The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive

Inspection

Practical
Acoustic
Emission
Testing
Practical Acoustic Emission Testing
ThiS is a FM Blank Page
The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive
Inspection

Practical Acoustic Emission

Testing
The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection
Tokyo, Japan

Original Japanese edition published by The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive

Inspection.
Acoustic Emission Testing I
Copyright © The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection 2006

ISBN 978-4-431-55071-6 ISBN 978-4-431-55072-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016930030

© Springer Japan 2016

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Preface

Acoustic emission (AE) measurement is a technique for detecting an elastic wave

that is generated by the occurrence of microscale defects. Phenomena resulting
from microscale defects can thus be readily detected by AE. Recently, the acciden-
tal failure of various types of structures, resulting in disasters and injury to people in
many cases, has been reported as posing a threat to human safety. In most cases, the
durability and the load-bearing capacity of facilities or structures are carefully
ensured against microscale defects (structural flaw and cracks). However, in some
recent accidents, it has been found that microscale defects can lead to dangerous
conditions of structures.
Therefore, the establishment of “structural diagnosis” is in urgent demand. In
this respect, AE techniques are known to be promising for detecting microscale
defects and the analysis of “fracture phenomena.” Traditionally, the usefulness of
such techniques for predicting rockfalls has been known in mines worldwide. The
technique received great attention when it was applied to a pressure test of a rocket
motor case (rocket body) of a Polaris missile in the United States. Later, AE testing
was standardized as a nondestructive inspection technique for detecting defects in
pressure vessels and tanks. This became the motivation for current AE testing.
In recent years, applications of AE measurements have been extended from the
fields of metal and mechanical engineering to those of civil and chemical engineer-
ing, resulting in the establishment of practical inspection in many fields. Thus the
education of non-destructive testing (NDT) technicians in AE has become an
important issue.
This book was originally prepared for NDT technicians who need to learn
practical acoustic emission testing based on level 1 of ISO 9712 (Non-destructive
testing –Qualification and Certification of personnel) by the research and technical
committee on AE of the JSNDI (The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspec-
tion). The book was also selected as an essential reference of ISO/DIS 18436-6
(Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines –Requirements for training and
certification of personnel, Part 6: Acoustic Emission).

v
vi Preface

The editors (see below) and authors of the book are key members of the research
and technical committee on AE of the JSNDI. This 30-year-old committee has
consecutively held the International AE symposium (IAES) every 2 years.
Against this background – the roles of NDT technicians – the principles of AE
measurement are explained clearly followed by signal processing, algorithms for
source location, measurement devices, applicability of testing methods, and mea-
surement cases. The authors hope that this book will play a key role in AE education
and study in all fields of engineering.

Editorial Board
Chair
Yoshihiro Mizutani, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Members
Manabu Enoki, The University of Tokyo
Hidehiro Inaba, Fuji Ceramics Corporation
Hideyuki Nakamura, IHI Inspection and Instrumentation Co., Ltd.
The late Masaaki Nakano, Chiyoda Corporation
Mitsuhiro Shigeishi, Kumamoto University
Tomoki Shiotani, Kyoto University
Shin-ichi Takeda, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
Shigenori Yuyama, Nippon Physical Acoustics, Ltd.
Opening Figures

1. Applications

Remote monitoring of damages in a suspension bridge (www.mistrasgroup.com with permission)

vii
viii Opening Figures

Integrity evaluation of railway concrete bridge piers

Integrity evaluation of a pressure vessel

Opening Figures ix

Rock failure monitoring with a remote system

Evaluation of fracture characteristics of a concrete specimen

x Opening Figures

Damage monitoring of an aircraft during a structural test (www.mistrasgroup.com with

permission)

Damage monitoring of a rocket motor case (www.mistrasgroup.com with permission)

Opening Figures xi

Evaluation of corrosion damage during tank bottom testing

Detection and evaluation of a valve leak (www.mistrasgroup.com with permission)

xii Opening Figures

2. Monitoring Systems and Software

Portable acoustic emission system

Multi-channel acoustic emission systems

Contents

1 Roles and Safety/Health of Technicians Involved in Non-destructive

Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Hideyuki Nakamura
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Masayasu Ohtsu, Manabu Enoki, Yoshihiro Mizutani,
and Mitsuhiro Shigeishi
3 AE Sensor (AE Transducer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Hidehiro Inaba
4 AE Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Masaaki Nakano and Hideyuki Nakamura
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Tomoki Shiotani, Yoshihiro Mizutani, Hideyuki Nakamura,
and Shigenori Yuyama
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Shigenori Yuyama, Masaaki Nakano, Tomoki Shiotani,
and Sunao Sugimoto

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Appendix: List of Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

xiii
ThiS is a FM Blank Page
List of Contributors

Manabu Enoki The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Hidehiro Inaba Fuji Ceramics Corporation, Fujinomiya, Japan
Yoshihiro Mizutani Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Hideyuki Nakamura IHI Inspection & Instrumentation Co., Ltd.,,
Yokohama, Japan
Masaaki Nakano (deceased) Chiyoda Corporation, Yokohama, Japan
Masayasu Ohtsu Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
Mitsuhiro Shigeishi Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
Tomoki Shiotani Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
Sunao Sugimoto Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tokyo, Japan
Shin-ichi Takeda Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tokyo, Japan
Shigenori Yuyama Nippon Physical Acoustics, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan

xv
Chapter 1
Roles and Safety/Health of Technicians
Involved in Non-destructive Testing

Hideyuki Nakamura

Abstract In this chapter, roles of level 1 technicians involved in non-destructive

testing (NDT technicians) as specified by ISO9712 are presented. Safety and health
for NDT technicians are also demonstrated in this chapter.

Keywords Roles of level 1 technicians • Safety and health

1.1 Importance of Non-destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) refers to tests conducted to non-destructively eval-

uate the soundness and internal condition of materials, equipment, and structures. In
addition to AE testing (AT), non-destructive tests include visual testing (VT),
radiographic testing (RT), ultrasonic testing (UT), magnetic testing (MT), penetra-
tion testing (PT), eddy-current testing (ET), strain testing (ST), leak testing (LT),
and infrared thermography testing (TT). An optimal test is selected from among
these tests according to test objects and purposes. Several tests are combined to use
when high quality levels are required. The purposes of NDT include establishing
manufacturing techniques and reducing manufacturing costs, but the most impor-
tant purpose is to prevent any serious accident that causes injury to people or causes
environmental contamination when a product breaks during use. To prevent the
breakage of a product, it is important to verify the validity of a product design and
thoroughly ensure the product strength during production. It is also important to
detect degradation such as cracking and wall thinning of the product that exceeds an
acceptable criterion for the design and to repair the product as needed to ensure
quality during use. NDT is a method of detecting cracking and wall thinning that
reduce strength of equipment during production and use of the product, as well as a
method of evaluating the product’s integrity; NDT is thus a critical means for
ensuring the reliability of the product. An NDT technician’s lack of expertise will
result in improper testing and increase the risk of a serious disaster resulting from
oversight or underestimation in the case of cracking or thinning. Therefore, NDT

H. Nakamura (*)
IHI Inspection & Instrumentation Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Japan 2016 1

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3_1
2 H. Nakamura

must be conducted by a sufficiently skilled technician. Past investigations of serious

accidents show cases in which false reporting and falsification of test results
contributed to such accidents. The NDT technician must recognize the importance
of his/her duties, be aware of his/her social responsibility, and carry out the duty
with a sense of ethics and pride.

1.2 Role of a Level 1 Technician as Specified by ISO9712

The qualification and certification systems for NDT technicians have been
established on the basis of the ISO international standard ISO9712. According to
this certification system, if an technician passes a qualification test and satisfies the
given conditions, he/she will be certified as a Level 1, 2, or 3 technician. An NDT
technician’s role depends on the NDT level, and duties that can be carried out at
each level and the required ability are defined. The duties of NDT level 1 technician
are given as follows.

1.2.1 Duties Acknowledged for NDT Level 1 Technicians

Any technician certified as an NDT Level 1 technician must be able to carry out the
following duties under the supervision of a Level 2 or Level 3 technician.
(a) Prepare NDT equipment for AE testing
The technician can install and adjust AE devices, sensors, preamplifiers, and
cables.
(b) Operate NDT equipment
For AE testing, the technician can conduct tasks such as device setup.
(c) Implement NDT for AE testing
The technician can acquire and analyze data under the measurement con-
ditions of the procedure.
(d) Record NDT results
In AE testing, the technician can record data and results of data analysis.
(e) Classify and report NDT results in accordance with documented acceptance
criteria
In AE testing, the technician can determine acceptance/rejection, classify
grades, and report the results in accordance with documented acceptance
criteria.

1.2.2 Responsibilities of Level 1 Technicians

The NDT Level 1 technician is not accountable for the selection of NDT methods or
techniques. The Level 1 technician assumes the duties mentioned above, but the
1 Roles and Safety/Health of Technicians Involved in Non-destructive Testing 3

preparation of NDT instructions, equipment adjustment and calibration, and inter-

pretation and evaluation of NDT results that the Level 1 technician does not have to
conduct are the duties of Level 2 or higher Level technicians. The selection of NDT
methods or techniques is the responsibility of a Level 3 technician. It is important
for all technicians to fully understand their own duties in detail and to note that their
duties do not differ from a set of specified duties.

1.3 Health and Safety for NDT Technicians

In recent years, AE testing has been increasingly carried out in petroleum refining
facilities and energy plants. Because there are many potential dangers in such work
environments, careful attention must be paid to safety at these kinds of sites.

1.3.1 Caution in Equipment Handling

When technicians handle measurement devices, they must carefully read instruc-
tion manuals for the devices and avoid the occurrence of electric shock and fires
caused by faulty handling. Particular attention should be paid to the following
general matters.
(a) Do not connect/disconnect power and signal plugs with the power on
In AE testing, if a power plug or signal cable is mated or demated when an
AE measurement device is powered on, there are risks of device failure,
electric shock, and spark-induced fire. It is critical to never make this mistake.
(b) Do not disassemble an AE measurement device
The AE device and its peripheral equipment include built-in power sources
and exposed electric wires. Therefore, removing their covers or disassembling
the devices may cause electric shock or fire. Never disassemble the devices.
(c) Always connect the AE measurement device to an earthed wire
The insulation of an AE device and its peripheral equipment may reduce
upon the ingress of dust or moisture into the devices, thereby causing a risk of
electric leakage and shock. Therefore, it is necessary to connect a device to an
earth wire before using it.

