequency PLLs became available, but as RF IC technology
improved, so the frequency at which PLLs would operate rose, and high frequency
versions became available.

Phase locked loops are used in a large variety of applications within radio
frequency technology. PLLs can be used as FM demodulators and they also form
the basis of indirect frequency synthesizers. In addition to this they can be used for
a number of applications including the regeneration of chopped signals such as the
colour burst signal on an analogue colour television signal, for types of variable
frequency filter and a host of other specialist applications

Phase locked loop concepts - phase

The operation of a phase locked loop, PLL, is based around the idea of comparing
the phase of two signals. This information about the error in phase or the phase
difference between the two signals is then used to control the frequency of the
loop.

To understand more about the concept of phase and phase difference, first visualise
a radio frequency signal in the form of a familiar x-y plot of a sine wave. As time
progresses the amplitude oscillates above and below the line, repeating itself after
each cycle. The linear plot can also be represented in the form of a circle. The
beginning of the cycle can be represented as a particular point on the circle and as
a time progresses the point on the waveform moves around the circle. Thus a
complete cycle is equivalent to 360° or 2π radians. The instantaneous position on

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the circle represents the phase at that given moment relative to the beginning of the
cycle.

Phase increment on a signal

To look at the concept of phase difference, take the example of two signals.
Although the two signals have the same frequency, the peaks and troughs do not
occur in the same place. There is said to be a phase difference between the two
signals. This phase difference is measured as the angle between them. It can be
seen that it is the angle between the same point on the two waveforms. In this case
a zero crossing point has been taken, but any point will suffice provided that it is
the same on both.

Phase difference between signals

When there two signals have different frequencies it is found that the phase
difference between the two signals is always varying. The reason for this is that the
time for each cycle is different and accordingly they are moving around the circle
at different rates.

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It can be inferred from this that the definition of two signals having exactly the
same frequency is that the phase difference between them is constant. There may
be a phase difference between the two signals. This only means that they do not
reach the same point on the waveform at the same time. If the phase difference is
fixed it means that one is lagging behind or leading the other signal by the same
amount, i.e. they are on the same frequency.

Phase locked loop basics

A phase locked loop, PLL, is basically of form of servo loop. Although a PLL
performs its actions on a radio frequency signal, all the basic criteria for loop
stability and other parameters are the same.

A basic phase locked loop, PLL, consists of three basic elements:

 Phase comparator / detector:   As the name implies, this circuit block

within the PLL compares the phase of two signals and generates a voltage
according to the phase difference between the two signals.

Read more about the phase detector

 Loop filter:   This filter is used to filter the output from the phase
comparator in the PLL. It is used to remove any components of the signals
of which the phase is being compared from the VCO line. It also governs
many of the characteristics of the loop and its stability.

Read more about the loop filter

 Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO):   The voltage controlled oscillator is
the circuit block that generates the output radio frequency signal. Its
frequency can be controlled and swung over the operational frequency band
for the loop.

Phase locked loop operation

The basic concept of the operation of the PLL is relatively simple, although the
mathematical analysis and many elements of its operation can become more
complicated

The basic phase locked loop is connected as shown in the diagram below. The
reference signal and the signal from the voltage controlled oscillator are connected

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into the phase detector. The output from the phase detector is passed through the
loop filter and then applied to the voltage controlled oscillator.

Phase locked loop basic diagram

The Voltage Controlled Oscillator, VCO, within the PLL produces a signal which
enters the phase detector. Here the phase of the signals from the VCO and the
incoming reference signal are compared and a resulting difference or error voltage
is produced. This corresponds to the phase difference between the two signals.

The error signal from the phase detector passes through a low pass filter which
governs many of the properties of the loop and removes any high frequency
elements on the signal. Once through the filter the error signal is applied to the
control terminal of the VCO as its tuning voltage. The sense of any change in this
voltage is such that it tries to reduce the phase difference and hence the frequency
between the two signals. Initially the loop will be out of lock, and the error voltage
will pull the frequency of the VCO towards that of the reference, until it cannot
reduce the error any further and the loop is locked.

When the PLL, phase locked loop, is in lock a steady state error voltage is
produced. By using an amplifier between the phase detector and the VCO, the
actual error between the signals can be reduced to very small levels. However
some voltage must always be present at the control terminal of the VCO as this is
what puts onto the correct frequency.

The fact that a steady error voltage is present means that the phase difference
between the reference signal and the VCO is not changing. As the phase between
these two signals is not changing means that the two signals are on exactly the
same frequency.

The phase locked loop, PLL, is one of the most versatile building blocks in radio
frequency electronics today. Whilst it was not widely used for many years, the
advent of the IC meant that phase locked loop and synthesizer chips became

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widely available. This made them cheap to use and their advantages could be
exploited to the full.

