Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

What Do You See?

3D LEARNING
Science and Engineering Practices
• Asking questions and defining
problems
• Analyzing and interpreting data
• Obtaining, evaluating, and
communicating information
Disciplinary Core Ideas
• The universe and its stars
Crosscutting Concepts
• Energy and matter

LEARNING OUTCOMES Think About It

In this section, you will A study in 2009 by researchers at the Albert Einstein College
• Analyze and interpret sunspot and of Medicine in New York found that millions of children in the
solar flare data. United States have very low levels of vitamin D, an essential
• Obtain information about solar element that the human body makes with the help of sunlight.
activity and its effects. It appears that an indoor lifestyle and too much sunscreen have
contributed to this situation. At the same time, children are
warned to wear sunscreen to prevent skin damage from too much
exposure to the Sun. These are just two examples of how the Sun
affects us, both positively and negatively, every day.
• In what other ways does solar radiation benefit life on
the planet?
• In what other ways can solar radiation be harmful or
disruptive?
Record your ideas about these questions in your Geo log. Be
prepared to discuss your responses with your small group and
the class.

Investigate
In this Investigate, you will examine solar activity and look for
patterns in solar events. First, you will analyze sunspot data and
look for cycles in sunspot activity. Then, you will analyze solar

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 Chapter 8 Astronomy

flare data and determine whether strong data by creating a graph that shows
solar flare events are correlated to patterns sunspot activity over time and looking
in sunspot activity. for patterns in the data.
1. Sunspots are small, dark areas visible a) Plot time on the horizontal axis and
on the Sun’s surface. They can be as number of sunspots on the vertical axis.
small as Earth or as large as Neptune. b) Connect the points you have plotted.
Table 1 contains data on the average
number of monthly sunspots each year c) Look at your graph. Describe
from 1900–2015. You will analyze the any pattern you find in the
sunspot activity.

Table 1: Sunspot Activity

Number of Number of Number of Number of
Year Year Year Year
Sunspots Sunspots Sunspots Sunspots
1900 9.5 1929 64.9 1958 184.8 1987 29.4
1901 2.7 1930 35.7 1959 159.0 1988 100.2
1902 5.0 1931 21.2 1960 112.3 1989 157.6
1903 24.4 1932 11.1 1961 53.9 1990 142.6
1904 42.0 1933 5.7 1962 37.6 1991 145.7
1905 63.5 1934 8.7 1963 27.9 1992 94.3
1906 53.8 1935 36.1 1964 10.2 1993 54.6
1907 62.0 1936 79.7 1965 15.1 1994 29.9
1908 48.5 1937 114.4 1966 47.0 1995 17.5
1909 43.9 1938 109.6 1967 93.8 1996 8.6
1910 18.6 1939 88.8 1968 105.9 1997 21.5
1911 5.7 1940 67.8 1969 105.5 1998 64.3
1912 3.6 1941 47.5 1970 104.5 1999 93.3
1913 1.4 1942 30.6 1971 66.6 2000 119.6
1914 9.6 1943 16.3 1972 68.9 2001 111.0
1915 47.4 1944 9.6 1973 38.0 2002 104.0
1916 57.1 1945 33.2 1974 34.5 2003 63.7
1917 103.9 1946 92.6 1975 15.5 2004 40.4
1918 80.6 1947 151.6 1976 12.6 2005 29.8
1919 63.6 1948 136.3 1977 27.5 2006 15.2
1920 37.6 1949 134.7 1978 92.5 2007 7.5
1921 26.1 1950 83.9 1979 155.4 2008 2.9
1922 14.2 1951 69.4 1980 154.6 2009 3.1
1923 5.8 1952 31.5 1981 140.4 2010 16.5
1924 16.7 1953 13.9 1982 115.9 2011 55.6
1925 44.3 1954 4.4 1983 66.6 2012 57.6
1926 63.9 1955 38.0 1984 45.9 2013 64.7
1927 69.0 1956 141.7 1985 17.9 2014 71.6
1928 77.8 1957 190.2 1986 13.4 2015 41.9
The number of sunspots on the visible solar surface is counted by many solar observatories to create a monthly
value. Each calendar year is averaged into a single-standardized quantity referred to here as the sunspot
number. This explains the decimal values in the table.

