INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

Lesson 1: Pursuing Wisdom and Facing Challenges in the 21ST Century

Meaning of Philosophy

The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philia (love) and Sophia (wisdom) and means
“the love of wisdom”.

Pythagoras was said to have been the first man to call himself a philosopher; in fact, the world is
indebted to him for the word philosopher. It is said that when Leon, the tyrant of Philius, asked him of who he
was, he said, “a Philosopher” and he likened the Philosopher to spectators at ancient games.

Before that time the wise men had called themselves a sage, which was interpreted to mean those who
know. Pythagoras was more modest. He coined the word philosopher, which he defined as one who is
attempting to find out.

According to him, men and women of the world could be classified into 3 groups:
1. Those that love pleasure
2. Those that love activity
3. Those that love wisdom

 Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems such as those connected with existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind and language.
 Philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, understand, and fundamental questions.

Nature of Philosophy

Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held
uncritically.
We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or “having” a philosophy. Usually
when a person says “my philosophy is,” he or she is referring to an informal personal attitude to
whatever topic is being discussed.
Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and
beliefs.
These two senses of philosophy- “having” and “doing”- cannot be treated entirely independent
of each other, for if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a
philosophy in the critical, reflective sense.

Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing philosophy. A genuine philosophical
attitude is searching and critical; it is open-minded and tolerant-willing to look at all sides an issue
without prejudice.

To philosophize is not merely to read and know philosophy; there are skills of argumentation to
be mastered, techniques of analysis to be employed, and a body of material to be appropriated such
that we become able to think philosophically. Philosophers are reflective and critical.
Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole
Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience
into some kind of consistent world view. Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of
the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view of someone cognizant of life
as a totality.
 Philosophy is the logically analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words
and concepts
Certainly this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers have used methods
of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language. Some
philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate function
of philosophy.
Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which philosopher
always have sought answers.
Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the
philosophical questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and many problems remained
unsolved. “What is truth?”, “What is the distinction between right and wrong?” , “What is life and why
am I here?” , “Why is there anything at all? “

Importance of Philosophy
1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully and clearly about important issues.
2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our everyday thinking and to explore the
deeper , bigger question which underpins our thought
3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not what to believe, but how to think
4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling you to identify and evaluate the
strengths and weakness in any position
5. It hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent arguments of your own
6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries and to think flexibly and creatively about
problems which do not present immediate solutions
7. Because philosophy is an activity as much as body of knowledge, it also develops your ability to think
and work independently.

Branches of Philosophy
Historically, philosophy concerns have been treated under these broad categories:
Logic
Metaphysics
Epistemology
Value Theory
Logic
Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the correct use of these supporting reasons, rules we can
use to distinguish good arguments from bad ones. Most of the great philosophers from Aristotle to the present
have been convinced that logic permeates all other branches of philosophy.

The ability to test arguments for logical consistency, understand the logical consequences of certain
assumptions and distinguish the kind of evidence a philosopher is using are essential for “doing” philosophy.

Metaphysics

Another traditional branch of Philosophy traditionally is known as metaphysics. For Aristotle, the term
metaphysics meant “first philosophy”, discussion of the most universal principles; later the term came to mean
“comprehension thinking about the nature of things.”

It means, usually, the study or theory of reality. The questions of metaphysics are: what is reality? What
is real? Is reality some kind of “thing”? Is it one or is it many? If it is one, then how is it related to many things
around us? Can ultimate reality be grasped by five senses, or is it supernatural or transcendent?
 Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of philosophy that the modern student finds most difficult to
grasp. Metaphysics attempts to offer a comprehensive view of all that exists. It is concerned with such
problems as the relation of mind to matter, the nature of change, the meaning of “freedom”, the existence of
God, and the belief in personal immorality.

Epistemology

The technical term for the theory of knowledge is epistemology, which comes from the Greek word
episteme, meaning “knowledge”

In general, epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the sources, nature and validity of
knowledge.

There are three central questions in this field:

1. What are the sources of knowledge? Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? This
is the question of origins.
2. What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the mind, and if so can we know it? This is
the question of appearance versus reality.
3. Is our knowledge valid? How do we distinguish truth from error? This is the question of the tests of truth, of
verification.
Traditionally most of those who have offered answers to these questions can be placed in one of two
schools of thought- rationalism or empiricism

The rationalists hold that human reason alone can discover the basic principles of the universe.

The empiricists claim that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense experience and, thus, that
our knowledge is limited to what can be experienced.

It should be clear that there is a necessary relation between metaphysics and epistemology. Our
conception of reality depends on our understanding of what can be known. Conversely, our theory of
knowledge depends on our understanding of ourselves in relation to the whole of reality.

Value Theory

Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies values. It can be subdivided into ethics,
aesthetics, and social and political philosophy.

In broad terms ethics concerns itself with question of morality. What is right and what is wrong in
human relations? Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics,
and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral experience in a descriptive way. We seek to identify,
within the range of human conduct, the motives, desires and intentions as well as overt acts themselves.

Ethics

Descriptive ethics consider the conduct of individuals, or personal morality; the conduct of groups, or
social morality; and the culture patterns of national and racial groups.