1.3.2 Work at High Elevations

In the AE testing of a large structure, technicians sometimes ascend to an elevated

spot (height exceeding 2 m) to install a sensor or other device. In this case, it is
desirable to place a scaffold in advance. When a stepladder or ladder is used, it is
necessary to firmly fix the ladder to avoid the risk of falling. A technician must not
4 H. Nakamura

ascend/descend to the spot while carrying equipments by hand. Further, when the
technician works at an elevated spot, they must wear a safety belt and ensure that
they are held by a rope in case of a fall, while paying careful attention to their
activities.

1.3.3 Prevention of Explosions

Plants such as oil refining and gas production facilities, where no flame is permitted,
may be required to use explosion-proof equipments. Before the implementation of
AE testing at these sites, it is necessary to discuss the specifications of measurement
devices with the people in charge to prevent an explosion. In actual activities, laws/
regulations and safety provisions in each plant shall have priority over general
precautions for the above-mentioned measurement.
Before carrying out AE testing, it is also important to provide an opportunity for
a preliminary review of the test, determine danger factors, and establish counter-
measures. It is important to obtain to a wide range of opinions and reassess the work
environment from various perspectives.
Chapter 2
Principles of the Acoustic Emission
(AE) Method and Signal Processing

Masayasu Ohtsu, Manabu Enoki, Yoshihiro Mizutani,

and Mitsuhiro Shigeishi

Abstract Physical principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) and the signal
processing are presented in this chapter. The mechanism inducing AE waves are
explained in comparison with that of an interpolate earthquake. Types and charac-
teristics of AE sources are also explained. Fundamentals of AE propagation in
solids are discussed. As for the evaluation several promising AE parameters and
such AE source location techniques as 1D, 2D and zonal location are explained.

Keywords AE sources • Wave propagation • AE parameters • Source location

2.1 Principles of the AE Method

Masayasu Ohtsu and Yoshihiro Mizutani

When an external force is applied to a solid material, the material deforms. In the
case of low stress due to a small external force, the deformed material elastically
recovers to its original shape upon unloading (Fig. 2.1a). Such deformation is called
elastic deformation. In the elastic range, the external force leads to accumulation of
energy inside the material as strain energy.
There is a limit for energy accumulation in the solid material. If the strain energy
stored in the material due to the external force reaches the limit, it is released and
results in plastic deformation. That is, even when the external force is unloaded, the
material cannot recover its original shape (Fig. 2.1b).

M. Ohtsu (*) • M. Shigeishi

Department of Civil Engineering, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
M. Enoki
Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
Y. Mizutani
Department of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo,
Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Japan 2016 5

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3_2
6 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.1 Generation of AE due to strain energy release

If even larger external force is applied, cracking usually occurs in the material.
In this case, the strain energy accumulated inside the material is consumed by the
generation and growth of cracks (Fig. 2.1c).
When the solid material is deformed or cracked, it consumes strain energy. Thus,
most of the strain energy is released. Simultaneously, remaining energy is con-
sumed to generate sound and heat. A phenomenon in which sound is generated by
the energy release is referred to as acoustic emission (AE), and it is sometimes
described as the “scream” of the material under stress.
Sound is a phenomenon of energy release in air. In principle, because of cracking
inside the material, elastic waves are generated and propagate through the material.
The phenomenon is analogous to an earthquake. In other words, AE can be referred
to as a “micro-earthquake” in a solid material.
In summary, AE is defined as a phenomenon in which strain energy accumulated
in a solid is released because of deformation or cracking, and thus generates elastic
waves. AE waves are detected usually at the surface of the material by a sensor as
illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
Elastic waves generated by cracking propagate through the material and are
detected by an AE sensor (vibration-to-electrical signal conversion element) placed
on the surface. In this case, some portions of surface vibrations are released to the
air as sonic waves and can possibly be heard as a breaking sound.
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 7

Fig. 2.2 Generation and detection of AE waves

To explain the source mechanisms of AE phenomena as an analogy of an

earthquake, the focal mechanisms of an earthquake are illustrated in Fig. 2.3. A
fault slip forms on a plate boundary between an oceanic plate and continental plate
of the Earth’s crust. As a result, a sliding failure or shear failure is nucleated. In the
case of AE phenomena, two types of dislocations in Fig. 2.4 can be referred to as
crack motions at a crack surface. A sliding or slip crack-motion (shear crack)
corresponds to “in-plane shear dislocation”, and tensile dislocation (tensile crack)
is referred to as “opening dislocation”.
The basic difference between the earthquake and AE is the scales of cracking
(faults) and the related frequency ranges. As shown in Fig. 2.5, the earthquake
involves elastic waves of low-frequency components up to several Hertz (Hz),
while the AE phenomenon involves the emission of waves of high-frequency
components of up to several MHz. In general, humans can physically sense
seismic events, while inaudible waves with low amplitudes are generated as AE
phenomena.
In the case of the earthquake, seismic waves measured by a seismograph are
analyzed to locate the hypocenter, and the scale of the earthquake is estimated as
the seismic magnitude. Similarly, in the case of AE, the location of AE (AE source)
and the scale of damage resulting in AE can be estimated by analyzing measured
AE waves.
8 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.3 Generation mechanism of a plate earthquake

Fig. 2.4 Types of crack motions at a crack surface. (a) In-plane shear dislocation (slip crack-
motion). (b) Tensil dislocation (opening crack-motion)

Fig. 2.5 Frequency ranges of various elastic waves

2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 9

2.2 AE Testing as Non-destructive Testing

Masayasu Ohtsu

AE is used for NDT, regardless of the amount of strain energy released during the
deformation and failure of materials. In this section, the reasons for choosing AE
testing (acoustic emission testing, AT) and the cases in which AT is employed for
NDT are described.
Failure, which does not occur instantly, generally begins at the micro-level,
leading to final failure after the gradual accumulation of micro-level cracks. AT is
a method of monitoring or measuring this process up to the final fracture. In other
words, by detecting AE during the initial phases of the generation and growth of any
crack (repairable phases), we can stop ongoing operation and test to avoid ultimate
failure of the machine or structure (Fig. 2.6). This is why AT is used for NDT.
An ultrasonic testing (UT) is widely used as a means to detect cracks (flaws) in a
material. UT and AT both involve the use of elastic waves and are often compared.
Consequently, we describe the characteristics of UT and AT and the difference
between the two.
In UTs (Fig. 2.7a), a reflected wave (echo) from a crack is detected by the
excitation of an elastic wave from a probe, and thus, the crack is detected. In ATs
(Fig. 2.7b), a crack is discovered by detecting an AE wave released from it. Both
these methods involve the use of elastic waves, but there is an essential difference

Fig. 2.6 Application to pressure vessels

10 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.7 Comparison between ultrasonic testing and acoustic emission testing. (a) Ultrasonics
testing. (b) AE testing

between the two in this respect. Recently, research on an acoustic-ultrasonic

(AU) method in which ATs and UTs are combined has been promoted.
As mentioned above, the application of AT to structural diagnosis led to the
prediction of earthquakes and falling rocks and the establishment of the current
monitoring technique. Consequently, the following capabilities are being incorpo-
rated in commercial products.
1. Detection of AE phenomena associated with micro-failure or indications of
failure
2. Detection of AE indicating damage by continuously observing noise and
vibrations
3. Application of AE testing to various types of leak monitoring
A testing method, which is often used in structural diagnosis, measurement of
ground pressure in ground materials, and damage evaluation for pressure vessels,
involves the application of the AE Kaiser effect. The Kaiser effect is a phenomenon
in which most of the AE is not detected until the preload on a solid material is
removed and a load is once again applied to it. Since this phenomenon does not
occur when the material is structurally unstable (for instance, in the developmental
stages of failure), the effect can be used as an indicator of stability.

2.3 Types and Characteristics of AE Sources

Masayasu Ohtsu

As a source of AE waves, a crack is shown in Fig. 2.2. In addition, a martensitic

transformation and metal transformations such as tin cry are well known as AE
sources. On rocky and flat terrain that is old enough to contain metals, collapse
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 11

phenomena such as falling and talking rock are considered to be sources of AE

waves. These phenomena, essentially caused by a failure phenomenon, can be said
to result from crack formations.
Furthermore, AE waves are generated by rust formation and friction caused by
rust. The generation of AE waves by friction is not essentially different from the
occurrence of an earthquake caused by a fault slip. However, in the case of a
composite material, delamination and fiber fracture occur in the material. There-
fore, AE is caused by a complicated combination of these events.
Next, the detection of abnormal noise for acoustic diagnosis has been carried out
to monitor the safety of equipment and determine when the equipment must be
replaced. Abnormal noise caused by damage to tool edges and turbine blades can
also be considered as AE sources. Consequently, the AE method is applicable to the
detection of such noise. Furthermore, AE testing has already been employed in
nuclear facilities to monitor loose parts of systems. This method detects the
existence of broken pieces and fragments of parts (loose parts) that have slipped
into the insides of pipes in a reactor.
Further, some of the materials reported so far do not generate AE upon their
failure. This is considered to be due to the minimum energy of failure or ultra-high-
speed failure. This does not mean that AE waves are not generated; rather, they
cannot be as easily detected as in AE events.
AE waves are essentially generated by failure phenomena and can be mostly
attributed to the formation of microcracks. This type of AE is sometimes called
primary AE. On the other hand, AE generated by rust formation and friction caused
by inclusions and particles is called secondary AE. Typical mechanisms that
generate AE waves are conceptually illustrated in Fig. 2.8.

Description of Term (Transformation)

The micro-features of metal materials indicate that their atoms are arranged
systematically (crystal structure). The crystal structure of a metal changes
under certain conditions—this is called transformation.

Conventionally, types of AE waves are classified as burst AE (transient AE) and

continuous AE waves. In principle, an AE wave is generated by the formation and
growth of a crack at its source. Thus, a burst AE wave is reasonable. For instance,
an elastic wave emitted by an opening crack propagates, causing amplitude
damping. As a result, there is one waveform whose amplitude attenuates naturally
over time. However, in the case of continuous and consecutive generations of
dislocations, the AE waveform shown in Fig. 2.9 is observed, resulting from the
overlapping effects.
12 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.8 Examples of sources of AE waves. (a) Cracking. (b) Deformation and transformation. (c)
Sliding or slip. (d) Leakage

Fig. 2.9 Example of a detected AE waveform

As the time axis in the figure is extended, individual AE events can be dis-
criminated in most cases. Consequently, they can be considered to be overlapping
burst AE waves. In particular, AE waves associated with plastic deformation in
metal materials are difficult to separate and are well known as continuous AE
waves.
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 13

2.4 Properties of AE Waves

Masayasu Ohtsu

2.4.1 Propagation in Solids

An AE wave is, in principle, defined as an elastic wave generated at an AE source.

