Lecture 1

● Introduction to Measurement and

Instrumentation System
 Measurement
● Determination of the magnitude of a quantity by
comparing with a standard for that quantity.
● Essential elements of measurement:
Input Output
Measured Instrumentation
Observer
System True value System Measured
of variables value of
variables

Sensing Conditioning Processing

Element Element Element
 Instrumentation
● Devices used in measurement system
Controlled
Setpoint Variable
Controller Actuator Process
+_

Instrumentation

Sensor
 Examples of Sensor
● Thermocouple
Input Output
Temperature e.m.f
Thermocouple

● Resistance thermometer
Output
Input Resistance
Temperature Resistance Change
Thermometer
Example of Signal Conditioner
● Amplifier
Output
Input Small Larger
e.m.f Voltage
Amplifier

● Wheatstone bridge

Input Larger
Resistance Voltage Voltage
Change Wheatstone Change Change
Amplifier
Bridge
 Example of Display
● Display
Input Output
Current Movement
Change of Pointer
Scale

● Computer

Input
Analog Digital Output
Signal Video Display Readings
Data Acquisition Signal
Unit
System
(VDU)
 Measurement Standards
● Three commonly used systems:

International System (SI: meter, kilogram, second, …)

CGS System (centimeter, gram, second, …)

English System (feet, pound, second, …)
● Basic units – length, time, mass, temperature, ...
● Derived units – area, volume, acceleration, force, ...
 Base SI Units
SI is founded on seven SI base units for seven base
quantities assumed to be mutually independent.
 Derived SI Units
Defined in terms of the seven base quantities via a system
of quantity equations.
 Performance Characteristics
● 3 types of characteristics have been applied to define
the performance of a measurement system:

Operational characteristics

Static characteristics

Dynamic characteristics
● Operational characteristics include:

Range

Span

Sensitivity

Resolution

Dead band / threshold
● Static characteristics include:

Error

Accuracy

Precision

Repeatability

Linearity

Hysteresis

Calibration
● Dynamic characteristics include:

Rise time

Settling time

Maximum overshoot

Steady state errors
 Operational Characteristics
● Range  the minimum and maximum values.
● Span  the difference between the maximum and the
minimum range.
● Sensitivity  ratio of a change in output to the change in
input, in steady states condition.
● Resolution  the least incremental value of input or
output that can be detected.
● Dead band/threshold  the largest range of values of a
measured variable to which the instrument does not
respond.
 Examples of Operational
Characteristics
Example 1: A specification of a thermometer reading is
given as follows:
Range and subdivision of temperature in °C → −0.5 to 40.5
°C
–Minimum = −0.5 °C
–Maximum = 40.5 °C
–Span = 41 °C
Example 2: A galvanometer has a sensitivity of 17 mm/µA.
Based on the input shown in the following figure, determine
the corresponding output.
µA mm

1 17

0 0 T
T
Input Signal Output Signal
Example 3: A force sensor measures a range of 0 to 150 N
with a resolution of 0.1% FS (full scale). Find the smallest
change in force that can be measured.
Smallest force change that can be measured = 0.1% × (150)
= 0.15 N
● Example 4: A sensor has a transfer function of 5 mV/°C.
Find the required voltage resolution of the signal
conditioning if a temperature resolution of 0.2 °C is
required.
Voltage resolution = T.F. × temperature resolution
= 5 × 0.2
= 1 mV
 Static Characteristics
● Error  the difference between the true value Yn and
instrument reading Xn (error = Yn – Xn)
– Types of errors: systematic error (bias error) and random error
(precision error).
– Bias (systemic) error, eb: consistent and repeatable error (eb =
average readings – true value).
– Random error, er: the lack of repeatability in the output of the
measuring system (er = reading – average reading).
● Accuracy  reflects the ability of the system to respond
to a true value. Error limit of a measuring device, under
certain operating conditions can appear in several forms:
 Measured variable: the accuracy is ±0.2 of the measurement. If the
temperature reading = 30.1 °C, the actual temperature lies between
29.9 °C and 30.3 °C.
Percentage of full scale (FS): accuracy ±1% f.s. If the full scale is 10
A, accuracy = ±0.1 A.
Percentage of instrument span: accuracy ±3% span. If the span for
pressure measurement is 20 – 50 psi, accuracy = ±0.03(50 – 20) =
±0.9 psi.
Percentage of actual reading: for a ±2%. If the true value of the
voltmeter is 2 V  accuracy = (2 × ±0.02) = ±0.04 V.

Full Scale:  xtrue − xmeasure  Note:

Maximum error of full scale = 100 × max 

Uncertainty,
 xtrue (max)  |xtrue – xmeasure|
can be obtained
by multiplying
100 n xtrue − xmeasure the accuracy
Average accuracy of full scale = ∑ x
n i =1
with maximum
true (max) sensor range
Example 5: A temperature sensor has a span of 20°C to
250°C. A measurement results in a value of 55°C for
temperature. Specify the error if the accuracy is:
– ±0.5%FS
Error = ±0.5%×250°C = ±1.25°C
Actual temperature = 55±1.25°C, or 53.75°C to 56.25°C
– ±0.75% of span
Error = ±0.75%×(250 – 20)°C = ±1.725°C
Actual temperature = 55±1.725°C, or 53.275°C to 56.725°C
– ±0.8% of reading
Error = ±0.8%×55°C = ±0.44°C
Actual temperature = 55±0.44°C, or 54.56°C to 55.44°C
Example 6:
6 A temperature sensor has a transfer function of
5mV/°C with an accuracy of ±1%. Find the possible range of
the transfer function.
Error = ±1%×5 mV/°C = ±0.05 mV/°C
±
range = 5±0.05 mV/°C,
° or 4.95 to 5.05 mV/°C
°
Example 7:
7 Suppose a reading of 27.5 mV results from the
sensor used in Example 6. Find the temperature that could
provide this reading.
● Assume that minimum temperature = Tmin, and maximum
temperature = Tmax.
● Tmax × 4.95 mV/°C = 27.5 mV → Tmax = 5.56°C
● Tmin × 5.05 mV/°C = 27.5 mV → Tmin = 5.45°C
∴ Possible input temperature ranges from 5.45°C to
5.56°C.
 C
K ± ∆K G ± ∆G V ± ∆V