A second level of inquiry is normative ethics (what ought to be). Here philosophers try to work out
acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be in choice and value. “We ought to keep our promises” and
“you ought to be honorable” are examples of normative judgments- of the moral ought, the subject matter of
ethics.

Third, there is the area of critical or metaethics. Here interest is centered on the analysis and meaning
of the terms and language used in ethical discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify ethical
statements. Metaethics does not propound any moral principle or goal (except by implication), but rather
consists entirely of philosophical analysis. What is the meaning of “good?” and can ethical judgments be
justified? Are typical problems for metaethics.

Aesthetics

This concerns the theory of art and beauty. Questions of art and beauty are considered to be part of the
realm of values because many philosophical problems in aesthetics involve critical judgments.

There are wide differences of opinion as to what objects call forth the aesthetic response, and what
beauty really is. Our concepts of beauty may differ not because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of
varying degrees of preparation is discerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty in objects that
others find beautiful, it may be wise to withhold judgment until we are capable ourselves of making a
competent analysis of the aesthetic experience.

Social and Political Philosophy

Social and political philosophy investigates value judgments concerning society, the state, and the
individual’s relation to these institutions.

The following questions reflect the concerns of social and political philosophy:

 Why should individuals live in society?

 What social ideals of liberty, rights, justice, equality and responsibility are desirable?
 Why should some individuals or groups have political power over others?
 What criteria are to be used in determining who should have political power?
 What criteria are to be used in determining the scope of political power, and what rights or freedoms
should be immune from political or legal control?
 To what positive goals should political power be directed and what are the criteria for determining this?

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
Introduction:
 This chapter shall demonstrate the various ways of Doing Philosophy. In search for wisdom, the learner
must evaluate arguments and ways of expressing one’s beliefs, emotions and opinions.
 This section shall introduce methods or ways of looking at truth and what will be considered as mere
“Opinions”.
Philosophizing means to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. It considers or discusses a
(matter) from a philosophical standpoint. In phenomenology, truth is based on the person’s consciousness;
while in existentialism, truth is based in exercising choices and personal freedom; in postmodernism, it is
accepted that truth is not absolute; and in logic, truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking.
PHENOMENOLOGY: ON CONSCIOUSNESS
Edmund Husserl
He founded phenomenology, which is essentially a philosophical method. This focus on careful
inspection and description of phenomena or appearances, defined as any object of conscious experience, that
is, that which we are conscious of. (Johnston 2006)
Merriam
The condition of being conscious: the normal state of being awake and able to understand what is
happening around you.
The Phenomenon
The word “Phenomenon” comes directly from the Greek word Phainomenon meaning “appearance”
Phenomenology is the scientific study of the essential structures of consciousness.
 By describing those structures, Husserl believes that we can find certainty, which philosophy has
always sought. His continuing effort was dedicated to developing a method for finding and guaranteeing the
truth- that method was phenomenology.
EXISTENSIALISM: ON FREEDOM
One’s search for truth might be based on one’s attitude or outlook. Unlike phenomenology,
existentialism is not primarily a philosophical method. Neither is it exactly a set of doctrines but more of an
outlook or attitude supported by diverse doctrines centered on certain common themes.
These themes include:

 The human condition or the relation of the individual to the world;

 The human response to that condition;
 Being, especially the difference being of person and being of the other kinds of things;
 Human freedom
 The significance of choice and decision in the absence of certainty and;
 The concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against abstraction and false objectifications.
 If we may generalize for just a moment, we might suggest that existentialists share a concern for the
individual and personal responsibility (chamber 2001)

Existentialism
It is often thought to be anti-religious; nevertheless, there has been a strong current of Christian
existentialism. It is the beginning with the 9th century Danish philosopher Kierkegaard. As the first
existentialist, he insisted that the authentic self was the personally chosen self, as opposed to public or “herd”
identity.
Sartre
Existentialism, with Sartre, a French Philosopher, emphasizes the importance of free individual choice,
regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. Sartre
argued that consciousness is such that it is always free to choose and free to negate the given features of the
world.
One is never face of one’s situation, Sartre tells us, but one is always free to negate that situation and
to change it. To be human, to be conscious, is to be free responsible for one’s life. (Solomon & Higgins 2010)
One may be shy or assertive, but such behavior is always resolved to change. One can be Asian or
American, but it is an open questions how one will make oneself, how these will be made into handicaps or an
advantage, become challenges to be overcome, or excuses doing nothing.
Socrates
The notion of authenticity is not new. Socrates already concerned himself with the authenticity of the
self- the genuineness of his thoughts and actions, “the good of his should.” He sought not mere opinions but
knowledge, self-knowledge in particular, and prescribed not just right action but virtue, being “true to oneself.”
St. Augustine
St. Augustine was concerned with the spiritual nature of the “true” self as opposed to the authentic
demands of desire and the body. (“Faith is to believe what we do not see; and the reward of this faith is to see
what we believe.”)
Jean Jacques Rosseau
Jean Jacques Rosseau was adamant about the essential goodness of the “natural” self in contrast to
the “corruption” imposed by society. (Baird & Kaufmann 1997)

POSTMODERNISM: ON CULTURES
 They believe that humanity should come at truth beyond the rational to the non-rational elements of
human culture, including the spiritual. Postmodernists consider that to arrive at truth, humanity should realize
the limits of reason and objectivism.
Beyond exalting individual analysis of truth, postmodernists adhere to a relational, holistic approach.
Moreover, it values our existence in the world and in relations to it.
In Google, postmodern philosophy is a philosophical direction which is critical of certain foundational
assumptions of western philosophy and especially of the 18th enlightenment. It emphasizes the importance of
power relationships, personalization and discourse in construction of truth and world views.

