Subject Name: Manufacturing Process

Subject Code: ME-3004

Semester: 3rd
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Notes of Unit-1
ME-3004 Manufacturing Process, Mechanical Engineering, III-Semester
Casting: Types of casting process. Molding and Foundry core sands and their properties, gating, runners, risers,
solidification, defects and elimination, molding machines, centrifugal casting, dye casting, shell molding; Lost
wax molding; continuous casting; cupola description and operation.

Metal Casting

Introduction

Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the benefit of cast metal products. The metal casting
industry plays a key role in all the major sectors of our economy. There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks,
aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and homes.

Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring molten metal into
a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal
object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is
called the casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable
by any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat resisting
material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of
metal can also be used to cast products.

Advantages

The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this process.
As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or
eliminated.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be achieved.
4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for
production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a limitation
to this technique. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration
the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting process,
investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process, and shell molding process.
2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process

Casting Terms

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag –
lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate molding flask used in three piece
molding.
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 2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture
of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings
and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity.
In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also
known as “feed head”.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

Steps in Making Sand Castings

There are five basic steps in making sand castings:

1. Patternmaking
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning

Pattern making
The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold. The mold is made by packing some
readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand, around the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn,
its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. If the casting is
to be hollow, as in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to form these
cavities.
Core making
Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of
castings. Thus, the void space between the core and mold-cavity surface is what eventually becomes the
casting.
Molding
Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal. Molding usually
involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern
to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and finishing and closing the mold.
Melting and Pouring
The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. Melting is usually done in a
specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the
molds are filled.
Cleaning
 Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting.
Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the
form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects and general
quality is performed.
Molding and Foundry core sands and their properties
Molding sand, also known as foundry sand, is a sand that when moistened and compressed or oiled or
heated tends to pack well and hold its shape.

1. Constituents of Molding Sand

The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder, moisture content and additives.
1.1 Silica sand
Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of molding sand having enough refractoriness
which can impart strength, stability and permeability to molding and core sand. But along with silica small
amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime stone (CaCO3), magnesia, soda and potash are present as impurities. The
chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the impurities like lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. present. The
presence of excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and lime can lower the fusion point to a considerable
extent which is undesirable. The silica sand can be specified according to the sand grain size and the shape
(angular, sub-angular and rounded) of the sand.
1.2 Binder
Binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. Binders included in the inorganic group are clay sodium silicate

binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc. Binders of organic group are
mostly used for core making. Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most commonly
used. However, this clay alone can’t develop bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture
content in molding sand and core sand.
1.3 Moisture
The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies from 2 to 8%. This amount is added to the mixture
of clay and silica sand for developing bonds. This is the amount of water required to fill the pores between the
particles of clay without separating them. This amount of water is held rigidly by the clay and is mainly
responsible for developing the strength in the sand. The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with
increasing clay and moisture content. The green compressive strength first increases with the increase in clay
content, but after a certain value, it starts decreasing. For increasing the molding sand characteristics some
other additional materials besides basic constituents are added which are known as additives.
1.4 Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop some special
property in the sand. Some commonly used additives for enhancing the properties of molding and core sands
are coal dust, corn flour, dextrin, sea coal, pitch, wood flour, silica flour.
 2. Different types of Molding Sand:
Molding sands can also be classified into various types according to their use are backing sand, core sand, dry
sand, facing sand, green sand, loam sand, parting sand, system sand.
2.1 Backing sand or floor sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole volume of the
molding flask. Backing sand is sometimes called black sand because of old, repeatedly used molding sand is
black in color due to addition of coal dust and burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.
2.2 Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. Core sand is highly rich silica
sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other
bind materials. Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for the sake of economy.
2.3 Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores is called dry sand. It
possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. Dry sand is mainly used for larger castings. Mold
prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds.
2.4 Facing sand
Facing sand forms the face of the mould. It is next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact with
molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given
fractoriness. Facing sand is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of already used sand. Different forms of carbon are us