Wave motion is a phenomenon in which particle motions are dynamically trans-
ferred to adjacent particles, as each particle only vibrates at its own position and
does not move. However, wave motion itself propagates with its characteristic
velocity.
Wave motions are defined on the basis of orientations of particle motions and
directions of propagations. In an earthquake, for instance, the motion that people
first feel is longitudinal, and the transverse motion arrives later. Major motion
results from a Rayleigh wave, which is generated at the surface of the Earth after
the longitudinal and transverse waves arrive. Similarly, AE waves consist of
longitudinal, transverse and other waves.
1. Longitudinal wave (P-wave, Primary wave)
In the case of longitudinal waves (Fig. 2.10a), particles vibrate along the
direction in which the wave propagates. The wave is also called a dilatational
wave since it is associated with volume change. The longitudinal wave can
propagate through all media types—solids, liquids, and gases—and is the fastest
of elastic waves.
2. Transverse wave (S-wave, Secondary wave)
In the case of transverse waves (Fig. 2.10b), particles vibrate perpendicular
(in the “lateral direction”) to the direction in which the wave propagates. The
transverse wave is also called a shear wave, and can propagate through solids but
not through liquids and gases. The ratio of the velocity of the transverse wave to
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ð1
vÞ; where v is
1
2v
that of the longitudinal wave is theoretically equal to
Poisson’s ratio.
3. Other waves
Longitudinal and transverse waves are always generated and propagate in an
elastic solid. They are sometimes called body waves. Following their arrival at
the surface, other waves are generated in a solid. For instance, Fig. 2.10c shows
the propagation of Rayleigh wave. In the case of Rayleigh wave, particles near
the surface move elliptically, and motion decreases with depth. It is thus called a
surface wave. In a thin plate, Lamb waves (plate waves) are generated, as the
plate vibrates. The Lamb wave has a symmetrical mode (S mode) in which the
plate vibrates symmetrically, as shown in Fig. 2.10d, and an anti-symmetrical
14 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.10 Types of wave motion

mode (A mode) in which the plate vibrates asymmetrically, as shown in

Fig. 2.10e.

2.4.2 Wave Velocity and Wavelength

The wave velocity at which an elastic wave propagates through a solid depends on
properties of the materials and the wave type. For instance, the longitudinal wave
propagates through aluminum at a velocity of approximately 6350 m/s, while the
transverse wave propagates at approximately 3130 m/s. Even for the same type of
wave, the velocity varies, depending on the material. For instance, the velocity of
the longitudinal wave propagating through concrete is around 4000 m/s.
The velocity of the longitudinal wave, CL [m/s], is expressed in terms of Young’s
modulus E, Poisson’s ratio v and the density ρ of the material through which the
wave propagates:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð1
νÞE
CL ¼ : ð2:1Þ
ð1 þ νÞð1
2νÞρ

On the other hand, the velocity of the transverse wave, CT [m/s], is expressed as
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 15

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E
CT ¼ : ð2:2Þ
2ð1 þ νÞρ

The velocities of the longitudinal and transverse waves propagating through typical
materials are listed in Table 2.1. The velocity of the Rayleigh wave is approxi-
mately 90 % of that of the transverse wave. The velocity of the Lamb wave varies
with the plate thickness, frequency, and mode.
The wavelength is defined as the distance of one cycle in the sinusoidal motion
of a wave. An example of wave motion with constant frequency is shown in
Fig. 2.11. The time interval between successive motions of one cycle is defined
as the period and expressed as T [s]. The number of cycles per second is defined as
the frequency and expressed as f in units of Hertz (Hz), which is equivalent to cycles
per second. Consequently, the period T and frequency f are related by

f ¼ 1= T : ð2:3Þ

In the case that the wave propagates with velocity C [m/s], the wavelength is
derived from the wave frequency f. Thus, the wavelength is expressed as λ [m],
and the relation among the velocity C, frequency f, and wavelength λ is

λ ¼ =f
:
ð2:4Þ
C

When motion is repeated at f cycles per second, a wave with wavelength λ travels a
distance of fλ per second, which is equal to the velocity C as given in Eq. 2.4. For a
velocity C, a higher frequency f results in a reduced wavelength λ.
For instance, the velocity of the longitudinal wave is 4000 m/s in concrete.
Therefore, the wavelength of the 100 kHz component is obtained as 4000 m/s/
100 kHz ¼ 40 mm. A frequency band lower than 100 kHz is often employed for AE
testing in rock and concrete. Hence, it is noted that wavelengths of several centi-
meters are normally measured. As a result, scattering due to inclusions and aggre-
gates becomes minor. In contrast, the velocity of the longitudinal wave is 5900 m/s
in steel, and the wavelength of the 1 MHz component is obtained as 5900 m/s/
1 MHz ¼ 5.9 mm. Consequently, the wavelength often becomes greater than the
plate thickness. In this case, dominant motions of AE waves result in Lamb waves,
instead of longitudinal and traverse waves. Therefore, it is necessary to pay a
particular attention to selecting a velocity for locating AE sources (Sect. 2.6,
Chap. 2).

2.4.3 Attenuation

The attenuation occurs in time and in space. The former is related to time-series
motion of a material and is generally called viscous damping. The latter results in
damping of the amplitude with distance and is called distance attenuation.
16 M. Ohtsu et al.

Table 2.1 Velocities of typical materials (representative values)

Density Velocity of longitudinal-wave Velocity of transverse-wave
Medium (kg/m3) (m/s) (m/s)
Aluminum 2700 6350 3130
Steel 7800 5900 3200
Concrete 2500 4000 2600
Water 1000 1430 –
Air 1.2 330 –

Fig. 2.11 Wave motion

and the period

As an AE wave propagates from its source, its amplitude decreases owing to

attenuation (Fig. 2.12). Hence, it becomes necessary to determine the proper
positions and number of AE sensors, depending on sensor-to-sensor distances.
Figure 2.13 shows a relation between detectable AE waves and frequencies in
concrete. In general, AE waves with higher frequencies can attenuate significantly.
Therefore, the sensors must be as well positioned so that the distance between the
source and sensors is determined, taking into account detectable AE waves at object
frequencies.

2.4.4 Reflection and Transmission

AE waves are generally detected by an AE sensor placed on the surface of a

material. Therefore, wave components affected by reflection on the sensor-installed
surface are measured. It should be noted that both longitudinal and transverse
waves are generated by reflections of longitudinal waves. Even the incidence of a
transverse wave generates a longitudinal wave through reflection. Snell’s law is
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 17

Fig. 2.12 Schematic illustration of attenuation

Fig. 2.13 Attenuation rate for concrete

known as a theory governing incident and reflection angles. This law is expressed as
a relation between the propagation velocity C and an incident angle θ:

C1 C2
¼ ; ð2:5Þ
sin θ1 sin θ2

where θ1 is the incident angle, C1 is the propagation velocity, θ2 is the reflection

angle, and C2 is the propagation velocity of the reflection. In the case of an incident
transverse wave (S wave) as shown in Fig. 2.14a, we have
18 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.14 Reflections of AE waves at the surface due to the incident of the transverse wave

CT CL CT
¼ 0 ¼ 00 ð2:6Þ
sin θ sin θ sin θ

As a result, the incident angle θ becomes equal to the reflection angle θ00 since the
velocities of the transverse waves, CT, are equal even after reflection. Since the
velocity of the longitudinal wave, CL, is larger than that of the transverse wave, CT,
the reflection angle θ0 becomes larger than θ. When the transverse wave (S wave)
arrives at the AE sensor installed on the surface at a critical angle θc, the reflected
longitudinal wave (P wave) propagates along the surface. Since this wave
(SP wave) propagates faster than the direct transverse wave, AE waves are detected
at the AE sensor as the incident longitudinal wave, the SP wave, and the transverse
wave successively. These waves are followed by the Rayleigh wave.
Reflection can be considered to be a special case in which a boundary surface
exists between two materials (propagation media) and no upper layers exist in
transmission. In the two layers shown in Fig. 2.15, an incident wave becomes a
reflected wave at the boundary surface and then becomes a wave transmitted to
other layers. This transmitted wave causes refraction. An incident wave at the given
incident angle enters other layers at a given angle of refraction. The relation
between the incident and refractive angles is given by Eq. (2.6).
According to the theory of elastic wave motion, the amplitude of the incident
wave and the ratio of the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves in
Fig. 2.15 are known to be related. Assuming that the amplitude of an incident wave
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 19

Fig. 2.15 Reflection and transmission of an AE wave

is A, that of a transmitted wave is AT, and that of the reflected wave is AR, these
relations are

AR ρ 2 C 2
ρ 1 C 1
Reflection coefficient ¼ ; ð2:7Þ
A ρ2 C 2 þ ρ1 C 1
AT 2ρ2 C2
Transmission coefficient ¼ ; ð2:8Þ
A ρ2 C2 þ ρ1 C1

where ρ1 is the density of Medium 1 in Fig. 2.15, C1 is the propagation velocity of

Medium 1, and ρ2 and C2 are the density and propagation velocity in Medium
2, respectively. In the absence of Medium 2, since ρ2C2 ¼ 0, the reflection coeffi-
cient AR/A becomes
1, while the transmission coefficient AT/A becomes zero. On
the other hand, if the relation ρ2C2 ¼ ρ1C1 is established in the same medium, no
wave will be reflected with a reflection coefficient zero and all waves will be
transmitted with a transmission coefficient of 1.
20 M. Ohtsu et al.

2.5 Signal Processing

Mitsuhiro Shigeishi

Detecting AE waves for inspection can be compared with estimating and

comprehending the condition of machines used daily on the basis of their operation
sounds. A skilled machine operator can detect anomalies in the machine on the
basis of “unusual noises from the machine.” This indicates that “something is
wrong with the machine.” An engineer familiar with the components of the
machine can often discover the defect on the basis of unusual noises. For instance,
intermittent low noise or rattling sounds indicate that parts are rattling and bolts are
loose, while a continuous high noise or rubbing sound indicates the wear of rotating
parts. The machine is diagnosed on the basis of noise. When people hear a sound,
they can recognize the sound through its attributes such as its interval (tone) and
tune (rhythm) and then assess the situation on the basis of the sound using their
knowledge and experience.
However, to conduct a series of tasks using the machine (for instance, to detect a
sound, identify its characteristics, and accurately evaluate the sound), it is required
to operate the machine in many special processing tasks. AE involves the propa-
gation of weak waves through a solid and no sound can be immediately heard by a
person. Various devices are required for the detection of such waves and the
identification of their characteristics on the basis of acoustic phenomena.