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 Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

2. A solar flare is a sudden, rapid, a) Plot the data from Table 2 onto
and intense variation in brightness a histogram.
on the solar surface. Radiation is
emitted across virtually the entire b) What pattern do you see in the
electromagnetic spectrum, from radio activity of solar flares?
waves at the long wavelength end to 3. Compare the two graphs you
X-rays and gamma rays at the short have produced.
wavelength end. Table 2 contains a list
of solar flares. These flares were strong a) What pattern do you see that
enough to disrupt communications and connects the two?
power systems on Earth. b) How would you explain the pattern?
Table 2: Strongest Solar Flare
Events (≥ X9.0) from 1976 to 2015

Date of Activity Onset Strength

November 4, 2003 X28+

April 2, 2001 X20.0
August 16, 1989 X20.0
October 28, 2003 X17.2
September 7, 2005 X17.0
March 6, 1989 X15.0
July 11, 1978 X15.0
April 15, 2001 X14.4
April 24, 1984 X13.0
October 19, 1989 X13.0
December 15, 1982 X12.9
June 6, 1982 X12.0
June 1, 1991 X12.0
June 4, 1991 X12.0
June 6, 1991 X12.0
June 11, 1991 X12.0
June 15, 1991 X12.0
December 17, 1982 X10.1
May 20, 1984 X10.1
October 29, 2003 X10.0
January 25, 1991 X10.0
June 9, 1991 X10.0
July 9, 1982 X9.8
September 29, 1989 X9.8
December 5, 2006 X9.0
Solar flares are classified according to the amount
of energy they emit. The X stands for X-class flares,
which are the highest class and have the strongest
effects on Earth. The strength of each event is in
milliWatts (mW) per square meter. For example:
X20 = 2.0 mW/m2.

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 Chapter 8 Astronomy

THE SUN AND ITS EFFECTS

Structure of the Sun
You analyzed sunspot and solar flare data by looking for patterns in the data.
Looking for patterns is an important scientific skill. When processes seem to
exhibit regular behavior, scientists are guided to ask questions about their
causes. When a process exhibits behavior that breaks from a predictable
pattern, scientists try to find out what causes the change in behavior.

From Earth’s surface, the Sun generally appears as a yellow

or white, glowing ball of light. Like Earth, the Sun has a
layered structure, as shown in Figure 1. Unlike Earth, the Sun
is composed entirely of gas. Its central region (the core) is
where nuclear fusion occurs. This is where hydrogen atoms
join together to form helium atoms. This process happens
only under intense heat and pressure conditions. The Sun’s
core reaches temperatures over 15 million degrees Celsius,
high enough for fusion reactions. These reactions release
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation that moves
through the Sun.
Figure 1 The layered The energy produced in the core first travels through a radiative zone. It then
structure of the Sun.
travels through a convection zone above that. The radiative zone surrounds
Geo Words the core. The temperature near the core is about 8 million degrees Celsius.
photosphere: the The temperature near the convection zone is about 2 million degrees Celsius.
visible surface of the Particles in the radiative zone continually absorb energy produced in the
Sun, lying just above core. Then they re-emit the energy. In the convection zone, there are rising
the uppermost layer
of the Sun’s interior, and falling currents of gas. These currents carry energy emitted from the
and just below the radiative zone to the Sun’s atmosphere.
chromosphere.
The Sun’s atmosphere has three layers. The thinnest layer is the inner
chromosphere: a one. It is several hundred kilometers in thickness. This layer is called the
layer in the Sun’s
atmosphere, the photosphere. It is much cooler than the underlying convection zone. It
transition between has a temperature of about 6000°C. The photosphere is the Sun’s visible
the outermost layer of surface. This is because most of the visible light emitted by the Sun comes
the Sun’s atmosphere, from this layer. Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. This layer
or corona.
extends thousands of kilometers above the photosphere. It is also much
corona: the outermost hotter with a temperature of about 20,000°C. This layer produces much
atmosphere of a star
(including the Sun), of the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation. The top layer of the Sun’s atmosphere is
millions of kilometers called the corona. This layer extends several million kilometers. It is much
in size. hotter than the other layers with a temperature range from 1 million
helioseismology: to 3 million degrees Celsius. Although hot, the density of the gas in the
the study of waves corona is extremely low. As a result, the chromosphere emits much less
generated within electromagnetic radiation than the other layers.
the Sun that reveal
its invisible, internal How do scientists study the interior of the Sun? One way is to use a method
structure. Millions of known as helioseismology. Helioseismologists listen to sound waves which
distinct, resonating
sound waves are bounce around inside in the Sun and create a kind of music. The reflection
detected as the result of the sound waves off the inside of the photosphere causes the surface to
of Doppler shifting of pulsate slightly. Scientists measure the rise and fall of the photosphere to
light emitted at the gain information on the density of material and motions within the Sun.
Sun’s surface.