the sand. A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of 25% fresh and specially prepared and
5% sea coal. They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine molding sand to make facings. The layer
of facing sand in a mold usually ranges between 20-30 mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole amount of molding
sand is the facing sand.
2.5 Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of silica sand with 18
to 30% clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is
fine, soft, light, and porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the shape and the
impression to give to it under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing and hence are
known as green sand molds. Green sand is easily available and it possesses low cost. Green sand is commonly
employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
2.6 Loam sand
Loam sand is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high clay as
much as 30-50% and 18% of water. Patterns are not used for loam molding and shape is given to mold by
sweeps. Loam sand is particularly employed for loam molding used for large grey iron castings.
2.7 Parting sand
Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to the pattern and also to
allow the sand to the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without clinging. Parting sand is clean clay-
free silica sand which serves the same purpose as parting dust.
3. Properties of Molding sand
The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are adhesiveness, cohesiveness, collapsibility,
flowability, dry strength, green strength, permeability, refractoriness described as under.
3.1 Adhesiveness
Adhesiveness is a property of molding sand to get the stick or adhere to foreign material such sticking of
molding sand with the inner wall of molding box.
3.2 Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and attract each
other within the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand gets enhanced to increase the
green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core sand.
3.3 Collapsibility
After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so that free contraction
of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal. In absence
of collapsibility property the contraction of the metal is hindered by the mold and thus results in tears and
in the This property is highly required in cores.
cracks
3.4 Dry strength
As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer adjacent to the hot metal

gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of
mould wall during the flow of molten metal. The dry strength also prevents the enlargement of mould cavity
cause by the metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.
3.5 Flowability or plasticity
Flowability or plasticity is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It will flow uniformly
to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions.
Generally sand particles resist moving around corners or projections. In general, flowability increases with
decrease in green strength and vice versa. Flowability increases with decrease in grain size of sand. The
flowability also varies with moisture and clay content in sand.
3.6 Green strength
The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and toughness to permit the
making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e. they must be capable of
attaching themselves to another body and. therefore, and sand grains having high adhesiveness will cling to the
sides of the molding box. Also, the sand grains must have the property known as cohesiveness i.e. ability of the
sand grains to stick to one another. By virtue of this property, the pattern can be taken out from the mould
without breaking the mould and also erosion of mould wall surfaces does not occur during the flow of molten
metal. The green strength also depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and type of clay and the
moisture content.
3.7 Permeability
Permeability is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any air, gases or
moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it. All these gaseous
generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective.
Permeability is a function of grain size, grain shape, and moisture and clay contents in the molding sand. The
extent of ramming of the sand directly affects the permeability of the mould. Permeability of mold can be
further increased by venting using vent rods.
3.8 Refractoriness
Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures without breaking down
or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly important characteristic of molding sands.
Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent. Molding sand with poor refractoriness may burn on to
the casting surface and no smooth casting surface can be obtained. The degree of refractoriness depends on
the SiO2 i.e. quartz content, and the shape and grain size of the particle. The higher the SiO2 content and the
rougher the grain volumetric composition the higher is the refractoriness of the molding sand and core sand.
Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand rather than its melting point.
3.9 Miscellaneous properties of molding sand
In addition to above requirements, the molding sand should not stick to the casting and should not chemically react w

for economic reasons. Its coefficients of thermal expansion need be sufficiently low.

Molding Processes

Dry Sand Molding

When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the molds, air-dried molds are sometimes
preferred to green sand molds. Two types of drying of molds are often required.

1. Skin drying and

2. Complete mold drying.

In skin drying a firm mold face is produced. Shakeout of the mold is almost as good as that obtained with green
sand molding. The most common method of drying the refractory mold coating uses hot air, gas or oil flame.
Skin drying of the mold can be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed at the mold surface.

Shell Molding Process

It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a thermosetting resin is allowed to come in contact with a heated
pattern plate (200 oC), this causes a skin (Shell) of about 3.5 mm of sand/plastic mixture to adhere to the
pattern.. Then the shell is removed from the pattern. The cope and drag shells are kept in a flask with necessary
backup material and the molten metal is poured into the mold.
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This process can produce complex parts with good surface finish 1.25 µm to 3.75 µm, and dimensional
tolerance of 0.5 %. A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need for machining. The process
overall is quite cost effective due to reduced machining and cleanup costs. The materials that can be used with
this process are cast irons, and aluminum and copper alloys.