2.5.1 What Is an AE Signal?

In scientific as well as AE measurements, physical quantities including sound,

vibration, temperature, and light intensity are called signals. These quantities
must be observable and are generally converted to electric signals using an appro-
priate sensor.
An electric circuit needed for AE measurement is called an AE channel. The
channel mainly consists of (a) an AE sensor, (b) a preamplifier or an impedance
matching transformer, (c) a filter, (d) a main amplifier or other necessary devices,
(e) a cable, (f) a detector or processor, or a combination of devices that have the
same functions as these devices (see Fig. 2.16). In other words, an AE signal
obtained from AE measurements is a physical quantity determined after an AE
wave propagating through a solid is detected by these devices and converted to an
electric signal. The quantity is generally a voltage value [mV].
Next, the information included in the AE signal is described. AE is a phenom-
enon in which some of the energy released by local changes in a material (an AE
event) propagates through the material as a wave. Consequently, the original AE
signal must contain information on the nature of an AE event or the source of the
wave. A waveform of the type of AE signal shown in Fig. 2.17 is generally called a
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 21

d) Main amplifier

b) Preamplifier

e) Cable

c) Filter f) Signal processor

a) AE sensor

Fig. 2.16 Basic AE channel

burst waveform. As apparent from the name, any burst change in equilibrium
generates AE. In addition, on the basis of the scale of the wave (height in the
figure), the degree of the change can be estimated. For instance, assuming that the
change is the burst breakage of given parts, the degree of the breakage or the size of
the broken parts can be inferred from analogy. If this breakage results from the
collision of a flying object with an object, the information required to determine the
degree of damage to the object is included in the AE signal.
However, until the wave propagates from the AE source to a point where it can
be detected or a point where an AE sensor is present, depending on the property of
the solid in which the propagation occurs, some or all of the information on the
source contained in the wave may be lost or information on the material properties
may be gained. Consequently, the information must be carefully collected.

2.5.2 Basics of Waveform Parameters

In the case of material evaluation and structure diagnosis based on AE, the relation
between an AE source event and the waveform characteristics in the form of the
graphical representation of the AE signal is generally understood.
(a) a burst waveform with clearly observable longitudinal and lateral waves;
(b) a harmonic continuous waveform with longitudinal and lateral waves that are
difficult to observe;
(c) a burst waveform with longitudinal and lateral waves that are slightly difficult
to observe.
Waveforms obtained for the AE signal vary widely but can often be visually
classified into certain patterns. To illustrate this, three waveforms are shown in
Fig. 2.18. From the figure, a difference in the wave intensity, duration of motion or
type of propagation can be observed. In this manner, the characteristics of a
waveform are clearly expressed as values such as motion intensity, wave-
continuation time, and the time from the start of wave generation to the time
22 M. Ohtsu et al.

Transverse wave

Micro-tremor
Amplitude

(Noise)

Longitudinal
wave

Time

Fig. 2.17 Example of an AE signal

when the largest wave is observed or the time from the beginning of the reduction of
wave intensity to the extinction of the wave, which are called waveform parame-
ters. Consequently the characteristics of the AE signal are described by these
waveform parameters.

2.5.3 Discrimination of an AE Signal

A wave generated in one AE event comprises a block of various wave components

such as longitudinal, transverse, or surface waves, as shown in Fig. 2.17. Because of
the difference in the propagation velocities of different wave components, these
components successively reach the AE sensor placed far from the AE source with a
time lag. Furthermore, there is a time lag between the gradual reduction in wave
intensity to the extinction of these waves. A series of pulses is called a wave packet.
Furthermore, the wave packets of the AE signal corresponding to the AE waves
released from a certain source are separated and extracted from signals that are
continuously output by the AE sensor. This signal processing is called
discrimination.
Actual AE signals, in contrast to deterministic signals with a regular time period
and amplitude, are random signals in which the changes in the signal values after a
certain time instant cannot be predicted. In addition, as shown in Fig. 2.18, because
several types of noises generated by many factors are included in AE signals to be
measured, it is unclear what the start and end of AE signals are. Therefore,
instruments for AE measurements rely on unique methods to differentiate between
AE signals.
As shown in Fig. 2.19, when a voltage threshold is set slightly higher than the
voltage level of the background noise during AE measurements and the amplitude
of the AE signal exceeds this threshold, the electric signal is recognized as an AE
signal. In addition, this voltage threshold can be set at the dashed line for which the
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 23

Fig. 2.18 Classified waveforms of AE signals

voltage is negative in Fig. 2.19. Furthermore, these two methods can be concur-
rently used.
However, in this simple processing, the discriminated AE signals form a pulse
train, resulting in potential loss of critical information on AE. Consequently, in this
case, a method illustrated in Fig. 2.20 is sometimes used for signal processing. In
particular, the amplitude of an AE signal is measured while an envelope is detected
from the AE signal. The start of the AE signal is determined to be the point at which
the voltage level of the detection signal first exceeds a set voltage threshold. On the
other hand, the end of the AE signal is determined to be the point at which the
voltage level of the envelope detection signal falls below a set voltage threshold.
One wave packet of continuous AE signals between the start and end of the AE
signal is called an AE hit.
24 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.19 Signal

discrimination with a
voltage threshold

Furthermore, there is another method for the concurrent use of this voltage
threshold and time discrimination by a timer (see Fig. 2.21). In particular, assuming
that the start of the AE signal is the point at which the voltage level of the AE signal
first exceeds the voltage threshold, the AE signal levels and the voltage thresholds
that are continuously input are compared. If the conditions for the voltage of an AE
signal to be higher than a certain threshold are satisfied within a given time, the
above comparison is repeated. If the conditions cannot be satisfied even when the
time has elapsed, this point is determined to be the end of the AE signal.
It is considered that the discrimination of AE signals using the above mechanism
will be easiest when the steps below are followed.
1. Set a voltage threshold Vt and detection time limit Tt that specify the start of the
AE signal.
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 25

Fig. 2.20 Signal

discrimination by envelope
detection

2. Assume the point at which the level of the AE signal, Vae, first exceeds Vt as the
start of the AE signal (AE signal start), and start the timer.
3. If Vae exceeds Vt again before the timer has reached the detection time limit Tt,
reset the timer at this point.
4. Repeat the comparison between Vae and Vt until the timer reaches Tt.
5. If the timer reaches Tt without Vae exceeding Vt, consider this point as the end of
the AE signal end.
Regardless of the discrimination processing of any AE signal, a given “dead
time” during which the AE signal is not detected after the end of the AE signal is
generally set. This time is established so that a wave packet of an AE signal already
identified is not detected as a wave packet of another AE signal by the same AE
sensor because of bypassing and reflection.
26 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.21 Signal

discrimination by timing
parameters

2.5.4 AE Parameters

It was mentioned earlier that an discriminated AE signal could include information

on an AE event in the source generating the wave. Therefore, information on AE
events and physical phenomena is generally inferred indirectly; i.e., by calculating
waveform parameters representing the characteristics of a waveform of the dis-
criminated AE signal, examining temporal variations in specific waveform param-
eters during measuring AE, obtaining distributions for one or more predetermined
evaluation thresholds, and investigating the correlation between different wave-
form parameters.
The focus of this section is the waveform parameters defined in terms of the AE
standard, ISO 12716: 2001. Figure 2.22 illustrates the significance of the main
parameters through schematic waveforms of an AE signal.
In general, the voltage threshold is only focusing on the instantaneous amplitude
of AE. Though, evaluation threshold which is different from voltage threshold is
used in some cases when calculating AE parameters. In Fig. 2.22, the evaluation
threshold has the same value as the voltage threshold. In some cases, the evaluation
thresholds are set to higher than voltage thresholds to calculate the AE parameters.
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 27

Fig. 2.22 Waveform

parameters

The time that elapses between the start and end of an AE signal is called the AE
signal duration, and the peak amplitude of the AE signal is called the AE signal
peak amplitude or simply the AE signal amplitude. The time that elapses between
the start of an AE signal and the time corresponding to the AE signal peak
amplitude is called the AE signal rise time.
The frequency at which the AE signal amplitude exceeds a predetermined
threshold within a specified time range is called the AE count, count, ring-down
count, or emission count. In general, the AE count is related to the frequency at
which the AE signal amplitude exceeds a predetermined evaluation threshold
within the AE signal duration. The AE count is used in AE testing to determine
the number and frequency of AE signals.
The AE count rate or emission rate is calculated from the AE count per unit time,
as a parameter that indicates the increase/decrease in the frequency associated with
the AE count time.
It is important to understand how AE signal processed in the AE measurement
instrument that is currently in use, since waveforms and AE parameters may be
changed when inappropriate frequency filter is used. It is also noted that evaluation
threshold also affects AE parameters.
28 M. Ohtsu et al.

Comparisons of individual measurement results carried out by repeating the

same AE measurement and continuous or intermittent AE measurements of the
same object over a relatively long time would not be valid if the same measurement
instrument is not used.
The purposes of AE tests are to quantify the characteristics of waveforms of AE
signals using various methods and to parameterize them, to guess the (unknown)
events that have occurred, determine the number and frequency of AE signals, and
estimate when AE occurred. AE parameters are summarized as follows.
(a) Parameters based on the signal waveform level
1. AE signal (peak) amplitude
The maximum voltage in an AE signal (hereafter, referred to as the
discriminated signal) detected between the start and end of the AE signal
discriminated on the basis of a given measured threshold; the signal
belongs to a series of AE signals generated by one AE event.
The voltage value of the AE signal can be expressed as a common
logarithm on the basis of a reference value of 1 μV.

AE signal peak amplitude ½dBAE  ¼ 20 log10 ðA1 =A0 Þ

Here, A0 ¼ 1 μV, which is the output from the AE sensor without any
amplification, and A1 is the measured maximum voltage of the AE signal.
2. AE count (ring-down count)
The frequency when the measured voltage of the AE discriminated
signal exceeds an evaluation threshold. The AE count at a given time is
divided by the time that has elapsed since the start of the AE signal, and the
count result per unit time is called the AE count rate.
3. AE energy
The AE signal energy is determined as the square of the AE signal
amplitude, the integral of the square of the instantaneous amplitude of the
AE discriminated signal over a certain duration, or the integral of the
instantaneous AE signal amplitude determined by envelope detection
over a certain duration. However, these values differ from the total energy
(AE event energy) released due to an AE event.
(b) Parameters based on the shape of the signal waveform
4. AE signal duration
Time that has elapsed between the start and end of the AE discriminated
signal.
5. AE signal rise time
Time that has elapsed between the start of the AE discriminated signal
and the time at which the AE signal peak amplitude is attained.
6. Ratio of rise time to amplitude
The ratio of the AE signal peak amplitude to the AE signal rise time.
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 29