Introduction

The block diagram of a phase locked loop. It comprises the following building
blocks:

 Phase-Frequency Detector (PFD) : Outputs a digital pulse whose width is

proportional to phase difference between reference input and feedback
clocks
 Charge Pump (CP) : Converts input digital pulse to analog error current
 Loop Filter (LF) : Integrates error current to generate VCO control voltage
 Voltage Controlled Oscillator : Ouputs a low voltage swing oscillating
signal with frequency
proportional to control voltage
 Level Shifter (LS) : Amplifies VCO levels to full-swing
 Feedback Divider : Divides incoming VCO clock to generate FBCLK clock

Figure 1. Block diagram of a phase locked loop

Based on the implementation or construction of elements of PLL, they are broadly

classified into three types
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  Analog PLL (APLL) : If all the elements of PLL are analog and linear, then
the PLLs are called analog or linear PLLs
 Digital PLL (DPLL) : If the phase detector and charge pump are constructed
using digital blocks (3-state PD using EXOR gates and chargepump), they
are called digital PLLs
 All Digital PLL (ADPLL) : If all the elements of PLL are made of digital
elements then they are called all digital PLLs

Applications

 Frequency Synthesis (e.g. generating a 1 GHz clock from a 100 MHz

reference)
 Extracting a clock from a random data stream (e.g. serial-link receiver)

Voltage Controlled Oscillator VCO Design for PLLs

The voltage controlled oscillator, VCO is a key building block for phase
locked loops, PLLs and frequency synthesizers. Their design is critical for the
performance of the system.

Within a phase locked loop, PLL, or frequency synthesizer, the performance of the
voltage controlled oscillator, VCO is of paramount importance. This is because the
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator performance determines many of the overall
performance characteristics of the overall synthesizer.

In order that the PLL or synthesizer can meet its full specification a well-designed
voltage controlled oscillator is essential. Designing a really high performance
voltage controlled oscillator, VCO, is not always easy as there are a number of
requirements that need to be met. However by careful design, and some
experimentation a good VCO design can be developed.

VCO requirements

Just like any other circuit, with a VCO there are a number of design requirements
that need to be known from the beginning of the design process. These basic
requirements for the VCO will govern many of the decisions concerning the circuit
topology and other fundamental aspects of the circuit. Some of the basic
requirements are:

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 VCO tuning range:   It is obvious that the voltage controlled oscillator must
be able to tune over the range that the loop is expected to operate over. This
requirement is not always easy to meet and may require the VCO or resonant
circuit to be switched in some extreme circumstances.
 VCO tuning gain:   The gain of the voltage controlled oscillator is
important. It is measured in terms of volts per Hz (or V/MHz, etc). As
implied by the units it is the tuning shift for a given change in voltage. The
voltage controlled oscillator gain affects some of the overall loop design
considerations and calculations.

Voltage controlled oscillator V/f curves

The VCO response curves can be seen to be relatively straight at lower

frequencies. However they normally flatten out at higher voltages where the
changes in capacitance from the varactor diodes reduce.

 VCO V/f slope:   It is a key requirement for any voltage controlled oscillator
used in a phase locked loop that the voltage to frequency curve is
monotonic, i.e. it always changes in the same sense, typically increasing
frequency for increasing voltage. If it changes, as can happen in some
instances normally as a result of spurious resonances, etc, this can cause the
loop to become unstable. Accordingly, this must be prevented if the phase
locked loop is to operate satisfactorily.

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 Voltage controlled oscillator V/f curves

This curve shows a small dip and would result in the phase locked loop
becoming unstable.

 Phase noise performance:   The phase noise performance of the voltage

controlled oscillator is of particular importance in some PLL applications -
particularly where they are used in frequency synthesizers. Here the phase
noise performance of the VCO determines many of the overall phase noise
performance characteristics of the overall loop and the overall synthesizer if
used in one.

These are some of the main requirements that need to be known from the outset of
the design of the VCO. The overall tuning range and the gain are basic
requirements that are part of the basic design of any PLL into which the VCO may
be incorporated. So too is the phase noise characteristic. As phase noise is a basic
parameter of any PLL or frequency synthesizer, so too is the characteristic of the
VCO, and low phase noise VCOs are often required. For example the VCO
performance may govern the overall design of the frequency synthesizer or PLL, if
a given phase noise performance is to be met.

VCO feedback

Like any oscillator, a VCO may be considered as an amplifier and a feedback loop.
The gain of the amplifier may be denoted as A and the feedback as B.

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 Feedback around an amplifier in an oscillator

For the circuit to oscillate the total phase shift around the loop must be 360° and
the gain must be unity. In this way signals are fed back round the loop so that they
are additive and as a result, any small disturbance in the loop is fed back and builds
up. In view of the fact that the feedback network is frequency dependent, the build-
up of signal will occur on one frequency, the resonant frequency of the feedback
network, and a single frequency signal is produced.

Many oscillators and hence VCOs use a common emitter circuit. This in itself
produces a phase shift of 180°, leaving the feedback network to provide a further
180°.

Other oscillator or VCO circuits may use a common base circuit where there is no
phase shift between the emitter and collector signals (assuming a bipolar transistor
is used) and the phase shift network must provide either 0° or 360°.