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 Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

Solar Radiation and Earth’s Energy Budget

The Sun is Earth’s main external energy source. Of all the incoming
energy from the Sun, about half is absorbed by Earth’s surface. (See
Figure 2.) The rest is either
• absorbed by the atmosphere, or
• reflected or scattered back into space by Earth or clouds.

Figure 2 Earth’s radiation budget

Molecules of dust and gas in the atmosphere interfere with some of the
incoming solar radiation. The dust and gases deflect the radiation from
its straight path. This is called scattering, and it explains the blue color of
the sky. The atmosphere scatters shorter wavelengths of visible light, in
the blue range, more strongly than longer visible wavelengths, in the red
and orange range. The blue sky you see on a clear day is the blue light
that has been scattered away from the line of sight to the Sun. When the
Sun is low on the horizon, its light has to travel through a much greater
thickness of atmosphere. Even more of the blue part of the spectrum of
sunlight is scattered out of your line of sight. The red and orange part
of the spectrum remains. Therefore, the light you see coming directly
from the Sun is of that color. The effect is greatest when there is dust
and smoke in the atmosphere. This increases the scattering. The scattered
light that makes the sky appear blue is what makes it possible for you to
see in a shaded area.
Most of Earth’s atmosphere is made of oxygen and nitrogen. These gases
absorb little or no sunlight. As a result, most sunlight passes through the
atmosphere and reaches Earth’s surface. Earth’s land and oceans absorb
this energy and warm up. In turn, air molecules in direct contact with
Earth’s surface warm up as well. As air warms, it expands and becomes

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 Chapter 8 Astronomy

less dense than surrounding cooler air and rises. This rising air transfers
heat up into the atmosphere. As Earth’s surface absorbs solar radiation,
it also reradiates heat energy back out to space as infrared radiation. The
wavelength of this infrared radiation is much longer than that of visible
light, so you cannot see the energy that is reradiated. You can feel it,
however, by standing next to a rock surface or the wall of a building that
has been heated by the Sun.

Figure 3 Dust and smoke in the atmosphere can sometimes scatter

light to produce a sunset with a strong red-orange afterglow.

Reflection of Energy and Albedo

Geo Words
albedo: the reflective The reflectivity of a surface is referred to as its albedo. Albedo is expressed
property of a as a percentage of radiation that is reflected. The average albedo of Earth,
nonluminous object. including its atmosphere, as would be seen from space, is about 0.3. That
A perfect mirror
would have an albedo means that 30 percent of the incoming energy from the Sun is reflected.
of 100 percent while Most of this 30 percent is due to the high reflectivity of clouds, although
a black hole would the air itself reflects about 6 percent. Earth’s surface (mainly deserts and
have an albedo of oceans) reflects another 4 percent. (See Figure 2 on the previous page.)
0 percent.
The albedo of particular surfaces on Earth varies.
Thick clouds have albedo of about 0.8, and freshly fallen snow has an
even higher albedo. The albedo of a dark soil, on the other hand, is as low
as 0.1. This means that only 10 percent of the incoming solar radiation is
reflected. You know from your own experience that light-colored clothing
stays much cooler in the Sun than dark-colored clothing. You can think of
your clothing as having an albedo, too.

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 Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