Figure: Schematic diagram of Shell Molding

Molding Sand in Shell Molding Process

The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand and powdered bakelite. There are two methods of
coating the sand grains with bakelite. First method is Cold coating method and another one is the hot method
of coating.

In the method of cold coating, quartz sand is poured into the mixer and then the solution of powdered bakelite
in acetone and ethyl aldehyde are added. The typical mixture is 92% quartz sand, 5% bakelite, 3% ethyl
aldehyde. During mixing of the ingredients, the resin envelops the sand grains and the solvent evaporates,
leaving a thin film that uniformly coats the surface of sand grains, thereby imparting fluidity to the sand
mixtures.

In the method of hot coating, the mixture is heated to 150-180 o C prior to loading the sand. In the course of
sand mixing, the soluble phenol formaldehyde resin is added. The mixer is allowed to cool up to 80 – 90 o C.
This method gives better properties to the mixtures than cold method.

Sodium Silicate Molding Process

In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium silicate-based binder. For molds, the sand
mixture can be compacted manually, jolted or squeezed around the pattern in the flask. After compaction, CO 2
gas is passed through the core or mold. The CO 2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate to cure, or harden,
the binder. This cured binder then holds the refractory in place around the pattern. After curing, the pattern is
withdrawn from the mold.

The sodium silicate process is one of the most environmentally acceptable of the chemical processes available.
The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs water, which

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causes a porosity in the castings.. Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold wall, shakeout and
collapsibility characteristics can slow down production. Some of the advantages of the process are:

 A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives the casting good dimensional
tolerances;
 good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable;

Permanent Mold Process

In all the above processes, a mold need to be prepared for each of the casting produced. For large-scale
production, making a mold, for every casting to be produced, may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a
permanent mold, called the die may be made from which a large number of castings can be produced. , the
molds are usually made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as mold
materials. The process in which we use a die to make the castings is called permanent mold casting or gravity
die casting, since the metal enters the mold under gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject the molten metal
with a high pressure. When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting process.

Advantages

 Permanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior mechanical properties.
 The castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher degree of dimensional accuracy than
castings produced in sand
 The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent quality of finish on castings

Disadvantages

 The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings

 The process is generally limited to the production of small castings of simple exterior design, although
complex castings such as aluminum engine blocks and heads are now commonplace.

Centrifugal Casting

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it. Because of the
centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and other
inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and segregate towards the center. This process is
normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a
concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to
be used for making the concentric hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis
or about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mold
cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the
mold.

Advantages

 Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

 Less material required for gate
 Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity

Disadvantages
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  More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
 Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
 Inaccurate internal diameter

Investment Casting Process

The root of the investment casting process “lost wax” method dates back to at least the fourth millennium B.C.
The artists and sculptors of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia used the rudiments of the investment casting
process to create intricately detailed jewelry, pectorals and idols. The investment casting process also called
lost wax process begins with the production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings. A
pattern is needed for every casting to be produced. The patterns are prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene
in a metal dies. A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue to form an assembly. The mold is
prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry that can set at room temperature. The mold is then
heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean cavity behind. The mould is further hardened by
heating and the molten metal is poured while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is broken
and the casting taken out.

The basic steps of the investment casting process are:

1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns

2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
3. “Investing,” or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring
7. Knockout, cut-off and finishing.

Advantages

 Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

 Less material required for gate
 Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity

Disadvantages

 More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
 Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
 Inaccurate internal diameter

Ceramic Shell Investment Casting Process

The basic difference in investment casting is that in the investment casting the wax pattern is immersed in a
refractory aggregate before de-waxing whereas, in ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is built
around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a pattern into a slurry (refractory material such as zircon with
binder). After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry before the
next coating is applied. Thus, a shell is built up around the assembly. The thickness of this shell is dependent on
the size of the castings and temperature of the metal to be poured.
After the ceramic shell is completed, the entire assembly is placed into an autoclave or flash fire furnace at a
high temperature. The shell is heated to about 982 degree C to burn out any residual wax and to develop a
high- temperature bond in the shell. The shell molds can then be stored for future use or molten metal can be
poured into them immediately. If the shell molds are stored, they have to be preheated before molten metal is
poured into them.