For the oscillator to oscillate on a given frequency, the system includes a resonant
circuit to ensure that the oscillation occurs on a given frequency. The resonant
circuit can be one of a number of configurations from an LC resonant circuit in
either series or parallel resonance dependent upon the circuit, or a quartz crystal,
etc.

Colpitts and Clapp VCO circuits

Two commonly used examples of VCO circuits are the Colpitts and Clapp
oscillators. Of the two, the Colpitts circuit is the most widely used, but these
circuits are both very similar in their configuration.

These circuits operate as oscillators because it is found that a active device such as
a bipolar transistor with capacitors placed between the base and emitter (C1) and
the emitter and ground (C2) fulfils the criteria required for providing sufficient

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feedback in the correct phase to produce an oscillator. For oscillation to take place
the ratio C1 : C2 must be greater than one.

The resonant circuit is made by including a inductive element between the base
and ground. In the Colpitts circuit this consists of just an inductor, whereas in the
Clapp circuit an inductor and capacitor in series are used.

The conditions for resonance is that:

The capacitance for the overall resonant circuit is formed by the series combination
of the two capacitors C1 and C2 in series. In the case of the Clapp oscillator, the
capacitor in series with the inductor is also included in series with C1 and C2.

Thus the series capacitance is:

In order to make the oscillator tune it is necessary to vary the resonant point of the
circuit. This is best achieved by adding a capacitor across the indictor in the case of
the Colpitts oscillator. Alternatively for the Clapp oscillator, it can be the capacitor
in series with the inductor.

For high frequency applications a circuit where the inductive reactance is placed
between the base and ground is often preferred as it is less prone to spurious
oscillations and other anomalies.

Choice of VCO active device

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It is possible to use both bipolar devices and FETs within a VCO, using the same
basic circuit topologies. The bipolar transistor has a low input impedance and is
current driven, while the FET has a high input impedance and is voltage driven.
The high input impedance of the FET is able to better maintain the Q of the tuned
circuit and this should give a better level of performance in terms of the phase
noise performance where the maintenance of the Q of the tuned circuit is a key
factor in the reduction of phase noise.

Another major factor is the flicker noise generated by the devices. Oscillators are
highly non-linear circuits and as a result the flicker noise is modulated onto VCO
as sidebands and this manifests itself as phase noise. In general bipolar transistors
offer a lower level of flicker noise and as a result VCOs based around them offer a
superior phase noise performance.

VCO tuning

To make a VCO, the oscillator needs to be tuned by a voltage. This can be

achieved by making the variable capacitor from varactor diodes. The tune voltage
for the VCO can then be applied to the varactors.

Voltage controlled oscillator circuit

It will be noticed that the control line from the phase detector is isolated from the
varactor diodes using a resistor. RF chokes do not work well as they become part
of the resonant circuit and tend to introduce the possibility of spurious resonances
and non-monotonic V/f curves. Resistor values around 10kΩ often work well.
Much lower than this and insufficient RF isolation is provided and this can lower
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the Q of the tuned circuit; much higher than this and the source impedance may be
too high. A little experimentation may be needed to find the optimum value.

The series capacitor C3 is used to block the DC from the inductor otherwise it
would provide a direct short to ground and upset the bias arrangements of the
circuit. Its value is normally large in comparison with C1 and C2 and can be
ignored from the resonance perspective.

VCO varactor issues

When varactor diodes are used within a voltage controlled oscillator, care must be
taken in the design of the circuit to ensure that the drive level in the tuned circuit is
not too high. If this is the case, then the varactor diodes may be driven into forward
conduction, reducing the Q and increasing the level of spurious signals.

There are two main types of varactor diode that may be used within a VCO - the
names refer to the junction within the diode and this affects their performance.

 Abrupt :   As the name indicates, abrupt diodes, have a relatively sharp

transition between the areas of the diode, but not as sharp as their cousins the
hyper-abrupt diode.. While abrupt varactor diodes do not offer such a high
tuning range or linear transfer characteristic they are able to offer a higher Q.
This results in a better phase noise (i.e. low phase noise) performance for the
voltage controlled oscillator, VCO. The other point to note is that they may
need a high tuning voltage to provide the required tuning range, as some
diodes may require a tuning voltage for the VCO to vary up to 50 volts or
slightly more.
 Hyper-abrupt :   Hyper-abrupt diodes have a relatively linear voltage :
capacitance curve and as a result they offer a very linear tuning
characteristic that may be required in some applications. They are also able
to tune over a wide range, and may typically tune over an octave range with
less than a 20 volt change in tuning voltage. However they do not offer a
particularly high level of Q. As this will subtract from the overall Q of the
tuned circuit this will mean that the phase noise performance is not
optimum.

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The design of a VCO voltage controlled oscillator can be interesting and
challenging. Whether the aim is to design a low noise VCO, a low current VCO, a
PLL VCO, or one that will cover a wide tuning range there are many aspects that
need to be addressed. Often when a successful design has been obtained, it will
slightly modified to enable it to cover a wide range of similar applications.

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