ANALYSIS TRADITION
“Can language objectively describe truth?” for the philosophers of this tradition, language cannot objectively
describe truth.
For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is socially conditioned. We understand the
word solely in terms of our language games- that is our linguist, social constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is
itself socially constructed.

LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING: TOOLS IN REASONING

Logic
It is centered in the analysis and construction of arguments. In the first chapter, logic is discussed as
one of its main branches. Logic and critical thinking serve as paths to freedom from half-truths and deceptions.
Critical thinking
It is distinguishing facts and opinions or personal feelings. In making rational choices, first, we suspend
beliefs and judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered.
Though facts are important, critical thinking also takes into consideration cultural systems, values and
beliefs. Critical thinking helps us uncover bias and prejudice and open to new ideas not necessarily in
agreement with previous thought.

In general, there are two basic types of reasoning: deductive and inductive.

Inductive reasoning - is based from observations in order to make generalizations. This reasoning is
often applied in prediction, forecasting, or behavior.
Deductive reasoning - draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment or definition and one more
specific assertion, often an inference.

VALIDITY AND SOUNDNESS OF AN ARGUMENT

Based on the previous example, if the two premises are constructed logically, the deductive argument
is valid. This does not necessarily mean that the conclusion is true or false.
Validity - comes from a logical conclusion based on logically constructed premises. (Reed 2010)

STRENGTH OF AN ARGUMENT
On the other hand, inductive arguments cannot prove if the premises are true which will also determine
the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning proves only probable support to the conclusion. An inductive
argument that succeeds in providing such probable support is a strong argument.
Fallacies
On the other hand, a fallacy is a defect in argument other than its having false premises. To detect the
argument’s content. Here are some of the usually committed errors in reasoning and thus, coming up with false
conclusion and worse, distorting the truth.
 A. Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misercordiam) - (also known as: appeal to sympathy)
 Description: The attempt to distract from the truth of the conclusion by the use of pity. A specific
kind of appeal to emotion in which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by
exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt.
 Logical Forms:

Person 1 is accused of Y, but person 1 is pathetic. Therefore, person 1 is innocent.

Example #1: Example #2:
I really deserve an “A” on this paper, professor. Not only did I Ginger: Your dog just ran into our house and ransacked our
study during my grandmother’s funeral, but I also passed up the kitchen!
heart transplant surgery, even though that was the first matching Mary: He would never do that, look at how adorable he is with
donor in 3 years. those puppy eyes!
Explanation: The student deserves an “A” for effort and Explanation: Being pathetic does not absolve one from his or her
dedication but, unfortunately, papers are not graded that way. The crimes, even when he or she is a ridiculously-adorable puppy.
fact that we should pity her has nothing to do with the quality of
the paper written, and if we were to adjust the grade because of
the sob stories, we would have fallen victim to the appeal to pity.
Exception: Like any argument, if it is agreed that logic and reason
should take a backseat to emotion, and there is no objective truth
claim being made, but rather an opinion of something that should
or should not be done, then it could escape the fallacy.

B. Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam) - whatever has not been proved false must be
true, and vice versa.

 Affirmative form: There is no evidence against X. Therefore, X is true.

 Negative form: There is no evidence to support Y. Therefore, Y is false.

Example #1: “You cannot prove that God does not exist; Example #2: “If someone is guilty, they always try to deny their
therefore God exists.” guilt. This man has never said that he is not guilty, and therefore
he must be innocent.”

C. Equivocation - This is a logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several times, but giving the
particular word a different meaning each time.

Example: Human beings have hands; the clock has hands. He is drinking from the pitcher of water; he is a baseball pitcher.

D. Composition - this infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of
the whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division.

 This logical fallacy takes the following general form: Y is part of X. Y has property A. Therefore,
X has property A.

Example: “Every part of this machine is light in weight; therefore this machine as a whole must be light in weight”.
A claim such as this obviously doesn’t hold water; even if the single parts of the machine are “light”, it doesn’t mean that when all the
parts are put together, their total weight is still “light”. This line of reasoning does not take into account the fact that even though the
whole and its parts can possess the same attributes, it is not necessarily so.

E. Division - one reason logically that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of its
parts. Fallacy of Division is an informal fallacy that arises when the attributes of a whole or a group are
mistakenly presumed to apply to the parts, or members, of the whole. This is fallacious because the
attributes of the whole and its parts are not necessarily transferable from one to the other.
Fallacy of division occurs when someone argues that something which is true of the whole must
also necessarily be true of each part of the whole. In other words, it is based on the assumption that if a
whole, or a group, has a certain property, its parts or members must possess the same property as
well.

 As such, its logical form is: X is part of Y. Y has property A. Therefore, X has property A.
 Example: Its simplest and most explicit occurrence would be exemplified by concluding from the fact that the contestants are 5 feet, 4
inches tall on the average, that a particular contestant says Angela Liebestod, is 5 feet, 4 inches tall on the average. Such a conclusion
would really be nonsense, for we can speak of average height only with respect to a number of persons, never a single person.

