MODULE 1: GRAPHIC LANGUAGE OF CONSTRUCTION

Architectural drawings are technical drawings used to translate a design idea intended for human
shelter and protection.

Types of Technical Drawings:

1. Manual Drafting
2. Computer-aided Drawing

Components of Architectural Drawings:

1. Floor Plans
2. Roof Plans
3. Elevations
4. Sections
5. Reflected Ceiling Plans
6. Schedule of Doors & Windows
7. Kitchen Details
8. Toilet & Bath Details
9. Stairs Details
10. Perspective Drawings
11. Site Development Plan
12. Location Plan
13. Vicinity Map
14. Door Details
15. Foundation Plan
16. Column Footing Details
17. Wall Footing Details
18. Floor Framing Plan
19. Floor R.C. Beam Details
20. Roof Framing Plan
21. Truss & Rafter Details
22. Stairs Framing Details
23. Wall Framing Details

The National Building Code of the Philippines provides not only building laws but most of the
requirements of the production of drawing documents.

Size of the main door: 0.90m

Recommended kitchen counter height: 0.85m
Information included in SDP for compliance: Building easements
Foundation plan consist of: Column footing, wall footing, slab-on-fill
Part of a truss: Bottom chord, top chord, vertical strut, collar plate, wood plate, wood girt, wood post
Components of an A-01 sheet: Vicinity Map, Location Plan, SDP, Perspective

MODULE 2: PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURES

Force is any physical influence that is capable of changing the state of rest or motion of a body.

Factors: Speed, direction of motion, geometry of an object

Structural Performance Objectives:

1. Strength – Buildings and its components should be strong enough to resist deformations
2. Stability – Buildings should be stable enough to resist excessive acceleration
3. Serviceability – Buildings should allow for an undisturbed performance of human activities

Load is a technical term that simply refers to forces acting on structural elements.

Types of Loads:

1. Dead Loads – Fixed loads from the weight of the structure itself
2. Live Loads – External to the framework of the structure, and are transient and in motion; Value
of live loads are based on the type of occupancy

Hospital – 2.00 KN/m^2

Offices & Residential Spaces – 2.50
Library – 3.00
Storage – 4.80

Computations of dead loads are based on the density of the materials used.
Dead loads and live loads combined are collectively known as “gravity loads.”

3. Based on Source: Dynamic Environmental Loads – Environmental loads that are characterized by
rapid changes in direction of movement and magnitude of loads, ie. Unpredictable rapid
acceleration. Earthquake loads, wind loads

Dynamic Load Dominance (Tall & Slender Building)

- Effects of lateral loads are not linear, and they intensify rapidly with increases in height

Gravity Load Dominance (Low-Rise Buildings)

- Pre-dominantly governed by gravity loads. Though lateral loads may have smaller impacts, they
cannot be ignored.

4. Based on Distribution:
Concentrated or Point Loads – Singular forces concentrated at designated points (Unit: Newton).
Girded trusses carried by a ridge beam, columns, and a water tank over a roof deck
 Uniformly Distributed Loads – Constant continuous load distributed over a designated length
(N/m). Uniform concrete slabs over beams

Uniformly Varying Loads – Continuous load varying with a constant slope, distributed over a
designated length (N/m). Varying weight or load applied along length of a supporting beam or
mat foundation. Wind loads and earthquake loads

Stress is defined as force per unit area that the force acts upon. They are internal manifestations
of externally applied loads. Stress – rigid objects, Pressure – fluids (soil, water)

Types:

Compression – Tends to shorten an object or a material

Tension – Tends to lengthen an object or a material

Structural materials are chosen based on their ability to resist compressive or tensile stresses;
are strategically arranged based on the location of the compressive & tensile stresses in
structural elements

Design and selection of structural connections are also based on the types of stresses present
where the joint will be made

Optimized shaping of structural form is also based on the types of stresses present and the
deformations they produce

Deformations are changes in the geometry or the material form of objects or structural
elements as a result of being subjected to loads and stresses.