(c) Parameters based on the level of the continuous AE signal

7. AE root-mean-square (RMS) value
The effective value (square root) is obtained by calculating the root-
mean-square of an AE signal. The effective value is also called the root-
mean-square value. The effective value of the AE signal represents the
energy level of the AE signal and also enables us to evaluate the rate of
occurrence of AE in the same manner as the AE count rate does, particu-
larly in the case of continuous AE (refer to the description on page 32).
8. Average signal level (ASL) of the AE signal
The average signal level represents the average energy calculated by
integrating the absolute value of the amplitude of a rectified AE signal over
a given time and dividing the result by the time that has elapsed since the
start of the signal.
The average level of the AE signal is considered to be also effective for
evaluating the root-mean-square value of a continuous AE signal (refer to
the description in Chap. 4)
(d) Other AE parameters
AE hit time
AE hit count
AE hit count rate
AE event count
AE event count rate
Damping factor based on propagation distance
Average frequency
Frequency spectrum
Energy moment

2.6 AE Source Location

Manabu Enoki

2.6.1 One-Dimensional and Two-Dimensional Location

Methods

A great advantage of the AE method is that the location of an AE source can be

determined relatively easily. In contrast to the case for a UT, it is not necessary to
scan the whole of an object using a probe when determining the position of damage
to the object. The location of the damage can be measured using a fixed sensor. This
30 M. Ohtsu et al.

method is the same as the location method for determining an earthquake center. In
the location method, the wave velocity of the object and the arrival time of the AE
wave must be known. Consequently, since a clear rising point of the waveform is
observed in the detected burst AE waveforms generated by micro-cracking, it is
easy to detect the arrival time of the AE wave, thereby enabling relatively accurate
location. On the other hand, since a clear rising point in the continuous AE
waveforms associated with plastic deformations is not observed, it is difficult to
determine the arrival time of the AE wave. Therefore, an accurate location cannot
be expected.
It is necessary to determine beforehand the velocity of AE wave to identify the
location of damage to the object using AE wave. Since the first-arriving longitudi-
nal wave can often be clearly detected when the object is sufficiently thick, only the
velocity of the longitudinal wave is used. Because the longitudinal waves often
cannot be clearly observed in the case of a thin-plate object, it would be better to use
the velocity of Rayleigh wave or Lamb wave (refer to Fig. 2.10); these velocities
can be clearly observed. Before AE measurement, it is necessary to check whether
the correct location can be found using a simulated AE source (pencil lead break
and pulse generator) after installing an AE sensor.
In general, it is desirable to find the three-dimensional location in determining
the damage position. However, when the number of measurable channels and the
number of sensors are limited or when the shapes of the object are specific, it is
difficult to determine the three-dimensional location of the damage. With a known
velocity, at least an arrival time difference is needed only for the order of a location
to be determined; i.e., the minimum numbers of sensors required for
one-dimensional location, two-dimensional location, and three-dimensional loca-
tion are two, three, and four, respectively.
A method for determining the arrival time of the AE wave is important. When a
clear rising point in the AE waveform is first observed, this point can only be the
arrival time, but the rising point generally cannot be clearly identified in most cases
because of noise. In this case, it is practical to calculate the arrival time assuming
that it is given by the point exceeding a threshold or the point at which the
waveform attains the initial peak. However, it would be also necessary to evaluate
the precision of location achieved using the simulated AE source.
One-dimensional location in which a burst waveform is detected is now
discussed. Assuming that there is AE between two AE sensors, the location of an
AE source is x, and the locations of the two sensors are x1 and x2 (See Fig. 2.23), we
derive an equation for t1 and t2 when the AE wave reaches the sensors:

Ct1 ¼ jx
x1 j, Ct2 ¼ jx
x2 j; ð2:9Þ

where C is the velocity of the AE wave. Furthermore, assuming that there is a

difference between the arrival times at the two sensors (arrival time difference:
Δt12), we have
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 31

Fig. 2.23 Linear source AE sensor

location (Ch.1) t1 t2
(Ch.2)
AE source
AE wave

x1 x x2 X axis

CΔt12 ¼ jx
x1 j
jx
x2 j: ð2:10Þ

The velocity and the positions of the sensors are known. From this equation, the
one-dimensional location of the AE source, x, can be determined.
Similarly, three sensors enable us to determine the planar source location or the
two-dimensional source location (x, y). Assuming that the velocity is C, the
positions of the three sensors are (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and (x3, y3), the arrival times
at the sensors are t1 and t2, and the differences between the arrival times at the
sensors are Δt12 and Δt13, as mentioned above. We thus have (Fig. 2.24)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
CΔt12 ¼ ðx
x1 Þ2 þ ðy
y1 Þ2
ðx
x2 Þ2 þ ðy
y2 Þ2 ,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:11Þ
CΔt13 ¼ ðx
x1 Þ2 þ ðy
y1 Þ2
ðx
x3 Þ2 þ ðy
y3 Þ2 :

These two equations with two unknowns x and y can be solved. The numerical
solution of non-linear equations obtained using a computer enables us to easily
determine the two-dimensional location of the AE source. The precision of location
achieved by these methods depends mainly on the resolution of the arrival times,
sensor sizes, and the sensor-to-senor interval.

2.6.2 Guard Sensor

As described in the previous section, if a sufficient number of measurement

channels are available for measuring the arrival time of an AE wave, the location
of an AE source can be determined. However, when many extraneous noise signals
are measured from sections other than the object to be measured, it is inefficient to
conduct location in the presence of assumed noise signals with the above method.
32 M. Ohtsu et al.

Fig. 2.24 Two-dimensional (planar) source location

The following method is useful for eliminating noise from the chucking of a test
specimen, as required in a materials tensile test, or for removing noise generated by
the test. It also contributes to the elimination of clear noise propagating from
outside the object, even in a large structure.
The measurement method involving the use of a guard sensor for
one-dimensional location is described below. As shown in Fig. 2.25, an AE source
between the sensors at x1 and x2 is to be monitored. Guard sensors for noise
elimination are installed at x0 and x3 outside the monitored area. If any noise is
generated outside the area bounded by x0 and x3, the first signal will always reach a
guard sensor at x0 or x3. Consequently, when comparing the arrival times of all AE
signals in the channel, if a guard sensor at x0 or x3 indicates the arrival time of the
first signal, then the noise in this event can be concluded as originating from outside
the monitored area. Thus, the one-dimensional location of events except eliminated
events can be efficiently carried out using the sensors at x1 and x2.

2.6.3 Zone Location

The concept of the first-hit channel described in the previous subsection is also
useful in zone location, particularly in the case of large structures. The frequency
band used in AE measurement is lower than that used in a UT; further, the signal
damping in AE measurement is less than that in the UT. Therefore, AE measure-
ment can be used to monitor large structures. However, in the case of a larger object
or a weaker generated signal, all AE signals cannot be recorded in all measured
channels because of signal attenuation. In this case, it is impossible to locate the AE
source when there is a difference between the arrival times of AE signals. The AE
signal that arrives first corresponds to the AE source nearest a sensor in the channel;
this enables approximate location of the AE source.
A method for two-dimensional zone location of the object is described below. As
shown in Fig. 2.26, sensors are equally spaced in measuring AE.
2 Principles of the Acoustic Emission (AE) Method and Signal Processing 33

Fig. 2.25 Arrangement of a

guard sensor for noise
elimination

Fig. 2.26 Zone location

If any AE signal is detected, it can be concluded that an AE source exists near the
sensor. For instance, if a histogram showing the number of events observed in each
channel is plotted, the area with many AE sources can be identified. Consequently,
the precision of locating AE sources will depend on the sensor-to-sensor intervals.
Although this precision cannot be compared with that obtained from the difference
in arrival times, this method significantly helps determine the damage to a large
structure in a realistic manner.
34 M. Ohtsu et al.

2.6.4 Leak Location

AE location can be applied to determine the leakage points in various pipes. If

liquids leak from a pipe and a burst AE signal is detected, it is possible to determine
the leakage point in the pipe employing the above location method. When the
arrival time is clearly obtained in each channel, as described earlier, the difference
in arrival times enables accurate location. In addition, when clear signals cannot be
obtained in all channels because of signal attenuation, zone location enables the
determination of any leakage point.
On the other hand, gas leakage may generate a continuous rather than burst AE
signal in most cases. Therefore, location employing the time axis is impossible in
such cases. However, any leakage point can be roughly determined by comparing
the amplitudes or RMS voltages of channels, since a strong signal must be obtained
at the sensor near the leakage point in the same manner as in the above case of zone
location.
Chapter 3
AE Sensor (AE Transducer)

Hidehiro Inaba

Abstract In this chapter, an overview of AE sensor (transducer) is presented.

Conversion principal by the AE sensor is discussed. Structures and characteristics
of resonant and broad-band AE sensors are explained. A calibration method of AE
sensors is briefly introduced.

Keywords AE sensor • Conversion principal • Calibration method

3.1 Conversion Mechanism

Once AE is generated in solid materials, AE waves propagate within the solid

materials and/or on the surface of the solid materials as elastic waves. During AE
testing, these AE waves are detected by AE sensors attached to the surface of the
solid materials. The AE sensor detects an AE wave and then converts it into a
voltage signal. In general, this conversion is conducted using piezoelectric
ceramics. In this section, the principle of this conversion mechanism by an AE
sensor is explained.
Piezoelectric ceramic is one of the piezoelectrics. The basic physical behavior of
piezoelectrics is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
Electrodes are placed on both ends of a cylindrical piezoelectric element. When
a voltage is loaded on a piezoelectric element via the electrodes, the piezoelectric
element expands or contracts in accordance with the voltage application. Con-
versely, the piezoelectric element will generate a voltage when its shape is altered
by a force. The piezoelectric element has the ability to convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy reciprocally. This is referred to as piezoelectric effect and the
materials showing above property as a piezoelectric material. There are two kinds
of piezoelectric materials. One is quartz without any artificial modification. The
other one is piezoelectric ceramics made by burning several raw materials at high

H. Inaba (*)
Fuji Ceramics Corporation, Fujinomiya, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Japan 2016 35

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3_3
36 H. Inaba

Fig. 3.1 Basic physical behavior of piezoelectric ceramics

temperature after a forming process. Piezoelectric ceramics are much better at

generating electricity through deformation than other materials. Accordingly, pie-
zoelectric ceramics are suitable for application in an AE sensor to achieve high
sensitivity in measuring microscopical deformations, such as those of an AE waves.
Although there are many types of piezoelectric ceramics, lead zirconate titanate
(Pb (Zr, Ti)O3), which is referred to as PZT, is widely used for AE sensors. Unlike
quartz, PZT does not demonstrate piezoelectricity only by the forming and burning
processes, but it shows piezoelectricity after a high voltage is applied (called
polarization).
An AE wave propagates within solid material and/or along the surface of the
solid materials, and can pass into an AE sensor fixed to the surface of the solid
materials via the AE sensor’s detection face. Since the detection face of an AE
sensor is in contact with the solid surface and the inside surface of the detection face
is adhered to a piezoelectric ceramic, the AE sensor can detect an AE wave with
high sensitivity. When an AE wave reaches the piezoelectric ceramic after passing
through the detection face, the piezoelectric ceramic is deformed by the AE wave.
A voltage is then generated as a result of deformation of the piezoelectric ceramic.
This voltage is called the AE signal and it passes from the AE sensor through a
cable and preamplifier and is detected by measurement instrument.
3 AE Sensor (AE Transducer) 37

3.2 Types and Structures of AE Sensors

3.2.1 Resonance and Broad-Band Sensors

AE sensors can be mainly classified as either resonance models or broad-bandwidth

models. The schematic structures of these AE sensors are shown in Fig. 3.2.
First, the widely used resonance-type AE sensor is explained. When an AE wave
reaches a piezoelectric ceramic through the detection face, the AE wave is repeat-
edly reflected within the piezoelectric ceramic (i.e., transfer element). During this
reflection, the AE wave with the resonance frequency is emphasized and remains
within the transfer element. In contrast, other components are attenuated quickly
within the transfer element. Accordingly, the AE sensor achieves high sensitivity
by taking advantage of the resonance provided by the transfer element. fr, the
resonance frequency of the transfer element depends on the thickness and sound
velocity of the transfer element. Additionally, fr is expressed by the following
equation, where l and C are the thickness and velocity of the transfer element
respectively. The value of fr in this equation is the resonance frequency under the
condition that the AE sensor is attached to the measuring object.