F. Against the Person (argumentum ad hominem) - This fallacy attempts to link the validity of a
premises to a characteristic or belief of the person advocating the premise. However, in some
instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives etc. Are legitimate if relevant to the issue.

Example: Student: Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn't have to read this book by Freud. Everyone knows he used cocaine.
Socrates' arguments about human excellence are rubbish. What could a man as ugly as he know about human excellence.

G. Appeal to Force (argumentum ad baculum) - An argument where force or the threat of force, is given
as a justification for a conclusion. The argumentum ad baculum is based upon the appeal to force or
threat in order to bring about the acceptance of a conclusion and is often fallacious.

Example #1: Chairman of the Board: “All those opposed to my Example #2: The Department of Transportation needs to
arguments for the opening of a new department, signify by reconsider the speed limit proposals on interstate highways for
saying, ‘I resign.’” the simple reason that if they do not, their departmental budget
for Department of Transportation will be cut by 25%.

H. Appeal to the People (argumentum ad populum) - Extended warranties are a very popular purchase
by the consumer, so extended warranties must be good for the consumer. The fact that something is
popular has no bearing on whether it is beneficial. Everyone drives over the speed limit, so it should not
be against the law. Just because a lot of people do something, it does not make it the right thing to do.

I. False Cause (post hoc) - Since that event followed this one, that event must have been caused by this
one. This fallacy is also referred to as coincidental correlation, or correlation not causation.
Fallacy occurs when an argument is made using illogical reasoning. Post hoc is a fallacy where
one reason that since an event occurred before another, then the first event caused the other. This is
not always the case.

Example #1: Our soccer team was losing until I bought new Example #2: I sneezed at the same time the power went off. My
shoes. We have not lost a game since I got my lucky shoes! sneeze did something to make the power go off.

J. Hasty Generalization - One commits errors if one reaches an inductive generalization based on
insufficient evidence. The fallacy is commonly based on a broad conclusion upon the statistics of a
survey of a small group that fails to sufficiently represent the whole population.

Example #1: Three out of four school teachers prefer Bright Example #2: You visit a new country and the first person you
Marks Markers, but I only asked four teachers total. meet in the airport is rude. You send a message to a friend back
home that everyone in this new country is rude.

K. Begging the Question (petition principii) - this is a type of fallacy which the proposition to be proven
is assumed implicitly or explicitly in the premise.

You should drive on the right side of the road because that is what the law says, and the law is the law.
Driving on the right side of the road is mandated by law (in some countries, that is) - so when someone questions why we should do
that, they are questioning the law. But if we offer reasons to follow this law and say "because that is the law," we are begging the
question. We are assuming the validity of what the other person was questioning in the first place.
THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT TRANSCEDENCE IN THE GLOBAL AGE