If the stress applied to a material exceeds its strength, this may result to permanent
deformation and may lead to eventual material collapse

Variations in Deformations:

1. Application of Loads
2. Type of stresses present
3. Location of stresses in the object

Axial Deformation

Axial Load – loads are acting in the direction parallel to the length of the object

Axial Stresses in Compression or Tension – Induces internal axial stresses along the length of the object,
ie. Uni-axial stress
Axial Deformation – Result to simple shortening or elongation of the material along its length, ie. Uni-
axial deformation

Main concern: If the coress-sectional area of the material is sufficient to resist axial stress

Arches, Truss Web Members, Cable Structures

Bending Deformation

Lateral Loads – Loads are placed transverse to or perpendicular to the direction of the length of the
object or the structural member

Compression and Tension but in different Zones – Induces simultaneous compressive and tensile
stresses that can be found within different zones of the object or the structural member

Bending or Flexural Deformation – Manifests in the form of a curvilinear deformation due to

simultaneous compressive and tensile stresses at different zones within the object or structural member

Columns, Beams, Joists

Main concern: Locating where the compressive and tensile stresses are concentrated so that proper
allocation and layout of materials can be made

In bending, we also check if there is sufficient depth in the material’s axis that is oriented to resist
against the lateral load

Shearing Deformation

Lateral Loads

Compression and Tension at the Same Points

Shearing deformation – Manifests in the form of material planes being pushed opposite from each other

Tension stretches the resisting material making it thinner and reduces the material’s resistance to
compression

The lurking compressive stress will eventually overwhelm the thinner section of the material and will
thus result to the observed shearing deformation

Main concern: Same with bending, locating where the compressive and tensile stresses are
concentrated
Ensure proper orientation of material fivers against the predicted the direction of shearing, true for
wood or timber materials.

Columns, Beams, Joists

Against Bending:

Where there is concentration of tension, there are more flexural long rebars

Splicing of rebars is not allowed at points where there are bending

A “camber” may also be introduced to resist projected deflection

Against Shearing

Where there is a concentration of intersecting tension and compression:

More tightly spaced stirrups to resist tension

Concrete pouring must be monolithic, stopping of concrete pouring can only be allowed where there is
no shearing deformation

Against Axial Deformation - Wood

Wood grain is oriented parallel to the axial stress

Against Shearing and Bending - Wood

Wood grain is oriented perpendicular to the loads; Ensure that the deeper axis of the structural member
is oriented against the load; Metal straps are used to supplement resistance at points with large stress

Against Splitting - Wood

Nails should be installed perpendicular to the grain of the wood

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Wind Loads/High Velocity Winds, most vulnerable would be lightweight structures; roofing systems,
fenestrations, and building projections are most vulnerable

Main concern: Minimizing resulting debris from building damage

Earthquake Loads/Ground Shaking, resulting building acceleration forced is responsible for most
damage to buildings

Building with complex shapes suffer concentrated damages at their corners where different shapes
merge; Building may sway excessively, buildings with unequal mass distribution, with soft storeys, or tall
or slender components

Short columns have the tendency to quickly accumulate shearing deformations during earthquake

Structural members, such as beams and columns, may be torn from each other

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Structural Categorization by Heinrich Engel

Section Active – Steel Column-Beam Framing

Most common; relies on sectional properties of rigid components (columns, beams, slabs, footing)

Form Active – Tensile Fabric, Arches, chain or rope strutures

Naturally deflects or deforms then becomes stable upon loading; subjected to purely axial stresses only

Vector Active – Geodesic Domes, Trusses

Transfer loads via series of interlinked slender rigid components (webs). Dependent on the geometry
and orientation of web members, ie. Vector quality. Subject to purely axial stresses

Surface Active – Concrete Shell Structures, concrete & masonry domes, diaphragms (floors and walls)
Capable of resisting axial (compression & tension) and shear tresses; Any applied load are redirected via
the shape of the structure

Modern buildings do not just utilize a single system; most modern buildings are constructed as
structural hybrids

Typical Building Frame for Highrises: Section Active (columns & beams), Vector Active (bracing system),
Surface Active (shear walls & floor slabs)

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Wood/ Timber: Natural/Organic Material

Creep – deflection (in beams), buckling (in columns)

Concrete: Composite Material

Strong against compression but weak against tension; isotropic – has uniform structural properties in all
axes

Cement – Pozzolan and Portland; binding agent

Aggregates or Gravel – source of compressive strength
Sand – filler to occupy gaps, minimize honeycombs
Water – catalyst of the chemical reaction

Class AA – 1:1/2:3 – 4000 – 3500psi (Probable Strength after 28 days)

Class A – 1:2:4 – 3000 – 2500psi
Class B - 1:2.5:5 – 2000 – 1000psi
Class C – 1:3:6 – 1000 – 500psi
Class D – 1:3.5-7 – less than 500psi