Earth’s Energy Budget

The amount of energy received by Earth and delivered back into space is
Earth’s energy budget. Like a monetary budget, the energy is in different
places and moves from place to place in numerous ways and by various
amounts. The energy budget for a given location changes from day
to day and from season to season. It can also vary over geologic time.
Daily changes in solar energy are the most familiar. It is usually cooler
in the morning, warmer at midday, and cooler again at night. Visible
light follows the same cycle, as day moves from dawn to dusk and back
to dawn again. But overall, the system is in balance. Earth gains energy
from the Sun and loses energy to space, but the amount of energy
entering the Earth system is equal to the amount of energy flowing out.
This flow of energy is the source of energy for almost all forms of life on
Earth. Plants capture solar energy by photosynthesis, to build plant tissue.
Animals feed on the plants or on one another. Solar energy creates the
weather, drives the movement of the oceans, and powers the water
cycle. Almost all of Earth’s systems depend on the input of energy from
the Sun. The Sun also supplies most of the energy for human civilization,
either directly, as with solar power and wind power, or indirectly, in the
form of fossil fuels.
Harmful Solar Radiation
Just as there are benefits to
receiving energy from the Sun,
there are dangers as well. One of
the dangers of sunlight is ultraviolet
(UV) radiation, which causes skin Geo Words
damage. The gas called ozone, ozone: a molecule
found in the upper atmosphere, made up of three
oxygen atoms.
shields Earth from much of the Sun’s
harmful UV radiation. (Ozone is a
molecule made up of three oxygen
atoms.) The source of the ozone in
the upper atmosphere is different
from the ozone that is produced Figure 4 Depletion in the ozone layer over
Antarctica. Rather than actually being
at Earth’s surface. Ozone, often a hole, the “ozone hole” is a large area
produced by automobiles, is a source of the stratosphere with extremely low
of pollution. It is a health hazard concentrations of ozone.
and in no way protects you.
The levels of ozone in the upper atmosphere have been decreasing.
Scientists agree about the reason for the depletion. Chemicals from
compounds such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are the main cause.
Less ozone means that more UV radiation reaches Earth. This increases
the danger of Sun damage. Future levels of ozone will depend upon a
combination of natural and human-made factors. This includes the phase-
out, now underway, of CFCs and other ozone-depleting chemicals.

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 Chapter 8 Astronomy

Geo Words
sunspot: a dark, Sunspots and Solar Flares
irregular patch of
lower temperature In the Investigate, you saw the number of sunspots varies from year to
on surface of the year. The number of sunspots and dangerously strong solar flares tends to
Sun that can last peak in 11-year cycles. (See Figure 5.) Sunspots are small, dark areas on the
anywhere from a Sun’s visible surface. They can be as small as Earth or as large as Neptune.
few hours to a few
months. They are formed when magnetic field lines just below the Sun’s surface are
solar flare: an
twisted and poke through the solar photosphere. They look dark because
intense burst of they are about 1500 K (kelvin) cooler than the surrounding surface of the
radiation from the Sun. Sunspots are highly magnetic. This magnetism may cause the cooler
release of magnetic temperatures by suppressing the circulation of heat in the region of the
energy associated sunspot. Sunspots last for a few hours to a few months. They appear to
with sunspots. Our
solar system’s most move across the surface of the Sun over a period of days. Actually, the
explosive events. sunspots move because the Sun is rotating.
Cycle 24 Sunspot Number Prediction
150

sunspot number
100

50

0
2005 2010 2015 2020
300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
sunspot number

sunspot cycle
200 Maunder
Minimum
100

0
1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Figure 5 A sunspot is a depression that is slightly cooler than the surrounding cells of
hot gas. Records of sunspot cycles go back to the 17th century. There has been one
notable period of inactivity in the historic record. Very few sunspots were seen on the
Sun from about 1645 to 1715.
Both sunspots and solar flares can affect systems here on Earth. During
a solar flare such as the one shown in Figure 6, enormous quantities of
Geo Words ultraviolet, X-ray, and radio waves blast out from the Sun. In addition,
proton: a subatomic protons and electrons stream from flares at 800 km/h. These high-radiation
particle with a events can be devastating to Earth-orbiting satellites and astronauts. These
positive charge, events can also be harmful to systems on the ground. In 1989, a major solar
which is found in the
nucleus of an atom. flare created electric currents that caused a surge of power. It knocked
electron: a subatomic
out a power grid in Canada, leaving hundreds of thousands of people
particle with a without electricity. Radiation from a flare in 1997 affected an Earth-
negative charge, orbiting satellite that carried telecommunications traffic. For at least a day,
which orbits around people whose beeper messages went through that satellite had no service.
the nucleus of an In December 2005, X-rays from another solar storm disrupted satellite-to-
atom.
ground communications and Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation
signals for about 10 minutes. That may not sound like long, but it would be
to commercial airplanes being guided by GPS during landing.