Is in our contemporary world dictated by technology? Are you self-taken pictures or selfies any
indication that we are not zombies? Are we pushing the responsibility for our existence on to society, instead of
facing the questions of who we are?
 According to Thomas Merton (1948), a Trappist monk, there is no other way for us to find who we are
than by finding in ourselves the divine image. We have struggle to regain spontaneous and vital awareness of
our own spirituality.
To see is to believe. However, there are still majority of college students who have strong convictions
concerning faith, that which transcend what is seen or touched by bodily senses.
In philosophy, the adjective transcendental and the noun transcendence convey the basic ground
concept from the word’s literal meaning of climbing or going beyond.
In the past, most high school students have no chance to read or encounter students who were asked
regarding the concept of transcendence will usually answer: I cannot believe in invisible existence.
Brahman is Self-hood
Self-hood- the quality that makes a person or thing different from others. At the heart of Hinduism lies
the idea of human beings’ quest for absolute truth, so that one’s soul and the Brahman or Atman (Absolute
Soul) might become one. For the Indians, God first created sound and the universe arose from it. As the most
sacred sound. The Aum (Om) is the root of the universe and everything that exists and it continues to hold
everything together.
According to Hinduism, human beings have a dual nature: one is the spiritual and immortal essence
(soul); the other is empirical life and character. Between the two natures, however, it is maintained that it is the
soul that is ultimately real. The existence of the body, in fact, is considered as nothing more than an illusion
and even an obstacle to an individual’s realization of one’s real self.
Hindus generally believe that soul is eternal but is bound by the law of Karma (action) to the world of
matter, which it can escape only after spiritual progress through an endless series of birth. God allots rewards
and punishments to all beings according to their karma. Similar to a prison enclosed within the wall of his
prison, a human being’s soul can be said to be temporarily encased in his body. For this reason, humanity’s
basic goal in life is the liberation (moksha) of the spirit (jiva). Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a continuous
cycle (samsara). While it is the spirit is either born nor doe sit die. The body, on the other hand, goes through a
trans migratory series of birth and death.
There will be no end on the cycle unless the individual exerts real efforts to break away or liberate one’s
spirit from the monotonous cycle. DifferentHindu schools and sects have different views about the method of
release (moksha) from this transmigration.
The ultimate liberation, that is, freedom from rebirth, is achieved the moment of the individuals attains
that stage of life emancipation. (to free from someone else’s control or power)
BRAHMAN - The creator God of the Hindu sacred triad.
This Hindu view of humanity’s reality place a lot of emphasis on the attainment of self-knowledge. The
goal of human life as conceived by the different Upanishads is to overcome congenital ignorance.
UPANISHADS (YU-PA-NI-SHAD) - one of the class of Vedic treatises dealing with broad philosophical
problems.
VEDIC - relating to Vedas, the language in which they are written.
The concepts of Brahman and Atman (soul, self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads, with “know
your atman” as their thematic focus. True knowledge (vidya) consists an understanding and realization of the
individual’s real self (Atman).
In sum, Hinduism is one of the oldest Eastern traditions, practiced by hundreds of millions of people for
abut 5,000 years. To know more about this topic, students are encouraged to read Bhagvad-Gita, the song of
the Lord, which is a part of the great epic Mahabharata.
 One concept common to all expressions of Hinduism is the oneness reality. Also common to all Hindu
thought are the four primary values. In order of increasing importance, they may be roughly translated as
wealth, pleasure, duty and enlightenment.
Wealth and pleasure are worldly values, but when we kept in perspective, they are good and desirable.
The spiritual value of duty, or righteousness, refers to patience, sincerity, fairness, love, honesty, and
similar virtues.
The spiritual value, though, is enlightenment, by which one is illuminated and liberated and most
importantly, finds release from the wheel of existence. Repeated existence is the destiny of those who do not
achieve enlightenment.
KARMA - “Do good things and good things will come your way”
To understand enlightenment, one must understand the law of karma, the law of sowing and reaping.
All of us, though what we do or not do, supposedly determine our destiny. The wheel of existence turns until
we achieve enlightenment, after which we are released from this series of birth. After understanding Hinduism,
the next section proceeds with another major Eastern tradition that is not based strictly on the Upanishads and
in some cases, even ran counter to its teachings.
The tenets of Buddhism are definitely one of the most widespread dharsanas (school of thought) .
Buddhism is Universalist in character. It preached to everybody. In its spread over Asia, India itself largely
absorbed it into Hinduism. It exists side by side with Taoism of China and Shintoism of Japan. In Tibet, it was
greatly altered into a faith called Lamaism. It was practiced in its purest form in Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon
(Sri Lanka).
INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM
Another major Eastern tradition is Buddhism, contained in the teachings of its founder, Siddharta
Gautama or the Buddha. Out of the life experience and teaching of highly born Prince Gautama of the Sakya
clan in the kingdom of Magadha. Who lived from 560 to 447 B.C,. Sprang the religious philosophy know as
Buddhism. Turning away from Hindu polytheism and palace pleasures, Gautama began searching for answers
to the riddle of life’s sufferings, disease, old age, and death. He explore Brahminic philosophies, then tried the
rigors of asceticism, but all to avail. Finally, while resting and meditating in a grove of trees, he came to a clear
realization that the solution lays in his own mind.
Ascetic- relating to or having a strict and simple way of living that avoids physical pleasure.
Gautama’s life was devoted to sharing his “Dharma” or law of salvation- a simple presentation of the
gospel of inner cultivation or right spiritual attitudes, coupled with a self imposed discipline whereby bodily
desire would be channeled in the right directions.
He omitted any appeal to the gods as currently conceived; definitely rejected philosophical
speculations; and spurned all recourse to ancient scriptures, outmoded rituals, or priestly incantations.
Convinced that the way of escape from pain and misery lay in the transformations of one’s mind. Buddha set
about sharing his discovery with anyone who would listen to him.
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTH, GAUTAMA TAUGHT
1. Life is full of suffering
2. Suffering is caused by passionate desires, lusts, cravings
3. Only as these are obliterated, will suffering cease
4. Such eradication of desire may be accomplished only by following the Eightfold path of earnest
endeavor.
EIGHT-FOLD PATH
1. Right View
2. Right Intensions
 3. Right Speech
4. Right Action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Concentration
8. Right Mindfulness
1) Right belief in acceptance of the Fourfold truth
2) Right aspiration for one’s self and for others
3) Right speech that harms no one
4) Right conduct, motivated by goodwill toward all human beings
5) Right means of livelihood or earning one’s living by honorable means
6) Right endeavor or effort to direct one’s energies toward wise ends
7) Right mindfulness in choosing topics for thought
8) Right meditation, or concentration to the point of complete absorption in mystic ecstasy
Items 1 & 2 enjoin or to do something us to develop wisdom
Items 3-5 urge us to practice virtue and avoid vice or bad
Items 6-8 tell us to practice meditation
We do this essentially by following three shorts axioms or accepted as true:
 Cease to do evil
 Learn to do good
 Purify your own mind
The way to salvation, in other words, lies through self-abnegation, rigid discipline of mind and body, a
consuming love for all living creatures, and the final achievement of that state of consciousness which marks
an individual’s full preparation in Entering the Nirvana (enlightened wisdom) of complete selflessness. The
effects of the law of the law of Cause and Effect (karma) are overcome; the cycle of rebirth is broken; and one
may rest in the calm assurance of having attained a heavenly bliss that will stretch into all eternity.
These were later organized inti the Sangha, or Order of the Monks and later of nuns also with single-
hearted
PHILOSOPHY WEEKpurpose,
4&5 LECTUREthis brotherhood of believers dedicated itself to a life of self-purification, in total loyalty to the
Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha.
THE BIBLICAL GOD AND HUMANITY