Cement-to-water ratio is the most important determinant of the concrete’s workability and final
compressive strength

Slump Test:

Cone dimension: Base diameter – 200mm; Top diameter – 100mm; Height – 300mm

Class AA – 2.00 +/- 1 inches (maximum allowable slump)

Class A – 2.5
Class B – 3.0
Class C – 3.5
Class D – 4.0

Reinforced foundations, wall & footings – 3.0 inches max, 1.0 min
Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls – 3.0
Beams and reinforced walls – 4.0
Columns – 4.0
Pavement and slabs – 3.0

Reinforcement Steel (Rebars)

Metal alloy combining iron and carbon. Are rods used as tension devices in reinforced concrete or
masonry

Very strong against tension, but buckle under compression because of its slender proportion. To prevent
buckling, a concrete fill within and around the rebars are required

Fatigue, microscopic cracks due to cyclic loading and unloading

Rebars have ribs or lugs to increase surface are and ensure proper adhesion within concrete
Strength grade of common rebars:

Grade 33/ PNS S230 – Structural Grade – For non-structural elements, divider walls – 230 MPa – White
Grade 40/ PNS S275 – Intermediate Grade – Low to Medium-rise buildings; Infra (Structural elements) –
275 MPa – Yellow
Grade 60/ PNS S415 – High-Tensile Grade – Medium to High-rise Buildings; Infra (Structural elements) –
415 MPa – Green

Corrosion – They must be covered by concrete to minimize exposure to moisture

Minimum Concrete Cover

Cast-in-Place Concrete (Not in Contact with the ground)

Slab, Walls, Joists

42mm & 58mm Dia. Bars – 40mm Min. Concrete Cover

36mm & smaller – 20mm

Beams& Columns: Primary Reinforcements, Ties, Stirrups, Spirals – 40mm

Cast-in-Place Concrete (In Contact with the ground)

Beams& Columns: Primary Reinforcements, Ties, Stirrups, Spirals – 75mm

Amount of Water is the most important factor that determines the final strength of concrete

Bending and shearing deformations originate from Lateral Loads

Wind Loads is the dominant load consideration for buildings with heights above two hundred
meters (200m)

Splice flexural rebars at points where there is maximum bending  is not recommended when
constructing a reinforced concrete beam.
Recommended:

Where there are large shear stresses, stirrups should be numerous and closely spaced to each
other.
Where there are large shear stresses, concrete pouring should be uninterrupted.
Splice flexural rebars at points where there is no bending.

2.50 KN/m^2 is the live load of an office occupancy according to the National Structural Code
of the Philippines
When compressive and tensile stresses intersect at the same points inside a structural
member, it can lead to shearing deformation
Against axial compression, orient the grains perpendicular to the load is not recommended when
using wood as a structural (and construction) material
Recommended:

Install fasteners such as nails perpendicular to the grain.

Against lateral loads, orient the grains perpendicular to the load.

When choosing wood for structural members, look for those cut along the grain.

Hospital wards and rooms most likely have the least amount of live loads.

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MODULE 3: Principles of Geodetic Engineering and Surveying

Geodetic Engineering: A professional and organized act of gathering physical date on the surface
of the earth with the use of precision instruments. It is also the scientific and methodical
processing of these data and presenting them on graphs, maps, charts, or documents.

National Mapping and Resources Information Authority – lead agency which coordinates and
integrates mapping and surveying activities in the Philippines

Land Management Sector under DENR, Department of Agrarian Reform, Land Registration
Authority: Perform surveying and mapping activities involving survey and approval for titling of
lands classified as alienable and disposable
Lot survey, topographic survey, hydrographic survey, hazard mapping, utilities mapping,
political boundary survey, existing building survey, zoning location survey, right of way survey,
easement mapping, improvement location survey, etc.
Transfer Certificate of Title (TCT) is the first document that architects are looking for in the
preparation of architectural proposal. It contains the area boundaries, orientation, and adjacent
land features
Primary information provided in TCT is the set of technical description of the lot. The order of
corner point numbering is always in clockwise direction.
Description of land features adjacent to the boundary lines; location of road lot; presence of body
of water
Topography map shows the terrain and relative elevation of the sidewalk and the road.
Significant slope can alter structures in terms of architectural layout and structural setup.
Includes existing trees, presence of utility trapping points for drainage and electricity; crucial to
determine the location of power, water and drainage outflow tapping points. Additional data may
be requested from the surveyor.
Need of lot plan and topography map prepared by a duly licensed geodetic engineer. A copy with
certification is required by building official for permit purposes.
A lot plan is presented in the architectural plan as described in the TCT.
In the SDP, the lot is reoriented according to the location of access road and frontage of the
building. The SDP must reflect the lot boundaries with technical description, corner points,
north sign, building footprint, and relevant dimension showing the building setback.