Advantages

 excellent surface finish

 tight dimensional tolerances
 machining can be reduced or completely eliminated

Gating System

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is called the gating
system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through which molten metal passes to enter
into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system depends upon the function of different channels
which they perform.

 Down gates or sprue

 Cross gates or runners
 Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and passes through
the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering into the mold cavity.

Goals of Gating System

The goals for the gating system are

 To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

 To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify
 To avoid shrinkage
 Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs
must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
 Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

Turbulence can be avoided by incorporating small changes in the design of gating system. The sharp changes in
the flow should be avoided to smooth changes. The gating system must be designed in such a way that the
system always runs full with the liquid metal. The most important things to remember in designing runners and
gates are to avoid sharp corners. Any changes in direction or cross sectional area should make use of rounded
corners.

To avoid the aspiration the tapered sprues are designed in the gating systems. A sprue tapered to a smaller size
at its bottom will create a choke which will help keep the sprue full of molten metal.
Types of Gating Systems

The gating systems are of two types:

 Pressurized gating system

 Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System

 The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity
 Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
 Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
 Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full
 Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more turbulence and chances of
mold erosion

Un-Pressurized Gating System

 The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity
 Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
 Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
 aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full
 Less turbulence

Riser

Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for shrinkage which takes
place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage
defects, either on the surface or internally.

Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers.

Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages.

1. during the liquid state

2. during the transformation from liquid to solid
3. during the solid state

First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the second type of
shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting which is last to freeze. A
riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be able to feed the casting during this
time.

Functions of Risers

 Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage

 Allow mold gases to escape
 Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact
Design Requirements of Risers
 1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of (volume / surface area)2 of the
riser must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this condition does not meet the metal in
the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the risers.
2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively calculating the
feeding distance of the risers.
3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical risers, although
considers as best, are difficult to cast. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can
be shaped as hemisphere.

Solidification of Metals

Transformation of molten metal back into solid state.

Solidification differs depending on whether the metal is a pure element or an alloy.

A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point (same as melting point).

Solidification of Pure Metals

•Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal is formed at the interface immediately after pouring
•“kin thickness increases to form a shell around the molten metal as solidification progresses
•Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold, as well as thermal properties of the metal
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Casting Defects

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

 Gas defects
 Shrinkage cavities
 Molding material defects
 Pouring metal defects
 Mold shift

Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases evolved
during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes and pinhole
porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the
casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of
molten metal.
Causes
The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the
mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high
percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture present in the mold.

 Metal contains gas

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 Mold is too hot

 Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To compensate for this,
proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the
mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is
recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.

Molding Material Defects

The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell.

Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of molding sand by the
flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten metal flowing at
high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be
overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Metal penetration

When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a rough casting surface. This occurs
because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand
grains more the metal penetration.

Fusion

This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the
casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that
the pouring temperature is too high.

Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension of
the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during pouring
solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold can
prevent this defect.
Pouring Metal Defects
The likely defects in this category are

 Mis-runs and
 Cold shuts.

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A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities.
A mis-run results when the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before freezing. Long,
thin sections are subject to this defect and should be avoided in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through more-
than- one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and become one solid. If the flowing metal
fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold
shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the
casting design.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section
thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of the metal and by
increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.