C
fr ¼ ð3:1Þ
4l

In the equation, the value of fr depends on the thickness of the transfer element,
while in reality, the value of fr is also affected by wave propagation in another
direction such as the radial or width direction of the transfer element. Finally,
overall fr is characterized by the mutual influence among various kinds of fr.
Consequently, the sensitivity–frequency characteristics of the AE sensor are deter-
mined by the shape of the transfer element. In the case that we design a transfer
element with lower resonance frequency, the element will be larger than those of
higher frequency. In general, the size of the AE sensor will become large when fr is
below 60 kHz, while small when fr is high.

Fig. 3.2 Schematic structures of resonant-type and broad-band type AE sensors

38 H. Inaba

A broadband AE sensor having a flat frequency response is used to confirm the

frequency component and/or waveform analysis of AE waves. To acquire this flat
frequency response, it is necessary to damp fr in contrast with the case for the
resonant type AE sensor. In terms of the structure, a transfer element is covered by a
damper. The purpose of the damper is that an AE wave can pass from a transfer
element to a damper without there being reflection of the AE wave in the marginal
zone between the transfer element and damper, which suppresses the volume of the
AE wave reflection and acquiring a flat frequency response.

3.2.2 Structure

As an AE sensor can detect very weak signals, its transfer element is normally
installed within a metal case to shield the signal from outside noise. AE sensors are
of various size; e.g., there is a minute sensor having a diameter and height of 3 mm,
there is the common type having a diameter of 20 mm and height of 20–25 mm, and
there are sensors for civil engineering with a diameter of 30 mm and height of
50 mm height with fr of 30–60 kHz.

3.3 Characteristics of AE Sensors

Figure 3.3 shows a common resonance-type 150 kHz AE sensor. Figure 3.4 shows
an example of the sensitivity–frequency characteristics of the sensor. The 150 kHz
AE sensor is common in that it has a diameter of 20 mm and height of 23 mm. The
alumina (Al2O3) detection face is white and located in the center of the top face.

Fig. 3.3 150-kHz resonant-

type AE sensor
3 AE Sensor (AE Transducer) 39

dB (0dB=1V/m/s) Longitudinal wave

80

60

40

20

100 250 500 750 1000

Frequency (kHz)

Fig. 3.4 Frequency characteristics of a 150 kHz resonance-type AE senor

dB (0dB=1V/m/s) Longitudinal wave

70

50

30

10

100 500 1000 1500 2000

Frequency (kHz)

Fig. 3.5 Frequency characteristics of a broad-band AE sensor

The transfer element is fixed to the inside surface of the alumina with an adhesive.
Figure 3.5 shows the sensitivity–frequency characteristics of a broad-band AE
sensor with a frequency range from 100 kHz to 1.3 MHz. The unit of the vertical
axis (sensitivity) is decibels assuming that 0 dB corresponds to 1 V/m/s.
40 H. Inaba

3.4 Various Specifications of AE Sensors

3.4.1 Insulation (Surface for Installation)

When there is a potential difference between the ground where the AE sensor is
placed and the ground where the measurement instrument is placed, there is a
potential difference between the two ends of the signal cable connecting the AE
sensor and measuring instrument. As a result, there is a current in the signal cable.
This current acts as noise since the AE signal current is passing through the same
cable. Figure 3.6 shows the principle of noise generation.
When a number of AE sensors are used at the same time, measurement will be
affected by noise caused by a magnetic field because the signal cables between AE
sensors and a measurement instrument form a loop circuit like a coil to generate
current even though there is no potential difference. As a countermeasure for this
noise, alumina, known to be an insulator, is widely used for the detection face of an
AE sensor. Depending on how the AE sensor is fixed and what type of jig is used,
electrical conduction between the AE sensor and testing object may short circuit
even though the mounting face of the AE sensor is insulated. For this reason, it is
necessary to use an insulated jig dedicated to fixing the AE sensor or to fix the case
of the AE sensor with adhesive tape.

3.4.2 Waterproofness

If water enters the housing of the AE sensor, not only will the measurement be
affected but also the AE sensor might be damaged. Therefore, it is recommended to
use an AE sensor that is at least drip-proof and possibly even waterproof in certain
environments. Even though there might be no damage due to water, there is the
possibility of a short circuit due to water in the case that only the detection face is
insulated. To avoid such a short circuit, it is recommended to use a fully waterproof

Fig. 3.6 Noise from a

potential difference of the
ground
3 AE Sensor (AE Transducer) 41

and insulated AE sensor for which the whole surface of the case is insulated from
the signal line. Such a waterproof AE sensor is not equipped with a signal output
connector but with a directly fixed output cable.

3.4.3 Signal Output Method

An AE signal is very weak and has a magnitude of only a few millivolts at the
output terminal of the AE sensor. Consequently, noise from the outside must be
blocked so as to reduce interference as much as possible. For a cable connecting an
AE sensor and preamplifier, a special (low-noise) coaxial cable is usually used. A
metallic shield covering the outer side of the special (low-noise) coaxial cable
shelters the AE signal from noise and the AE signal passes through the center core
within the dielectric insulator of the coaxial cable. This signal transmission method
is referred to as the single-ended (unbalanced) method. Even if the above method is
used, noise might be induced at the outer conductor of a coaxial cable when the
noise outside the cable is strong. As a result, the signal includes the noise at the
outer conductor. To address this problem, the differential (balanced) method is
employed, where two-core coaxial cables with respective metallic shields are used
instead of a normal coaxial cable. Antiphase AE signals are designed to pass
through their respective internal cores at the same time. The AE signals are then
amplified and combined while in opposite phase. In differential (balanced) trans-
mission, external noise is erased because it appears in both the signals of normal
phase and opposite phase with equal amplitude Vn (called common mode noise). In
this case, it is necessary to prepare a specified amplifier with differential input to
drive the differential (balanced) AE sensor. The principle of signal transmission for
differential (balanced) output is shown in Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7 Schematic diagram of differential/balanced output

42 H. Inaba

3.4.4 Cable (Low-Noise Cable)

For use with an AE sensor, a special coaxial cable called a low-noise cable is
recommended. When a signal cable is bent, twisted and/or shaken, the cable
generates electrostatic noise. This is because the motion of a cable forms a local
capacitor as a result of separation of the external conductor and insulator, which
introduces noise at the time of discharge of an electrical charge. To prevent such
noise, a special low-noise cable is widely employed, where a conductive layer
(carbon) is glazed on the surface of a dielectric insulator.

3.4.5 Integrated Preamplifier Sensor

A conventional AE sensor outputs a signal generated at its transfer element directly

to a preamplifier, while another type of AE sensor is available with a preamplifier
installed within its case. In the latter case, the AE sensor amplifies AE signals by
20–40 dB (a factor of 10–100) as to transmit a strong signal. In other words, signals
are transmitted upon completion of the damping of impedance within the AE
sensor. Thus, the AE signals are noise-resistant as they are not affected by noise
from the outside. Furthermore, the system is available even for a long distance
between the AE sensor and a preamplifier and/or a measurement instrument,
because little signal attenuation is expected. It is also possible to use a normal
coaxial cable as a signal cable when the AE sensor with built-in preamplifier is
used. To supply power to an AE sensor with a integrated preamplifier, a signal
output cable is usually used. An AE sensor integrated with preamplifier has varying
specifications such as a power supply voltage from 15 to 24 V and impedance of
50 or 75 Ω. Accordingly, it is necessary to use an appropriate measurement instru-
ment such that the power supply meets the specification of the AE sensor.

3.5 Calibration of AE Sensors

Depending on how an AE sensor is used or the circumstances in which it is used,

there may be sensitivity deterioration and/or changes to the frequency characteris-
tics of the AE sensor. The main factor is a change in the adhesive condition between
the detection face and the piezoelectric element. The adhesive condition can change
as a result of repeated changes in the external load and temperature. It is thus
necessary to confirm that the properties of an AE sensor.
1. NDIS2109: Methods for absolute calibration of acoustic emission transducers
employing the reciprocal technique (reciprocal calibration method)
Method for Absolute Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by Recip-
rocal Technique published by the Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection
3 AE Sensor (AE Transducer) 43

Standards is available for the calibration of an AE sensor. The standard specifies the
following procedure.
First, prepare three AE sensors. Receiving and transmitting signals for the three
sensors placed on a designated block are used for calibration. The AE sensor’s
sensitivity to physical volume (velocity) is then obtained by calibrating the sensi-
tivity for a longitudinal wave and that for a surface wave. Furthermore, the standard
specifies the following.
As a secondary calibration method, a single calibrated AE sensor can be used as
a standard to calibrate another AE sensor with/without a integrated preamplifier
though number of calibrated AE sensor is only one(1) piece.
2. ISO 12713: Primary calibration method for transducers
ISO 12713: Primary calibration method for transducers regulates the calibration
of sensitivity to the physical volume, as an alternative to the reciprocal calibration
method.
The procedure is as follows.
First, lay a glass capillary tubing on a steel block. Then press the glass capillary
tubing downward so that the surface of the steel block is pushed down gradually.
When the glass capillary tubing breaks, the surface of the steel block recovers from
a compression to a flat shape. At the very moment of displacement, the steel block
emits a signal. Making use of the displacement of the steel block as a signal source,
calibrate the sensitivity of the AE sensor by comparing with the displacement
already acquired using a capacitive displacement sensor. It has been reported that
there is good correlation between the results of the reciprocal calibration method
and primary calibration method for the same AE sensor.
3. Method for checking sensitivity deterioration
It is difficult for users of AE sensors to work out the reciprocal calibration
method or primary calibration method by themselves because both methods require
a large steel block and dedicated facilities. Therefore, it is natural for users to ask
manufactures about the calibration of AE sensors. There is a simple method for
users to confirm whether the sensitivity of an AE sensor has changed. First, fix the
AE sensor to a steel block with appropriate dimensions. Then record the output
signal of the AE sensor while breaking the lead of mechanical pencil on the steel
block. Data can then be compared with initial state in sensitivity. (Refer to
NDIS2110 Method for measurement of sensitivity deterioration of an AE trans-
ducer) It is recommended that users ask manufactures to conduct an official
sensitivity calibration. Furthermore, users are encouraged to carry out a preliminary
check before they use an AE sensor.
Chapter 4
AE Measurement System

Masaaki Nakano and Hideyuki Nakamura

Abstract AE measurement system used for AE testing is presented in this chapter.