Lands that can be sold to private individuals = "alienable and disposal" lands *

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MODULE 4: PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMS FOR LIGHT STRUCTURES

The foundation system is the lowest part of a structure that is directly in contact with the ground. It
supports and carries all the loads above it and transmits them safely to the ground below it.

Any foundation system is designed according to the total loads transmitted to the ground and the
capacity of the ground to carry these loads.

Principal loads:

1. Dead load

2. Live load

3. Wind load

4. Earthquake

5. Soil pressure

6. Hydraulic pressure
The capacity of the ground to carry load is largely dependent on the type of soil, composition and
classification.

One way to classify soils is through the sizes of the particles and physical properties.

A sieve analysis is used to identify soil types according to the sizes of the particles.

The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) Is one of the two commonly used soil classification systems
developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for use in roads, embankment and foundations.

The other system is the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official Systems
(AASHTO) primary for highway construction and Maintenance.

Coarse-grained soils – 0.003inch (0.07mm) to 3.0inch (76.0mm)

-Cohesionless (Water easily drains through them; not affected by water or moisture)

GW, GP, G, SW, SP, SM, SC – G-Gravel; S-Sand; W-Well graded; P-Poorly Graded; M-Silt Mixture; C-
Clayey

Fine-grained soils – 0.0001inch (0.0025mm) to 0.003inch (0.00075mm)

ML, CL, OL, MH, CH, OH – L-Inorganic soil; O-Organic; H-Micaceous fine sandy or silty;

Pt – highly organic soil; unsuited as subgrade or surfacing material; Peat and other highly organic soil

Gravel – hard rock 0.25inch (6.4mm) to 3.0 inches (76.0mm)

Sand – 0.002inch (0.05mm) to 0.25inch (6.3mm); good drainage characteristics

Silt – Fine sand 0.00008inch (0.002mm) to 0.002inch (0.05mm) in diameter

Clay – Microscopic particles less than 0.00008inch (0.002mm); has cohesive property affected by water;
expands when wet and shrink when dry; unstable and unreliable for foundation

Organic matter – partly decomposed animal and vegetable matter

Structural design for any new structure may not be completed without sufficient information about the
type, properties, and load carrying-capacity of the ground

Soil geotechnical analysis is required for any structural design as basis for the foundation design

Boring holes > Gathering of soil samples > Tests and analysis

Objective: Soil classification, moisture content, soil bearing capacity

Minimum required boreholes per structure

Footprint area

A</ 50 m^2 – 1 Borehole

50<A</500 – 2 Borehole

A>/500 – 2+(A/1000)

Borehole:
Fall within the footprint of the structure and should be uniformly distributed
Depth of at least tm into hard strata or until suitable bearing layer is reached
For basements, depth of boring should extend to twice the least dimension of the structure’s
footprint

Soil bearing capacity is depended on the area affected, the size and shape of foundation
Sizes of column footings are expected to be bigger in fine-grained soils

Class of Materials Allowable Lateral Lateral Sliding

Foundation Bearing Coefficient Resistance
Pressure Below (kPa)
(kPa) Natural
Grade
(kPa/m
of
depth
“Intact” Tuffaceous Sandstone(a) 1000 300 - -
“Lightly Weathered” Tuffaceous Sandstone(b) 500 150 - -
Sandy Gravel and/or Gravel (GW & GP) 100 30 0.35 -
Well-Graded Sand, Poorly-Graded Sand, Silty 75 25 0.25 -
Sand, Clayey Sand, Silty Gravel and Clayey Gravel
(SW, SP, SM, SC, GM, and GC)
Clay, Sandy Clay, Silty Clay and Clayey Silt (CL, ML, 50 15 - 7
MH, and CH)

Footings: Minimum width of 300mm and a minimum depth of 300.

Allowable increase of 20% for each additional 300mm of width and/or depth to a maximum value of
three times the designated value. An increase of 1/3 is permitted when using alternate load
combinations.

Coefficient to be multiplied by the dead load.