Mold Shift
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.
Molding Machines
Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into
a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into
shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process. Most die castings are made from non-
ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending
on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.
The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to
high- volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four main
steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially suited for a large quantity of small- to
medium- sized castings, which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die
castings are characterized by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and dimensional consistency.
There are two basic types of die casting machines: hot-chamber machines and cold-chamber machines. These
are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical ratings are between 2,500 and 25,400 kg.
Die casting
Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent mold casting process. It is used for producing many
components of home appliances (e.g rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing and drying machines, fridges), motors,
toys and hand-tools – since Pearl river delta is a largest manufacturer of such products in the world, this
technology is used by many HK-based companies. Surface finish and tolerance of die cast parts is so good that
there is almost no post-processing required. Die casting molds are expensive, and require significant lead time
to fabricate; they are commonly called dies. There are two common types of die casting: hot- and cold-chamber
die casting.
Hot-chamber die casting
In a hot chamber process (used for Zinc alloys, magnesium) the pressure chamber connected to the die cavity is
filled permanently in the molten metal. The basic cycle of operation is as follows:
(i) die is closed and gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal;
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck passage and nozzle and into the die cavity; metal
is held under pressure until it solidifies;
 (iii) die opens and cores, if any, are retracted; casting stays in ejector die; plunger returns, pulling
molten metal back through nozzle and gooseneck;
(iv) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die. As plunger uncovers inlet hole, molten metal refills
gooseneck cylinder. The hot chamber process is used for metals that
(a) have low melting points and
(b) do not alloy with the die material, steel; common examples are tin, zinc, and lead.

Schematic of a hot-chamber machine

Hot-chamber die casting, also known as gooseneck machines, rely upon a pool of molten metal to feed the die.
At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the
"gooseneck". The pneumatic- or hydraulic-powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the
die. The advantages of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the
convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that it is limited
to use with low-melting point metals and that aluminum cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron
while in the molten pool. Therefore, hot-chamber machines are primarily used with zinc-, tin-, and lead-based
alloys.
Shown in the following figure is an 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made in Germany in
1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world.
Cold-chamber die casting

A schematic of a cold-chamber die casting machine.

In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured into the cold chamber in each cycle.
The operating cycle is-
(v) Die is closed and molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber cylinder;
(vi) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity; the metal is held under high pressure until it solidifies;
(vii) die opens and plunger follows to push the solidified slug from the cylinder, if there are cores, they
are retracted away;
(viii) Ejector pins push casting off ejector die and plunger returns to original position.

This process is particularly useful for high melting point metals such as Aluminum, Copper (and its alloys), zinc
alloys with a large composition of aluminum and magnesium. The process for these machines start with
melting the metal in a separate furnace. Then a precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-
chamber machine where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven
into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston. The biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle
time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the cold-chamber machine.
These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are required to keep the
two halves of the dies closed.
Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine.
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Lost wax molding

Centrifugal Casting Process

Centrifugal casting uses a permanent mold that is rotated about its axis at a speed between 300 to 3000 rpm as
the molten metal is poured. Centrifugal forces cause the metal to be pushed out towards the mold walls, where
it solidifies after cooling. Parts cast in this method have a fine grain microstructure, which is resistant to
atmospheric corrosion; hence this method has been used to manufacture pipes. Since metal is heavier than
impurities, most of the impurities and inclusions are closer to the inner diameter and can be machined away.
The surface finish along the inner diameter is also much worse than along the outer surface.

The essential feature of centrifugal casting is the introduction of molten metal into a mold which is rotated
during solidification of the casting. The centrifugal force is relied upon for shaping and feeding the molten
metal with the utmost of detail as the liquid metal is thrown by the force of gravity into the designed crevices
and detail of the mold.

Cylindrical parts ranging from ∅13 mm to 3 m in diameter and 16 m long can be produced with wall thickness
ranging from 6 mm to 125 mm. The acceleration generated by the centrifugal force is high, as much as 150 g,
and is necessary for casting thick-walled parts. This process enables good dimensional accuracy, and external
surface detail. Typical products are pipes, bushings, engine cylinder liners, and bearing rings with or without
flanges. Apart from metallic products some glass and ceramic products (e.g. TV picture tubes and ceramic
membrane tubes) are also manufactured using this technique.

Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process. Wheels with spokes can be cast
by this process.

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 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process.