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 Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

Solar wind is a flow of charged particles from the Sun. Another name Geo Words
for the charged particles is plasma. It flows out from the solar corona plasma: a state of
in all directions. Solar wind is responsible for “space weather”—the matter in which all
atoms are ionized;
environment outside Earth. Like severe storms in the atmosphere,
a mixture of free
space weather can cause problems for Earth systems. Strong outbursts electrons and free
in this ongoing stream of charged particles can disrupt radio signals atomic nuclei.
by disturbing the upper layers of the atmosphere. The sounds of your ionosphere: the part
favorite shortwave radio station travel as radio waves. These signals of Earth’s atmosphere
travel around Earth by bouncing off the ionosphere. This is a layer of above about 50 km,
where the atoms are
the atmosphere 80 to 400 km above Earth’s surface. The ionosphere ionized and affect the
forms when incoming solar radiation blasts electrons out of the upper- transmission of radio
atmosphere gases. What is left is a layer of electrons and charged atoms, waves.
called ions. The ionosphere acts like a mirror, reflecting a part of the ion: an atom with
radio waves (AM radio waves in the 1000 kHz range) back to Earth. one or more electrons
removed or added,
Solar flares intensify the solar wind. This giving it a positive or
makes the ionosphere thicken and strengthen. negative charge.
When this happens, radio signals from Earth aurora: the bright
are trapped inside the ionosphere. This causes emission of atoms
a lot of interference. As you read, solar and molecules near
Earth’s poles caused
activity can also be a problem for satellite by charged particles
operations and for astronauts orbiting Earth. entering the upper
Also, people aboard high-flying aircrafts have atmosphere.
reason to worry about space weather. This is Figure 6 A solar flare jets out
a big concern for those who fly polar routes. from the surface of the Sun.
This is where exposure to radiation may be
greatest. The United States government operates a Web site called the
Space Weather Prediction Center. It provides a dashboard with up-to-date
information about current solar activity.
At least one effect of space weather is quite wonderful. When the
solar wind encounters Earth’s magnetic field, it excites gases in Earth’s
atmosphere. This causes the gases to glow. The charged particles from
the solar wind end up in an oval-shaped area around Earth’s magnetic
poles. The result is a beautiful display called an aurora, seen in Figure 7.
People who live in northern or southern
areas see auroras more often than those
who live near the equator. However,
during periods of heavy solar activity
an aurora can be seen as far south as
Texas and New Mexico. In the Northern
Hemisphere, auroras are often called the
northern lights (aurora borealis). In the
Southern Hemisphere they are known
as the southern lights (aurora australis).
From the ground, they often appear as
green or red glows. Sometimes they look Figure 7 The aurora borealis, or
like a shimmering curtain of white, red, northern lights, light up the sky
and green lights in the sky. in the Northern Hemisphere.

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 Chapter 8 Astronomy

Collecting Data About the Sun

How do astronomers collect data about the Sun? From the ground, they
use solar telescopes. These are instruments outfitted with special sensors
to detect the different kinds of solar activity. There are dozens of solar
telescope sites around the world. From space, astronomers study the Sun
using orbiting spacecraft. These spacecraft are equipped with detectors
sensitive to X-rays, radio waves, and other wavelengths of radiation
coming from the Sun. In this way, scientists keep very close track of solar
activity. They can use that information to keep the public informed of any
upcoming dangers.
Some scientists theorize that sunspot cycles affect weather on Earth.
They think that during times of high sunspot activity, the climate is
warmer. During times of no or low sunspot activity, the climate is colder.
A sharp decrease in sunspots occurred from 1645 to 1715. This period of
Checking Up lower solar activity is called the Maunder minimum. It was first noted by
1. How do solar flares G. Sporer and later studied by E. W. Maunder. It coincided with cooler
interfere with temperatures on Earth. It was part of a period now known as the Little Ice
communication
Age. Similar solar minimums occurred between 1420–1530, 1280–1340, and
and power
1010–1050. These periods preceded the discovery of sunspots. Therefore,
systems?
no correlation between sunspots and temperature is available. Solar
2. In your own words,
astronomers number the solar cycles from one minimum to the next.
explain the term
“solar wind.”
They start with the 1755–1766 cycle as number 1. Cycle 24 peaked (was
How does the at a maximum) in the year 2014. (See Figure 5.) There is still much debate
Sun contribute to about the connection between sunspot cycles and climate.
“space weather”?
3. Describe Earth’s
energy budget.

Think About It Again

At the beginning of this section, you were asked the following:
• In what other ways does solar radiation benefit life on the planet?
• In what other ways can solar radiation be harmful or disruptive?
Record your ideas about these questions now. Be sure that you describe how
the Sun is structured and emits energy. Discuss the cycles and effects of
sunspots, solar flares, and the solar wind as well.