Lateral sliding resistance to be multiplied by contact area. In no case shall the lateral sliding resistance
exceed one-half the dead load.
Differential settlement is the relative movement of the different parts of the foundation due to uneven
consolidation of soil particles.

Foundation systems are designed to accommodate minimal to uniform settlement

Foundation type:

Shallow foundation – used on supporting grounds with adequate bearing capacity close to the surface;
Spread footing – Equal or Greater than column loads
More affordable; Use in simple and light structures; Includes individual spread footing, combined
footing, continuous strip footing and mat footing
If the ground has sufficient carrying capacity, the size of the footing may be smaller

1. Individual Spread footing

2. Combined footing – rectangular(equal column loads/sizes); trapezoidal(unequal)
3. Pedestal – Steel or Wood column; RC Pedestal column above NGL
4. Strip Footing – RC Masonry Wall/Masonry Wall (CHB, Brick, Adobe, Natural Stones) Continuous
5. Basement Footing – RC Basement Wall; Water-proofing component; Negative, Positive, or
Integral Water-proofing
6. Mat Footing – Numerous column on a single footing; thicker section; to remove undisturbed soil
in between to avoid erosion; For low bearing capacity soil, for up to 5 storey building with
basement

Spread Footing Construction:

1. Structural Excavation
2. Placement of Gravel Bed and Compaction (0.075M THK, ¾” Crushed Gravel-3to4inches)
3. Placement of Footing Steel Bars – Has concrete cover spacer 75mm
4. Placement of Colum Steel Bars
5. Concrete Pouring of Footing
6. Placement of column forms and supports
7. Colum Casting and removal of forms
8. Backfill and Compaction – Every 8 inches compaction;
FDT – Field Density Test (95% Compaction)

Deep foundation – Involve the use of driven and drilled piles to get the required load-bearing capacity.
This is accomplished though the frictional forces developed on the sides of the piles and soil particles or
through resting on the load-bearing strata
Driven/Drilled Piles (Wood, Steel or Concrete)

Sieve Analysis is used to determine soil types according to particle sizes

USCS is the soil classification system developed by the US Army Corps of Engineering
SW is not classified as fine-grained

Sand does not belong to fine-grained soils

Concrete Piles , Steel Piles , Wood Piles belong to deep foundations

Basement Wall Footing is a type of shallow foundation requires waterproofing

The strip footing may be used for concrete hallow block wall.

Pedestal footing may be used in combination with steel columns.

Formworks are not required for casting of spread footings.

FDT is not used to determine the gravel bed compaction rate.

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Columns – vertical or nearly vertical members used to support and transmit mainly axial
compressive loads safety to foundations. Terms included are studs, struts, posts, piers, piles, and
shafts.
NSCP Column Ratio:

Height of column/Least lateral dimension = 3

*For tapered columns, the L is the average of the top and bottom dimensions of the smaller side

Composite Column Assembly – With timber posts, stiffener plates and funicular rods
Columns are given larger factors of safety than other structural elements while failure of a beam
or joist may only be localized.
Axial Loading – Stress: Axial Compression; Deformation: Axial Compression
Panthenon Column; symmetry > purely axially loaded

Eccentric Loading – Stress: Compression + Tension; Deformation: Axial Compression &

Bending
Ifugao’s bale first level columns; Difference in the alignment of second and first level columns
Lateral Loading – Stress: Compression + Tension; Deformation: Bending & Shearing
Interactions between beams and slabs onto columns (mostly thermal expansion & contraction);
Wind & earthquake loads
Modes of Failure:
1. Crushing – a material strength failure. Actual column compressive stress exceed its
allowable compressive strength; the least expected type of failure for columns; check if
correct class of concrete or specified material is used

Ideal Axial Stress: P/A = F(actual)</F(allowable)

P > Axial Compressive Load
A > Cross-Sectional area of column

2. Buckling – a geometric instability; Occur when a sudden, uncontrolled lateral

displacement at which point, no additional load can be supported; Occurs at lower level
than a column’s allowable compressive strength; most common type of failure

Can occur if column: is too slender(controlled in design), has local material imperfection,
has incidental axial eccentricity in its loading

Structural Types of Columns:

1. Short Column – most likely fail due to crushing; has no tendency to buckle
Found in slopping grade; mezzanine/intermediate lateral bracing; stairs; high and narrow
window cutting through masonry fill; buildings elevated on short pedestals or ventilated
basements