In the 5th century, Augustine’s writing is considered to be the most influential in the early medieval
period. This section looks at the reasonableness of belief in God’s existence, in doing so, we shall treat the
statement “God exists” as a hypothesis. Religious people definitely do not treat God’s existence as a
hypothesis, for God is a constant presence, rather than being whose existence is accepted as the best
explanation of available evidence. For the Biblical writers, proving God’s existence of the air we breathe.
The religious problem reflected in the Old Testament narratives is not atheism but polytheism.
Atheism- lack of believe or strong disbelief in the existence of god or any gods.
Polytheism- the belief that there is more than one God.
In the New Testament, the reality of God is unquestioned due to the conviction that Jesus of Nazareth
the eternal God become flesh and dwelt among human beings. In its earliest missionary endeavors, Christians
directed their preaching to Jews who accepted the reality of God.
For Augustine, the philosophy is amor sapiental , the love of wisdom; its aim is to produce happiness.
However, for Augustine, wisdom is not just an abstract logical construction; but it is substantially existent as the
Divine logos.
 Teaching of Christianity are based on the love of God, which Augustine’s, Aquinas, and Anselm’s
arguments are basically rooted. For Augustine, Christianity, as presenting the full revelation of the true God, is
the only full and true philosophy. However, we can love only that which we know. When comes this knowledge
of God?
It begins with faith and is made perfect by understanding. All knowledge leads to God, so that faith
supplements and enlightens reason that it may proceed to ever richer and fuller understanding. Without this
enlightenment of faith, it will go astray.
It should be taken as humble acceptance of the fact that human beings alone, without God, are bound
to fail.
Who was St. Thomas Aquinas?
We have established with certainty three grades or levels of existence: mere being, living being and
rational being.
For St. Thomas Aquinas, another medieval philosopher, of all creatures, human beings have the unique
power to change themselves and things for the better. Aquinas considers the human being as moral agent.
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Our spirituality separates us from animals; it differentiates moral dimension of or fulfillment in action.
Through our spirituality, we have a conscience. Thus, whether we choose to be good or evil because our
responsibility.
Evaluate own limitations and the possibilities for their transcendence
a. Forgiveness - When we forgive, we are freed from our anger and bitterness because of the actions
and/or words of another. On the other hand, the hardness of our heart is reinforced by whole series of
rational arguments.
b. The Beauty of Nature - There is perfection in every single flower, this is what the three philosophies
believed.
c. Vulnerability - To be invulnerable is somehow inhuman. To be vulnerable is to be human. Such
moments of poverty and dependence on others are not sign of weakness but being true with ourselves.
d. Failure - Our failures force us to confront our weaknesses and limitations. Even if we have sinned, as
Augustine had, there is hope and forgiveness.
e. Loneliness - Our loneliness can be rooted from our sense of vulnerability and fear of death. With our
loneliness, we can realize that our dependence on other people or gadgets is a possessiveness that we
can be free from.
f. Love - To love is to experience richness, positivity and transcendence. Whether in times of ecstatic
moments or struggles. Life is full of risks, fearsand commitment, pain and sacrificing and giving up
thing/s we want for the sake of the one we love. In a Buddhist view, the more we love, the more risks
and fears there are in life (Aguilar 2010).
Buddhism: NIRVANA
Nirvana means the state in which one is absolutely free from all forms of bandage and attachment. It
means to overcome and remove the cause of suffering. It is also the state of perfect insight into the nature of
existence. The Buddhists see one who has attained nirvana as one who is unencumbered from all the fetters
that bind a human being to existence. He has perfect knowledge, perfect peace and perfect wisdom.
1. The Buddha did not want his disciples to concern themselves with purely speculative problems.
2. Another false conception regarding nirvana is that one who attains it, cuts himself off from the world of
toil, tears and turmoil and spends his life in a state of total inactivity and indifference to the world around
him.
This means that as one attains wisdom, one desires nothing for himself but always works for the well-being
and liberation of his fellow humans.
 Far from living a passive life, the Buddha from the day of his enlightenment until death is always
surrounded by people. One who attained enlightenment is a non-attachment.
ST. AUGUSTINE AND ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: WILL AND LOVE
For St. Augustine, physically we are free yet morally bound to obey the law. The eternal law is God
Himself. According to this law, humanity must do well and avoid evil. Hence, the existence of moral obligation
in every human being. Christian life is not easy. No human being should become an end to himself. We are
responsible to our neighbors as we are to our own actions.
Definitely to live a chaste life is difficult. For to be pure is also to be holy. Though all are called to
different lifestyles. All are called to be hold, pure and chaste within that lifestyle. Any lifestyle that does not
include these virtues, even with consenting individuals, is not pleasing to God; for it does not lead to holiness,
selflessness and full honesty.
For St. Augustine though we are physically free, one does not have the right to do anything if it is not
morally right or if one will hurt another.
EVIL AND SUFFERING
Suffering is close to the heart of biblical faith. In comparison with the Buddha, who saw life in suffering
and tried to control it instead of cursing it, Job, of the Old Testament, did not just complain. He cursed the day
he was born! In a phenomenological perspective, all of us will continue to assert our will against others, adding
to the overall suffering of human experience.
In Christianity , suffering leads to the Cross, the symbol of reality of God’s saving love for the human
being. Suffering, in Buddhism, gives rise to compassion for suffering humanity. Compassion is the heart of
religion but, compassion can disappear from it. Religion, without compassion, becomes law and burden
imposed in its adherents. If there is no compassion, religion can start wars that destroy enemies. Jesus
condemned religion without compassion and constructed, thus, the parable of the Good Samaritan.
THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION:
What is the world made of? How did the world come into being? And how can we explain the process
of change? Were philosophical questions already brought up approximately 600 B.C.E
The speculations of the pre-Socratic philosophers represent a paradigm shift- a change from the
mythical explanation of the origins of the cosmos to a more rational explanation. These philosophers were
looking for the underlying laws of nature. They wanted to understand the processes by studying nature itself,
not by listening to stories about the gods. Though not as sophisticated in the 21 st century standard, the pre-
Socratic philosophers do represent the first intellectual and scientific attempt to understand the origins of the
universe.
Consider these two frameworks (Payne 2010):
Human Nature