● Where, V is output voltage, ±∆V is uncertainty in output

voltage, K and G are nominal transfer functions, ∆K and
∆G are uncertainty in transfer functions, and C is
dynamic input variable.
● The overall system accuracy is given as:
∆V ∆K ∆G
=± ±
V K G

● The overall system accuracy as the root mean square

(rms) is given as:
2 2
 ∆V   ∆K   ∆G 
 V  = ±  K  +  G 
rms
 C
K ± ∆K G ± ∆G V ± ∆V

Prove that the output uncertainty of the system above is:

∆V ∆K ∆G
=± ±
V K G
V ± ∆V = (K ± ∆K )(G ± ∆G )C
Assuming that:
∆K∆G ≈ 0
V ± ∆V = KGC ± GC∆K ± KC∆G ± ∆K∆GC
Knowing that : V = KGC
∆V = ±GC∆K ± KC∆G
∆V ± GC∆K ± KC∆G
=
V KGC
∆V ∆K ∆G
=± ±
V K G
Example 8:
8 Find the system accuracy of a flow process if
the transducer transfer function is 10 mV/(m3/s)±1.5% and
the transfer function of signal conditioning system is 2
mA/mV±0.5%.
Considering worst case,
∆V  ∆K ∆G  1.5%(10 mV ) 0.5%(2 mA ) 
= ± +  = ±  +  = ±2%
V  K G   10 mV 2 mA 
Overall transfer function = 10 mV/(m3/s) × 2 mA/mV
mA mA
= 20 mA/(m /s) ± 2%  error = ±2% × 20 3 = ±0.4 3
3
m /s m /s
Range of transfer function 20 ± 0.4 = 19.6 and 20.4 mA/(m3/s)
The system accuracy assessed in rms is thus:
 1.5%(10 mV )   0.5%(2 mA ) 
2 2 2 2
 ∆V   ∆K   ∆G 
 V  = ±  +
   = ±   + 
rms  K   G   10 mV   2 mA 
Example 9: Given a function V = x + y – z, and uncertainties
of ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z in x, y, and z, compute the uncertainty in
V.

Since ∆z can be either positive or negative, worst case

scenario should be considered, so that:

and the fraction of ∆V and V is given as:

Example 10: Given V = (xa⋅yb)/(zc), and ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z
uncertainties in the measurements of x, y, and z. Determine
the uncertainty of V.

Expand the above equation through Binomial theorem,

Considering that the powers of ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z, which are
greater than 2, produce very small values, and can be
neglected.
 xa yb  ∆x  ∆y  ∆z 
V ± ∆V ≈ c 1 ± a 1 ± b 1 ± (− c ) 
z  x  y  z 
Expand the above equation and neglect any multiplications
between the uncertainties (e.g., ∆x⋅∆y ≈ 0):

Considering worst case scenario,

∆V ∆x ∆y ∆z
=a +b +c
V x y z
● Precision:
Precision the degree to which repeated measurements
under unchanged conditions show the same results.
● Repeatability  the ability of the system to display the
same output for a series of applications of the same input
signal, under the same operating conditions.
● Linearity  the output reading of the measurement is
linearly proportional to the quantity being measured.
● Hysteresis  different reading may be obtained if the
variable was increasing prior to taking the reading if the
variable was decreasing. Causes: friction, mechanical
flexure of internal part, electrical capacitance.
● Calibration  process of checking a measuring system
against a standard reading. The purpose of calibration
are:

To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other
measurements.

To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.

To establish the reliability of the instrument, i.e., that it can be
trusted.
 Dynamic Characteristics
● The output response of the instrument against time when
the input is varied.
● The relation between any input and output for n-th order
system can be written as:

● 3 types of response: zero order response, first order

response and second order response.
 Dynamic Response of Zero
Order Instrument
● The zero order instrument is represented by:
● a0y = b0u, y = Ku
where, y = output, u = input, K = b0/a0 = static sensitivity
or gain.
● The output responses linearly to the input. E.g.
potentiometer.
● Example 11: Suppose the temperature range 20°C to
120°C is linearly represented by the standard current of
4 to 20 mA. What is the current value if the temperature
is 66°C. What temperature does 6.5 mA represent?
 Dynamic Response of First
Order Instrument
● Ordinary differential equation of this instrument is given
as:

● Dividing the equation by a0, and Laplace transformed will

give:

● where, T = a1/a0 = time constant, K = b0/a0 = static

sensitivity, or gain.

u(t) Sensor, (e.g. y(t)

hermocouple)
hermocouple)
y(t)
● General equation as function of time following the step
input is given as:

● where, bi = initial output, bf = final output, T = time

constant.
Example 12:
12 A sensor measures temperature linearly
with a static transfer function of 33 mV/°C and has a
1.5 s time constant. Find the output 0.75 s after the
input changes from 20°C to 41°C. Find the error in
temperature:
 Dynamic Response of Second
Order Instrument
● Ordinary differential equation of this instrument is given
as:

● Transfer function of this instrument is:

where, ξ = damping ratio, ωn = natural frequency.

● A typical example of this type of instrument is the
accelerometer.