Captive Column Effect – restriction in the ability of the column to deform laterally
because of partial confinement by rigid building components

V(Shearing Forces) = M(a) + M(b)/h

Shear is greatly increased due to shortened column height

Use in-fill walls whose materials are less stiff compared to the sandwiched columns (RC
Column to Clay Tile/Block)

2. Long Column – will fail first due to buckling because of its slenderness
Found in slopping grade; atriums; Houses or buildings on stilts

Soft Storey Effect – a stiffnes irregularity. Occurs when one level of a building is
significantly more flexible or less stiff in lateral load resistance than the stories above it
and the floors or the foundation below it
 Interventions: Add columns or increase column thickness; Add or incorporate bracing;
add buttressing

3. Intermediate Column – May either fail by buckling or crushing

Structural Performance
Against Crushing: Avoid weak columns that tend to be crushed
*Monitor specified material; Ensure that its cross-sectional area is adequate to resist the
actual stress
*Require testing of material specimens, and tracking of construction activities such as
concrete pouring
*Material Testing:

a. Slump test – check amount of water in the concrete mix; ASTM C143 – Specifies the
standard procedure for conducting slump test
Beams and RC Walls; Columns – max of 4 inches slump
RC Foundations, walls & footings – max of 3 inches
Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls – max of 3 inches
Pavement & Slabs – max of 3 inches
b. Compression Test – measures the maximum amount of compressive load a material can
bear before fracturing; ASTM C39 specifies the standard procedure; mold dimension – 6
inches diameter x 12inches height; Test under a universal testing machine at seven to 28
days; mold as cubes – 6inchesx6inches or 8inchesx8inches
For RC columns:
Least cross-sectional dimension should be greater than or equal to 300mm, to be seismic
responsive
Least cross-sectional dimension over its perpendicular dimension must be greater than or
equal to 0.40
Area of steel in relation to concrete should be limited within 1% to 6% range

Against Buckling: Avoid slender columns that tend to buckle

*Determine critical buckling load for proper column sizing/max load a column can carry;
control column proportions; ensure correct implementation of connection details; provide
intermediate lateral bracing to reduce buckling tendency
Critical buckling as basis for column sizing or for evaluating maximum allowable loads
Critical buckling load or elastic stability limit – is the greatest load that will not cause lateral
deflection; formula was derived by Swiss mathematician – Leonhard Euler in 1757
P(critical) = pi^2(E)(lmin)/(kL)^2

E: modulus of elasticity of the column

lmin: smallest moment of inertia of the column’s cross section
k: effective length factor
L: Clear height of the column

As the length or height of the column increases, the critical buckling load approaches
zero
Slenderness Ratio – ratio of the column’s effective length and least radius of gyration

λ=Le/rmin
Le: effective length
rmin: least radius of gyration
Columns with higher slenderness ratios are more prone to buckling

Slenderness Ratio of Different Materials

Short Column: Steel <50; Concrete 10 & Below; Timber 10&Below
Intermediate: Steel >50-200; Concrete >10-22; Timber >10-50
Long: Steel >200; Concrete >22; Timber >50
*Columns without lateral bracing along their height
Radius of gyration – a cross-sectional property that determines a column’s resistance against
buckling

r=sqrt(Imin/A)

Imin: least moment of inertia of the column’s cross section

A: area of column’s cross section

A column with low radius of gyration will be more prone to buckling.

For non-uniform sections, a column will start to buckle at its axis with lower radius of
gyration(vertical axis)
Prefer column cross-sections with uniform radii of gyration

Circular sections: best shape into taking consideration axial compressive loads and buckling
Square sections and H sections: desired because they have almost equal radii of gyration;
easier to manufacture and construct
For non-uniform sections, we can provide lateral bracing against the axis with lower radius
of gyration
Resistance can also be increased by thickening the column’s section or incorporating
stiffening elements; Addition of finlike stiffener plates; funicular rods and perpendicular
struts spaced equally around the perimeter
In RC Columns, lateral ties and in-fill concrete prevent buckling of the slender vertical RC
bars; place steel reinforcements as far away as possible from the centroid of the column to
significantly increase its radius of gyration.
40mm concrete cover(not in contact with ground); 75mm (in contact with ground)

Effective Length & End Support Conditions – Actual length of the column that is free to
buckle; influenced by its end support conditions or the types of connections used to secure
the column