Continuous Casting
Continuous casting transforms molten metal into solid on a continuous basis and includes a variety of
important commercial processes. These processes are the most efficient way to solidify large volumes of metal
into simple shapes for subsequent processing. Most basic metals are mass-produced using a continuous casting
process, including over 500 million tons of steel, 20 million tons of aluminum, and 1 million tons of copper,
nickel, and other metals in the world each year. Continuous casting is distinguished from other solidification
processes by its steady state nature, relative to an outside observer in a laboratory frame of reference. The
molten metal solidifies against the mold walls while it is simultaneously withdrawn from the bottom of the
mold at a rate which maintains the solid / liquid interface at a constant position with time.

Relative to other casting processes, continuous casting generally has a higher capital cost, but lower operating
cost. It is the most cost- and energy- efficient method to mass-produce semifinished metal products with
consistent quality in a variety of sizes and shapes. Cross-sections can be rectangular, for subsequent rolling into
plate or sheet, square or circular for long products, and even “dog-bone” shapes, for rolling into I or H beams.
In the continuous casting, molten steel is poured from the tundish in the water cooled mold and partially
solidified bloom/billet or slab (hereafter called strand) is withdrawn from the bottom of the mold into water
spray so that solidified bloom/billet or slab is produced constantly and continuously. Continuous casting is
widely adopted by steelmakers. The advantages of continuous casting over ingot casting are-
 Quality of the cast product is better
 No need to have slabbing / blooming or billet mill as required when ingot casting is used.
 Higher extent of automation is possible
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 Width of the slab can be adjusted with the downstream strip mill.
 Continuously cast products show less segregation.
 Hot direct charging of the cast product for rolling is possible which leads to energy saving.

The essential components of a continuous casting machine are tundish, water cooled mold, water spray and
torch cutters. Tundish, mold and water spray are arranged such that molten stream is poured from tundish to
mold and solidified strand (billet/bloom/billet) is produced continuously. The required length of the strand is
cut by torch cutter. In the given Figure the arrangement of tundish, mold and water spray is shown. Various
continuous casting processes are shown in Figure

Melting:

Electric furnaces include direct arc and induction furnaces, which are more widely preferred by newer
foundries owing to ease of control over temperature and composition, and high melting rate. In arc furnace,
the heat is generated between the electrodes and transferred to the metal. In induction furnace, the heat is
generated in the metal itself by eddy currents. Induction furnaces can be classified depending on the location
of the induction coil (cored and coreless), and frequency of current (high or medium). Most widely used
melting equipment include cupola, oil/gas fired furnaces (including crucible and rotary furnaces), direct arc
furnace and induction furnace. The cupola is the simplest and the most economical, and most suited for grey
iron. Layers of pig iron, coke and flux (limestone) are charged into the cupola; air for combustion is blown
through several openings (tuyeres). Use of hot air blast and double row tuyeres improves cupola efficiency. Oil
or gas fired crucible furnaces
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are suitable for melting small quantities of metal, usually non-ferrous. The crucible is usually
and clay.

Electric furnaces include direct arc and induction furnaces, which are more widely preferred by newer
foundries owing to ease of control over temperature and composition, and high melting rate. In arc furnace,
the heat is generated between the electrodes and transferred to the metal. In induction furnace, the heat is
generated in the metal itself by eddy currents. Induction furnaces can be classified depending on the location
of the induction coil (cored and coreless), and frequency of current (high or medium).

Electric induction furnaces are the most common type used for batch melting of ferrous, copper and super
alloys. This method involves the use of an electrical current surrounding a crucible that holds the metal charge.
Furnace sizes range from < 100 kg up to 15 tons. For production of super alloys and titanium, melting may be
undertaken in a vacuum chamber to prevent oxidation.

Cupola description and operation

The cupola is the simplest and the most economical, and most suited for grey iron. Layers of pig iron, coke and
flux (limestone) are charged into the cupola; air for combustion is blown through several openings (tuyeres).
Use of hot air blast and double row tuyeres improves cupola efficiency.

Cupolas are used solely by iron foundries for continuous production of molten iron. The cupola consists of a
shaft in which a coke bed is established. Metal, coke and limestone are alternately charged into the furnace
from the top. Molten metal trickles through the coke bed picking up essential carbon, while impurities react
with the limestone to form waste slag. Both metal and slag are continuously tapped out at the bottom. Metal
throughputs of 1 to 45 tons per hour are achieved.

***

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