Purpose and characteristics of preamplifier, frequency-filter and signal cable are
explained. Functions of general AE measurement software are also described.

Keywords AE measurement system • Preamplifier • Frequency-filter • Signal

cable

Figure 4.1 shows the schematic flow from AE wave generation to the measurement
and output of the processed results. The region enclosed by a dotted line in the
figure represents an AE measurement system. The AE measurement system gener-
ally consists of an AE sensor, a preamplifier that amplifies and transmits the AE
sensor output to the AE signal processor, and an AE signal processor that amplifies
and processes the AE signal in various ways, extracts useful information from the
processed signal, and analyzes, displays and records the signal. As the AE sensor is
described in Chap. 3, this chapter describes the preamplifier and other components.

4.1 Configuration of an AE Measuring Instrument

An AE measuring instrument is configured in various ways depending on the

purpose of the measurement, the type and size of the target and the site conditions.
AE measurement can be performed by the simplest configuration as shown in
Fig. 4.2, in which a single AE sensor’s output is connected to a general-purpose
oscilloscope or an AC (effective value) voltmeter to observe AE waveforms or
signal levels.

Mr. Nakano wrote this book while at Chiyoda Corporation. The original corresponding author was
Mr. Nakano. The author was changed to Dr. Nakamura due to the decease of Mr. Nakano.
M. Nakano
Chiyoda Corporation, Yokohama, Japan
H. Nakamura (*)
IHI Inspection & Instrumentation Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Japan 2016 45

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3_4
46 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

Fig. 4.1 General flow of AE measurement

Fig. 4.2 Simple AE measurement system

On the other hand, AE testing of large structures such as plant equipment

requires an AE measurement system that has many AE channels and the capability
of real-time AE source location and display as shown in Fig. 4.3. This section
describes the following basic configuration of the AE measurement system.

4.1.1 Basic Configuration of the AE Measurement System

The basic configuration of the general multi-channel AE measurement system is

shown in Fig. 4.4.
4 AE Measurement System 47

Fig. 4.3 Multi-channel AE measurement system for structural testing

The output signal from the AE sensor is amplified by the preamplifier and input
into the AE signal processor. In the AE signal processor, the AE signal is filtered by
a frequency filter and amplified by the main amplifier. The various AE parameters
are then extracted from the signal in digital form with a combination of an A/D
converter and a digital signal processor (DSP) or through an AE parameter extrac-
tion circuit and transmitted to a computer. The computer analyzes the data with
appropriate software, and the results are output and displayed. The AE data are
stored in the computer for future analysis.

4.1.2 Preamplifier

The preamplifier amplifies the output signal from the sensor and drives the cable to
the main amplifier. The preamplifier is necessary because the amplitude of the AE
sensor output signal is small and the impedance of the signal source is high, such
that the signal from the AE sensor is not suitable for driving a long cable and is
48 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

Fig. 4.4 Basic configuration of the AE measurement system

susceptible to noise. In selecting a preamplifier, it is necessary to consider issues

such as the input/output types, the gain (amplification ratio), frequency character-
istics, input/output impedances, power supply, shape/dimension/weight and envi-
ronmental impact, depending on the intended purpose. The specification items are
summarized as follows.

4.1.2.1 Input/Output Types

There are two types of signal transmission: balanced (also called as differential-
type) and unbalanced (also called single-ended) transmissions, as illustrated in
Fig. 4.5.
In an environment in which there is a high level of electromagnetic noise,
balanced transmission improves the signal immunity to in-phase (common mode)
noise. As mentioned in the previous chapter, as an AE sensor output can be of either
balanced or unbalanced type, the input type of the preamplifier should be adapted
correspondingly. There is a preamplifier that can switch between balanced and
unbalanced inputs. The output type of the preamplifier should also be adapted to
that of the main amplifier; however, because the signal level at the output of the
preamplifier is considered to become sufficiently large, balanced transmission is
4 AE Measurement System 49

Fig. 4.5 Balanced (upper)

and unbalanced (lower)
transmissions

used in most cases and the preamplifier is connected to the main amplifier by a
coaxial cable.

4.1.2.2 Gain (Amplification Ratio)

The output signal of the AE sensor is generally at a low level of the order of 10 μV
to several millivolts. The preamplifier first amplifies the signal to facilitate subse-
quent processing. The optimal value for the gain of the preamplifier depends on the
purpose of the AE measurement. Most preamplifiers usually have a fixed gain
between 20 dB (an increase of a factor of 10) and 40 dB (a factor of 100), but
there are preamplifiers that have switch-selectable gains.

Description of Term (dB (Decibel))

The dB (decibel) is a unit that represents the ratio of two values, and is often
used in electronics and acoustics to describe a gain or attenuation. A voltage
ratio is expressed as


V1
AðdBÞ ¼ 20 log10 ;
V0

where A is the voltage ratio in dB representation, log10 is the common

logarithm, and V1 and V0 are the voltage to be compared and the reference
voltage, respectively.
In AE measurements, a value in dB is sometimes used to express an
absolute voltage relative to 1 μV. It is then denoted dBAE:

(continued)
50 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura


V
BðdBAE Þ ¼ 20 log10 ;
1μV

where V is the AE signal amplitude at the AE sensor output (before

amplification).

4.1.2.3 Frequency Response

The frequency response of the preamplifier should suit the purpose of the AE
measurement. A frequency band of several 100 kHz or higher may be important
in the AE measurement of some materials, while an audible frequency range of
several kilohertz may be used for other materials. The preamplifier to be used with
an AE sensor should have a frequency range that is fully compatible with that of the
sensor. Most general-purpose preamplifiers that cover a frequency range of several
kilohertz to several megahertz can be used, unless the range is otherwise specified
for a special purpose. It should be noted that a broader range of frequencies leading
to a higher level of noise is disadvantageous in AE measurements. There is an
amplifier with a built-in band pass filter that can limit the frequency range.
Figure 4.6 shows an example of the frequency response of a preamplifier.

4.1.2.4 Noise

Noise is always a problem in AE measurements. Ideally, noise should not be

generated inside an amplifier; however, in practice, noise, including thermal noise
from an electronic circuit, is unavoidable.

Fig. 4.6 A frequency response of a preamplifier

4 AE Measurement System 51

The preamplifier is installed at the first stage of the AE signal amplification

system and the noise generated in the preamplifier is amplified thereafter, and this
affects the overall signal-to-noise (SN) ratio of the AE measurement. Consequently,
a lower level of noise is always better. Depending on the frequency range, the
amplitude of noise is generally several microvolts root-mean-square (rms). It
should be noted that a maximum amplitude of the noise (peak value) is several
times larger than the corresponding rms value.

Description of Term (SN Ratio)

The SN ratio, or S/N, is the ratio of signal to noise and is usually expressed in
dB. Large SN ratios are always preferable.

Description of Term (RMS Voltage)

The term rms is an abbreviation for the root-mean-square and is also called
the effective value. An effective value Vrms in a time width T for a voltage
(V(t)) that varies with time is expressed by
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð
1 T
Vrms ¼ V ðtÞ2 dt:
T 0

4.1.2.5 Input/Output Impedance

As the AE sensor is connected to the input of the preamplifier, higher input

impedance is preferable. In particular, the equivalent input capacity should not be
too large. The output impedance of the preamplifier should be much smaller than
the input impedance of the main amplifier. The length of the cable that connects the
output of the preamplifier to the input of the main amplifier (a coaxial cable in most
cases) may exceed 100 m in some cases. For this reason, the input terminal of the
main amplifier should be terminated (matched) by a resistance with the same
characteristic impedance as that of the coaxial cable (often 50–100 Ω). Conse-
quently, it is recommended that the output impedance of the preamplifier should be
a few ohms or less. When the output impedance of the preamplifier and the input
impedance of the main amplifier are matched with the characteristic impedance of
the coaxial cable, it should be noted that the input voltage of the main amplifier
becomes half the open circuit output voltage of the preamplifier.

Description of Term (Impedance)

Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current for alternating current. More
generally, impedance Z_ is

(continued)
52 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

Z_ ¼ V_ =I_

where V_ and I_ are the voltage and current in consideration of phase,

respectively.

Description of Term (Characteristic Impedance)

Coaxial cables and coaxial connectors for high-frequency use are designed to
have characteristic impedances. For many coaxial cables, this characteristic
impedance is 50–100 Ω.

Description of Term (Impedance Matching)

Impedance matching is the equalizing of impedances on the signal-
transmitting side and signal-receiving side. Impedance matching is necessary
for maximum efficiency in power transmission. A coaxial cable and coaxial
connector with the same (matching) characteristic impedance should always
be used. Impedance mismatching causes reflection of the signal and distortion
of the waveform.

Description of Term (ASL)

The ASL is an average signal level and a time average value of the detected
(rectified) AE signal:
ð
1 T
ASL ¼ jV ðtÞjdt:
T 0

4.1.2.6 Power Supply

A power supply is necessary to operate a preamplifier. Because the maximum

output voltage is limited by the supply voltage of the preamplifier, a large supply
voltage is preferable for a wide dynamic range; however, it should not be too high
for reasons of safety and handling. Generally, the supply power is around 15–30 V.
Some preamplifiers require bipolar power (e.g., 15 V). There are two methods for
supplying power to the preamplifier: the use of a dedicated cable and the superpo-
sition of a supply power on a signal cable. The latter case is more convenient as only
one cable is needed.

4.1.2.7 Dimensions/Shape/Weight and Environmental Resistance

It is necessary to install the preamplifier close to the AE sensor; i.e., on the

measurement object or as close as possible to the object. For this reason, the
dimensions, shape and weight of the preamplifier are important. The preamplifier
should be small and light. There is an integrated type of AE sensor with a
4 AE Measurement System 53

preamplifier, and also a preamplifier with a built-in AE sensor. Compatibility with

the environmental conditions is also an important issue. A preamplifier should be
resistant to various environmental conditions such as the presence of water and oil
and extreme temperature.