a. Culture a. Wild

b. Individualism b. Holism

c. Mind c. Nature/Cosmos

d. Calculative d. Body

e. Human over/against environments e. Relational

f. Global/technological f. Earth/wisdom

g. Ecology over/against humans

Figure 4.1 Anthropocentric Model Figure Figure 4.2 Ecocentric Model

 Based on the anthropocentric model, humans are superior and central of the universe. Ecocentric
model, the ecological or relational integrity of the humans, provides meaning of our morals and values.
According to Payne (2009), classrooms cannot set aside the importance of aesthetics as well as the
environment that suggests valuing that include: aesthetic appreciation, enjoyment, relaxation, satisfaction,
calm, peace, social interaction, growth toward holism and self-understanding.
Our limited understanding of our environment opens for a need for philosophical investigation of nature,
applying aesthetic and theological dimensions, as well as appreciating our philosophical reflections with the
concept of nature itself. Every day, we experience or hear of how nature is destroyed and, thus, there are
floods, flash floods, and landslides, among others, accordingly, this chapter helps the learner look at the
multidimensional concept of being human.
NOTICE DISORDER IN THE UNIVERSE
The domination of humanity is linked to the domination of nature based on the anthropocentric model.
An unfair or unjust utilization of the environment result to ecological crisis. From this view, it follows that human
arrogance toward nature is justifiable in order to satisfy human interests.
Sometimes, human adopt an exploitative attitude whenever nature is merely considered as an
instrument for one’s profit or gain. E.g. quarrying or cutting down old trees could justify our exploitative attitude
nature.
Current researches by Zimmerman (1994), ELigin (2009), and Pettman (2012) to name a few, exposed
the environmental consequence of international politico-economic specialization for specific countries and
global regions. Research also shows tha implications for both abuses of natural resources and of the
generation of waste and emissions. Numerous concepts and indicators have been used to understand
environmental impact such as the carbon footprint (CF).
For instance, the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, fluoride, and
nitrous oxide that are part of the production goods and services consumed in many countries.
Studies reveal that the higher the income, there is a substantial change in consumption patterns, which
result to higher CF.
Carbon Footprint has eight categories:
1. Construction
2. Shelter
3. Food
4. Clothing
5. Mobility
6. Manufactured goods
7. Services
8. Trade
The Ecocentric model, in contrast, puts the ecosystem first and assumes that the natural world as
intrinsic value. Nature is not valued for the future survival of human species. Humans have a responsibility
toward the land.
However, because of the anthropocentric attitude, humanity claims ownership or authority over the
land, For the ecocentric model, instead, love, respect , admiration for nature and high regard for its value is
essential. In ecocentric model, land will be considered not an instrumental mode of production but will be
preserved with integrity, stability, and beauty.
 If humanity overworks the soil and substitute domesticated species of plants and animals for wild ones,
human made changes threaten the health of nature. Unlike in the evolutionary process, our human
interventions have swift and even, violent effect on nature.
A study blames human activities for drastic decline in wildlife population. Due to hunting and fishing,
52% of wildlife population deteriorated. Whether nature can adapt to these change and self renew becomes a
vague issue.
The study for instance, established that the damage is not inevitable but consequence of our choice.
Accordingly, humanity needs to develop an ecological conscience based on individual responsibility. Ecologists
challenge us to adopt a lifestyle that involves simple living that honor the right of all life forms to live. Flourish
and create a rich diversity of human and nonhuman life. For ecologists, the right to live and blossom should not
just be for human beings but must be valid to all forms of life.
This belief stems from an awareness of our dependence to other forms of life, not just a master-slave
relationship.
In 2004, indigenous grandmothers, representing tribes from the Arctic Circle, Nepal and Tibet, held a
meeting to be able to preserve their community. Deeply concerned with the destruction of Mother Earth,
including the contamination of air, water and soil, war, poverty and destruction of the indigenous life. They
have committed themselves to form an alliance that will embrace prayer, education, and healing for our Mother
Earth, for all her inhabitants and for the future generations.
The 2007 United Nation’s Declaration grants the indigenous people “the right to conservation,
restoration and protection of the total environment and the productive capacity of their lands, territories and
resources, as well as the assistance for this purposed from States and through international cooperation. The
relationship of the indigenous people with the environment is, thus, spiritually and materially strengthened.
Notice Things that Are not in Their proper Place and Organize them in an Aesthetic Way.
a. Ancient Thinkers
Early Greek Philosophers, the Milesians, regarded Nature as spatially without boundaries, that is, as
infinite or indefinite in extent. One ancient thinker, Anaximander, employed the term “boundless” to convey the
further thought that Nature is indeterminate-boundless in the sense that no boundaries between the warm and
cold or the moist and dry regions are originally present within it (Solomon & Higgins 2010)