Le = kLa

k: effective length based on the type of connections

La: actual length or clear height of the column

Fixed, rigid or moment connection – provides resistance against both translational and
rotational movements in all directions
Fixed end support conditions for a column will have a k=0.50 will be reduced in half

Welded connections; Bolted connections; Cast-in-place connections

Against Rupture: Avoid brittle (non-ductile) columns that tend to rupture during extreme
lateral loading
Fixed to fixed end support – greatest resistance to buckling, largest strength capacities in terms of
supporting axial loads

Larger axial load capacities reduces the need for large column sizes, and maximizes availability of
habitable space

Wrong implementation of connection design during construction can significantly reduce the strength of
the column, and increase its buckling tendency

Supervision & Inspection

Reinforced Concrete:

Validate correct number, size, and yield strength; check planned location; Check concrete class mix
These are designed and specified by a structural engineer, and requires construction manager to be able
to interpret structural drawings & specifications correctly

Strength grade of common rebars:

Grade 33/ PNS S230 – Structural Grade – For non-structural elements, divider walls – 230 MPa – White
Grade 40/ PNS S275 – Intermediate Grade – Low to Medium-rise buildings; Infra (Structural elements) –
275 MPa – Yellow
Grade 60/ PNS S415 – High-Tensile Grade – Medium to High-rise Buildings; Infra (Structural elements) –
415 MPa – Green

Pouring & Splicing

0-H/4: This range is critical area, maximum shear stress and moment generated by fixed-end restraints
Ties must be solid to counter shear, while primary reinforcement may not be spliced to counter moment

The range is buckling due to compressive axial load; not due to lateral loads like a beam

H/4-H/4: Countered by the section of concrete. Steel rebars have no contribution against buckling due
to compressive load, and may be spliced within this range (H/4 from connection)

H/4: Absence of buckling and bending; stopping of concrete pouring is allowed

Supports at H/4: pouring of concrete must be monolithic and ties must be closely spaced to counter
shear

Splicing of vertical flexural bars is not allowed at H/4

Stopping of concrete pouring is allowed at exactly H/4

Splicing of vertical flexural rebars allowed within middle section

Concrete Pouring Permit & Inspection Checklist – to ensure no pouring will be done without inspection
and approval from the Project Engineer; request must be filled in advance by contractor

For Reinforced Concrete: Ensure concrete is well vibrated; regularly wet the concrete with water to help
seal moisture and cure the concrete to its optimized strength; Usually done for a minimum of ten days

RC Columns: Requirements for Elasticity+ Additional Confinement

Introduction of Hoops as modification for ties and stirrups
Requirement for Seismic Hoops

Against Rupture
Hoops are closed ties or continuously wound tie. Starts and ends with a seismic hoop. Ties and stirrups
with seismic hoops are called hoops

Used to provide additional Elasticity to reinforced concrete, effectively confine concrete and flexural
bars in the event of extreme lateral loading

Seismic Hook – hooks on ties or stirrups with longer length, and higher degrees of bending; provide
additional anchorage of hoops to concrete

Rectangular or Square Section

Bend: Not less than 135degress
Extension: 6x diameter of bar but not less than 75mm

Circular Sections
Bend: Not less than 90degrees
Extension: 6x diameter of bar but not less than 75mm

Flexible Column Design:

More steel near the top and bottom; more steel throughout column; Extra steel at every level

A secondary square steel bar is added, ends are curved at about 135degrees to keep the steel in place

Moment of inertia: A cross-sectional property that determines a structural member’s resistance against
bending or deflection due to lateral loading

Rectangular:

I = bd^3/12

b: based of width
d: depth or height

Factors: shape, cross-sectional area; orientation against applied load

Structural layout:

Walls perpendicular to the longer sides

Staggering column layout balances stiffness across the different axis

Vertical elements on corners; multiple columns on the edge of the sides

75mm  is the minimum length of embedment of the tie, if the diameter of rebar is equal to
12mm

Concrete is the component prevents inward buckling of vertical flexural rebars

At the four corners of the building would be the best location (in plan) to place shear walls, so
that the building will be more resistant against lateral loads

Place diaphragms parallel to the shorter side of the evacuation center to have better resistance
to lateral loads such as earthquakes

Short columns are most likely to fail due to crushing.

Circular Tube is the best structural performance against buckling

At what height can we start to allow rebar splicing of vertical steel reinforcements along a 10-
m high reinforced concrete column? At 2.5 m from supports

At what height can we allow the stopping of concrete pouring along a 10-m high reinforced
concrete column? At 2.5 m from supports
ASTM C39 specifies and details the standard procedure for conducting a compression cylinder
test.