Reflecting on the Science

In this section, you examined data relating to the average number of monthly
sunspots in a given year. You created a graph of yearly sunspot activity from
1900 to 2015 and looked for patterns in the data. You then analyzed solar flare
data and correlated strong solar flare activity with larger numbers of sunspots.
You determined that the number of sunspots varies from year to year in a
regular cycle and that strong solar flares occur in greater numbers during years
with large numbers of sunspots.

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 Section 8 The Sun and its Effects

Understanding and Applying

1. Study the graph that you made showing sunspot activity. You have already determined
that sunspot activity occurs in cycles. Using graph paper, construct a new graph that
predicts a continuation of the cycle from 2015 to 2031.
a) What is the general trend over time?
b) Indicate which years you think would see relatively more solar flare activity and
more dangerous “space weather.”
2. Using the data from the sunspot-activity data table, predict the next sunspot maximum.
3. Make lists of the possible consequences of solar flares to the following members of
your community: an air traffic controller, a radio station manager, and the captain
of a ship at sea. Can you think of other members of your community who would be
affected by solar activity?
4. You have read that Earth’s albedo is about 0.3.
a) In your own words, describe what this means.
b) Is Earth’s albedo constant? Why or why not?
c) How does changing a planet’s albedo change a planet’s temperature? Why does
this occur?
d) If Earth’s albedo was higher, but Earth was farther from the Sun, could Earth have
the same temperature? Why or why not?
5. During a solar minimum, sunspot and solar flare activities are low. During these
periods, there is a maximum in the amount of cosmic rays, which are high energy
particles whose source is outside our solar system, reaching Earth. There is a theory
that cosmic rays can seed cloud formation in Earth’s atmosphere.
a) Based on what you know about albedo and Earth’s energy budget, how might
cosmic rays and the associated increase in clouds affect global temperature?
b) What kind of investigation and data could you plan to determine whether more
cosmic rays are received on Earth during a solar minimum?
6. Preparing for the Chapter Challenge
Continue working on your radio or podcast
script for the Chapter Challenge. Describe
how the Sun has affected your community
in the past, how it affects you personally,
and how it might affect your community
in the future. Provide details about some
of the benefits attained from a study of the
Sun. Explain some of the problems caused
by sunspots and solar flares. Also, explain
how auroras are caused and why they can
or cannot be viewed in your community.
Compare the chances of dangerous effects
from the Sun with the chances of an impact
event affecting Earth.

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 Chapter 8 Astronomy

Inquiring Further
1. Viewing sunspots
Work with an adult during this investigation.
Do not look at the bright image for long
periods of time.

If you have a telescope, you can view sunspots by projecting an image of the Sun
onto white cardboard. Never look directly at the Sun, with or without a telescope.
Stand with your back to the Sun, and set up a telescope so that the large (front) end
is pointing toward the Sun and the other end is pointing toward a piece of white
cardboard. You should see a projection of the Sun on the cardboard, including
sunspots. If you map the positions of the sunspots daily, you should be able to observe
the rotation of the Sun over a couple of weeks. Use the EarthComm Web site at
http://www.americangeosciences.org/education/earthcomm3/ to locate good
science sites on the Internet that show daily images of solar activity. Compare your
observations of sunspots to what you see from the large observatories.
2. Auroras
Have people in your community ever seen the northern lights? Even if your
community is not very far north, do some research to see if the auroras have ever been
spotted from your community. Explain how you assessed the reliability of the sources
you used to research auroras.
3. Solar radiation and airplanes
Periods of sunspot maximums increase the amount of radiation that astronauts
and people traveling in airplanes receive. Conduct research on how much radiation
astronauts receive during sunspot minimums and maximums. How much radiation do
airplane passengers receive? How do the amounts compare to the solar radiation you
receive at Earth’s surface? How do scientists balance safety with the issue of the extra
weight that would be added to aircraft, spacecraft, or spacesuits to provide protection?
4. The hole in the ozone layer
People who live near the South Pole of Earth are at risk for increased ultraviolet
exposure from the Sun. This is due to a thinning in the atmosphere called the ozone
hole. Research this ozone hole. Is there a northern ozone hole? Could these ozone
holes grow? If so, could your community be endangered in the future?
5. History of science
Research the life of British physicist Edward Victor Appleton, who was awarded
the Nobel Prize in physics in 1947 for his work on the ionosphere. Other important
figures in the discovery of the properties of the upper atmosphere include Oliver
Heaviside, Arthur Edwin Kennelly, F. Sherwood Rowland, Paul Crutzen, and Mario
Molina. Explain how you assessed the reliability of the sources you used in your
research.

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