Anaximander, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia. He belonged
to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and
became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and, arguably, Pythagoras
amongst his pupils.
Creation and Destruction. According to Anaximander’s sketch of the genesis of the world (cosmology),
the evolution of the world begins with the generation of opposites in certain region of Nature: a portion of the
boundless first differentiates itself into a cold-moist mass surrounded by a roughly spherical shell of the warm-
dry. Once the warm-dry has been separated out, surrounding the cold-moist, it begins to evaporate the moister
of the latter, and this process forms a vaporous atmosphere. Eventually, the expanding vapor or steam bursts
the enclosing fiery shells into rings, and rushing outward, envelopes them. The opposite forces caused an
imbalance that necessitated their ultimate destruction (Price 2000) What appear to us as heavenly bodies are
in reality parts of the fiery rings that we glimpse through openings left in their steamy, vaporous envelopes. The
revolution of the stars, sun, and moon around the central earth is in reality the rotation of the vapor-enveloped
rings of fire.
Pythagoras- an ancient philosopher, he described the universe as living embodiment of nature’s order,
harmony and beauty. He sees our relationship with the universe involving biophilia (love of other living things)
and cosmophilia (love of other living beings).
b. Modern thinker (Immanuel Kant)
According to Kant, we must ignore any practical motives or inclinations that we have and instead
contemplate the object without being distracted by our desires. He believes that the orderliness of nature and
the harmony of nature with our faculties guide us toward a deeper religious perspective.

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Kant’s
comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made
him one of the most influential figures in the history of Western philosophy.
Understanding our relationship with the environment can also refer to the human beings with ecology
and nature. For Herbert Marcuse, humanity had dominated nature. There can only be change if we will change
our attitude towards our perception of the environment.
For George Herbert Mead as human beings, we do not have only rights but duties. We are not only
citizens of the community and in our reaction to it, change it.

George Herbert Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist, primarily affiliated
with the University of Chicago, where he was one of severaldistinguished pragmatists.
SHOW THAT CARE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT CONTRIBUTES TO HEALTH, WELL-BEING AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

A. Deep Ecology
For this theory, ecological crisis is an outcome of anthroposentrism, which is already discussed.
The controlling of attitude of humankind is extended to nature, when it fact, humanity is part of nature.
Deep ecologists encourage humanity to shift away from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism.
B. Social Ecology
For this theory, ecological crisis result from authoritarian social structures. Destroying nature is
a reflection wherein few peole overpower others while exploiting the environment for profit or self-
interest. Social ecologists call for small scale societies, which recognize that humanity is linked with the
well-being of th enatural world in which human life depends.
C. Ecofeminism
This theory argues that ecological crisis is a consequence of male dominance. In this view,
whatever “superior” is entitled to whatever is inferior. Male traits in the anthropocentric model are
superior as opposed to female traits as in the ecocentric model.
Domination works by forcing the other to conform to what is superior. Nature must be tamed,
orderd, and submit to the will of the superior.
These theories value the care, conservation, preservation of nature and humanity. Our search for the
meaning of life must explore not just our own survival but calls for a new socio-ecological order.
Enrich Fromm (2013) a German humanistic philosopher, believes that it is about time that humanity ought to
recognize not only itself but also the world around it. As human beings, our biological urge for survival turns
into selfishness and laziness. He argues that as humans, it is also inherent in us to escape the prison cell of
selfisness.
These are some of the Functions of Fromm’s Envisioned Society
1. The willingness to give up all forms of having, in order to fully be.
 2. Being fully present where one is.
3. Trying to reduce greed, hate and illusions as much as one is capable.
4. Making the full growth of oneself and one\s fellong beings as the supreme goal of living.
5. Not deceiving others, but also not being deceived by others; one may be called innocent, but not naïve.
6. Freedom that is not arbitrariness but the possibility to be oneself, not as a bundle of greedy desires, but
as a delicately balanced structure that at any moment is confronted with alternatives of growth or
decay, life or death.
7. Happiness in the process of ever-going aliveness, whatver the furthest point is that fate permits one to
reach, for living as fully as one can is so satisfactory that the concern for what one might or might not
attain has little chance to develop.
8. Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not from hoarding and exploiting.
9. Developing one’s capacity for love, together with one’s capacity for critical unsentimental thougth.
10. Shedding one’s narcissism and accepting that tragic limitations inherent in human existence.\

The ideals of this society cross all party lines, for protecting nature needs focused conservation, action, political
will, and support from industry.