Kobe Earthquake of 1995 triggered the worldwide revision of structural codes, resulting to new
requirements for elasticity and additional confinement of reinforced concrete columns.

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MODULE 6: MASONRY

Masonry – one of the oldest and simplest building material

Unit masonry – bonded together with mortar

Mortar:

Cement + Hydrated Lime as binder; Sand as filler; Water

Cement: Binding Agent

Hydrated Lime: Provides Workability and Water retentivity
Aggregate: must be clean and screened; not too coarse or too fine
Water: Chemically involved in the curing of cement and lime

Makes up 20% of the exposed surface in brick masonry

Compressive Strength: Affected by cementitious content
Flexural tensile bond strength: Affected by amount of water in mortar; chemical and mechanical bond;
subjected to lateral loads; load resisted by steel reinforcement making bond strength irrelevant

Mortar Strength:

1. Watertightness: Attribute to lime content; has elastic properties and also provides self-healing
Low strength mortar preferred for: watertightness, cracking will occur at joints not on the units;
higher workability, better workmanship
Not preferred on: location with high-wind or seismic zones; heavily loaded interior walls

Type of Joints:

Head Joint (Vertical) and Bed Joint(Horizontal)

Same thickness 3/8inch

Profile: Concave Joint, Baked Joint, Flush Joint, Weathered Joint, Struck Joint

Concave Joint – most watertight; preferred for exterior walls

Baked joints – used in exposed interior walls

Bricks – most resistant to building fires, W x H x L

Solid or Hollow – Facing or building Brick

Solid Brick – Paving

Bricks may be cored or frogged as long as the bearing surface is at least 75% solid
Solid Masonry < 25% Hollow
Hollow Masonry >/= 25% Hollow
Terminology:

Couse: Horizontal Layer of Bricks

Wythe: Vertical layer, one wall thick
Construction:

Layering of leads; Establish the wall planes and course heights

Bricks between leads are laid to a line, a heavy string stretched taut between line blocks at each lead

Secondary set of leads is laid after entire wall is laid to the level of the leads; repeat process until
completion

Natural Stone – natural, diverse material; varies greatly in chemistry, structure properties, and
appearance

Igneous – deposited in molten state; Granite

Sedimentary – deposited by action of water and wind; Limestone, Sandstone

Metamorphic – properties transformed by heat and pressure; Marble

Granite – Igneous; mosaic of mineral crystal-feldspar and quartz; range of colors; non-porous, hard,
strong, durable; most nearly permanent; suitable for in contact with ground or weathering

Limestone – one of two principal sedimentary rock used in construction; from marine organisms; porous
and contains considerable ground water
Travertine – Sedimentary rocks from sediments of limestone dissolved in springwater; porous stone
pitted with voids; does not have durability required for use in thin slabs for exterior cladding; pits can be
filled with Portland cement

Marble – metamorphic; crystalized limestone; easily carved

Sandstone – sedimentary rock formed by layers of sand (quartz) with oxides of calcium, silicon, and iron
as cementing agent; cementing agent affects color and strength; not accept high polish

Slate – metamorphic rock; formed from clay; dense, hard sone with closely spaced planes of cleavage;
easily split into sheets; used as paving stones, roof shingles, thin wall facings

Finishes: Sawn, Honed, Polished, Flame-cut, Bush-hammered, Split-face, Sandblasted

Durability: Moisture absorption, density, compressive strength, modulus of rupture(resistance to shear

and tension forces), flexural strength (wind load resistance)

Pattern: Random rubble, coursed rubble, Random Ashlar, Coursed Ashlar

Appication:

Stone Masonry – laid in mortar, like brick and concrete blocks to make walls, arches, and vaults

Stone Cladding – Mechanically attached to structural frame of building walls as a facing

 A wall made of portland cement mortar (without lime) is less watertight than a wall made of
portland cement and lime mortar.
While constructing half brick partition walls or 100mm thick wall, it is advisable to place 6mm
diameter rebars every fourth course within the concrete band.
While building walls with bricks or blocks, the following must be ensured: a. Brick or block
should be saturated with water.

b. vertical joints should be staggered.

c. Mortar joints shall not be thick.
d. Cure the masonry for at least 10 days.

Water absorption of concrete blocks are relatively lower than clay bricks.