4.1.3 Main Amplifier

The main amplifier, contained in the chassis of the AE measurement system,

receives signals from a preamplifier, amplifies the signals further, selects and passes
signals in necessary frequency bands through a filter, and cuts off signals in the
unnecessary frequency bands. The main amplifier normally has output terminals for
waveform output (high-frequency) signals and detected signals that are connected
to peripheral devices. The gain at the amplifier is usually some 10–40 dB. For the
filter, a bandpass filter that cuts off low-frequency and high-frequency bands is
often used. The cut off frequencies are set depending on the purpose of the AE
measurement and in consideration of the AE sensor’s frequency characteristics. In
the case of metallic materials for AE measurement, the filter is often set to pass a
signal with a frequency of several 100 kHz, but in the case of concrete and rock, a
range of some 10–100 kHz is sometimes set as the pass band. In addition to the
cut-off frequency, the characteristics of the filter include the attenuation slope,
phase characteristics, and transient characteristics, but it is only pointed out here
that a filter with a steep attenuation slope (steep cut off characteristic) tends to
impair the phase and transient characteristics. The external outputs of both the high-
frequency and detected signals should have sufficiently low impedances. A detected
signal is often output through a low-pass filter ranging from several hertz to the
order of 10 Hz.
In general, an up-to-date digital measurement system directly digitalizes signals
input from a preamplifier without a main amplifier.

4.1.4 Signal Processor (AE Parameter Extraction Circuit)

The AE signal processor (AE parameter extraction circuit) extracts various AE

parameters described in Sect. 2.5.4 from the amplified and filtered AE signals.
The extraction is accomplished by digital processing with an A/D converter and
a DSP, or by an individual signal processing circuit. For burst AE signals, as
schematically shown in Fig. 4.7, an AE hit is recognized when the AE signal
exceeds a set voltage threshold. Each AE parameter is extracted for one AE hit
and transmitted to the computer. Each AE hit data contains the arrival time (time
stamp), and a multi-channel AE measurement system locates the AE source in one,
two or three dimensions according to the arrival time difference between channels.
54 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

Fig. 4.7 AE threshold and AE parameters

On the other hand, in the case of continuous AE signals, such AE parameters are not
defined and only the signal level (RMS voltage or ASL) is measured.

4.1.5 Output/Display Device (Computer for Measurements)

AE data output from the AE signal processor is transmitted to a computer for

measurement through the computer interface. The computer executes various
analyses of the data using AE measurement software and outputs/displays the
results. The AE measurement software has the functions listed in Table 4.1. In
most cases, the software is able to execute all or some of these functions in real
time. Figure 4.8 is a screen shot of the AE measurement system.
Because the functions and performance capabilities required of the AE mea-
surement system vary widely, it is necessary to choose an AE measurement system
that is appropriate for its purpose. If the processing speed is insufficient, the system
may lose important AE signals or discontinue operation in the case of a very high
occurrence rate of AE.
Specialized software for many AE measurement systems can be executed on
general-purpose operating systems such as Microsoft Windows with a user inter-
face similar to that used in general application software. However, it is
recommended that other applications should not be run simultaneously during the
execution of the AE measurement software for real-time processing. In particular,
4 AE Measurement System 55

Table 4.1 Functions of typical AE measurement software

Function Description
Data acquisition Acquires measured AE data from AE signal processor to
computer
Data Trend Traces time history of AE parameters
analysis Distribution Analyzes distributions of AE parameters
Source Performs source location calculations in linear, planar or 3D
location modes
Display Presents analyzed results on display as graphs and tables
Record Records AE data in storage unit
Playback Reproduces stored AE data

Fig. 4.8 A screen shot of the AE measurement system

programs that consume much of the central processing unit resource should be
avoided.
Most modern computers are considered to be capable of operating AE measure-
ment systems. In the case of long-term continuous AE measurement, however,
means for the backup of proper data should be prepared with consideration given to
the reliability of the computers involved. In some cases, it is necessary to imple-
ment the redundancy of a hard disk drive and also to prepare measures against the
loss of the electric power supply to AE measurement systems using an
uninterruptible power supply.
56 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

4.2 Peripheral Equipment

In AE measurements, peripheral equipment as listed in Table 4.2 is sometimes used

to make up for missing functions of the AE measurement systems. Some AE
measurement systems have the functions of this peripheral equipment.

4.2.1 Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is a general-purpose measurement system to observe waveforms.

For waveform measurement, it is recommended that the instrument has a frequency
band of the order 10 MHz or more and at least two channels in order to measure the
arrival time difference and the velocity of the AE wave. Recently, more oscillo-
scopes have the function of recording waveform data with digital storage. Some
have the function of frequency analysis (i.e., fast Fourier transformation). There are
instruments for measuring AE that can present waveforms on a display of the AE
measurement computer; however, an oscilloscope that operates independently of a
computer is useful in confirming the operation of AE sensors and amplifiers.

4.2.2 Spectrum Analyzer

A spectrum analyzer analyzes the frequency components of AE waves and should

have a frequency band of ~1 MHz. An oscilloscope with this function can also
be used.

4.2.3 Pulse Generator (Pulsar)

A signal source that artificially generates AE waves is necessary in AE measure-

ments and in the installation of AE sensors. When a pulse signal is applied to a
piezoelectric element, a mechanical strain is generated and this can be used as a
simulated AE source. A device that generates electric pulse signals for this simu-
lated source is a pulse generator. A simulated AE source produced by the pulse
generator makes it possible to continuously generate a number of simulated AE
signals with constant amplitude and to set and control the repetition rate and
amplitude in wide ranges.
4 AE Measurement System 57

Table 4.2 Peripheral equipment for AE measurement

Equipment Function
Oscilloscope Waveform monitoring and recording
Spectrum analyzer Frequency spectrum analysis
Pulse generator Generation of test pulse
Audio monitor Sound monitoring with loudspeaker
External parameter Measurement of load, strain, temperature and pressure, etc.
instrument
Environmental Measurement of environmental conditions such as velocity and
instrument direction of wind, etc.

4.2.4 Audio Monitor

Using an audio monitor, the AE signal, which normally has a frequency within the
ultrasonic wave region, is converted to a signal with an audible frequency and
output from speakers. Judging a sound from the audio monitor by ear in an intuitive
manner is an effective method of checking what AE signal is detected. An expe-
rienced operator can detect and distinguish electrical noise immediately with an
audio monitor.

4.2.5 Instrument for Measurements of External Parameters

and Environmental Conditions

In the measurement of AE signals, data such as load, strain, temperature, and

pressure data are simultaneously measured and recorded. These data, called exter-
nal parameters, are measured and recorded through an A/D converter in the AE
measurement system. Since specifications for the output signals of a sensor for each
external parameter widely vary, it is necessary to match these signals with the
specifications of the A/D converter. A signal converter for this purpose is an
external-parameter measurement instrument. For instance, as in the cases of a
load cell amplifier for loads and a strain amplifier for strains, appropriate converters
for different sensors are used.
In the case of AE measurement at a plant site, it is sometimes necessary to
measure and record environmental conditions such as the wind direction, wind
speed and atmospheric temperature. Output signals of the sensors are also
converted to proper signals and then input into an A/D converter to determine
external parameters.
58 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

4.3 Connection Cable and Connector

A coaxial cable for high-frequency use is mainly used in AE measurement. The

cable between the AE sensor and the preamplifier is generally a low-noise cable
with small diameter. A general-purpose coaxial cable is used for the preamplifier-
to-main amplifier connection and the connection between the main amplifier and
peripheral devices.

4.3.1 Cable Between an AE Sensor and Preamplifier

An AE sensor can be considered as an electrostatic capacitance that generates

charge. Because a larger equivalent electrostatic capacity of the cable reduces a
preamplifier’s input voltage, it is necessary to use the shortest possible cable. A 1-m
cable sometimes reduces the signal voltage by half or more. Consequently, it is
desirable that the length of the cable should be several tens of centimeters or less.
Because bending and vibrations along a cable are sources of noise, it is necessary
to use a coaxial cable with a structure that suppresses the generation of such noise
(i.e., a low-noise cable). In general, a microdot type or SMA (Sub Miniature version
A) connector is used on the AE sensor side, while a BNC (Bayonet Neill
Concelman) connector is used on the preamplifier side. Figure 4.9 shows an
example of a cable between an AE sensor and preamplifier. Figure 4.9a shows a
cable for an unbalanced AE sensor. The cable and connector shown in Fig. 4.9b are
used for a balanced (differential) AE sensor.

4.3.2 Connection Cable Between a Preamplifier and Main

Amplifier

In most cases, a coaxial cable with characteristic impedance of 50 or 75 Ω is used

for a connection cable between the output of the preamplifier and the input of the
main amplifier. A length of this cable may sometimes exceed 100 m.
For a long cable, attenuation by the cable should be considered. A thicker cable
reduces attenuation, but increases the time and work involved in preparation,
particularly in multi-channel measurement. In some cases, a multi-core coaxial
cable that contains many (e.g., 10) coaxial cables in one bundle is used. Figure 4.10
shows an example of a 10-core coaxial cable. For this cable, a BNC connector is
usually employed.
4 AE Measurement System 59

Fig. 4.9 (a) Cable for connecting an AE sensor and preamplifier [unbalanced type]. (b) Cable for
connecting an AE sensor and preamplifier [unbalanced (differential) type]

Fig. 4.10 Ten-core coaxial cable

4.3.3 Other Connection Cable

Output signals from the AE measurement system are supplied to various peripheral
devices via connection cables. For this connection cable, a coaxial cable with BNC
connectors at both ends, as shown in Fig. 4.11, is generally used.
60 M. Nakano and H. Nakamura

Fig. 4.11 Coaxial cable

with BNC connectors at
both ends

External parameter signals are normally low-frequency signals. For this reason,
non-coaxial cables such as a twisted pair line are often used as connection cables.
Connectors also depend on the devices to be connected.
Connection cables (connectors) for computers are standardized according to
different purposes; e.g., EIA-232 (serial communication) and IEEE1284 (parallel
port) cables. Consequently, connection cables that are compatible with their
intended purposes should be used.
Chapter 5
Practical AE Testing, Data Recording
and Analysis

Tomoki Shiotani, Yoshihiro Mizutani, Hideyuki Nakamura,

and Shigenori Yuyama

Abstract In this chapter, the practical procedure of AE testing including data

recording and analysis are presented. As for the test preparation, setup of the system
and sensitivity checkup ways are explained. Load application methods for AE
testing are discussed, followed by some typical data-display methods.

Keywords Practical procedure of AT • Data acquisition • Loading procedure •

Test preparation • Data display • Evaluation report

5.1 Preparation for AE Testing and Sensitivity Check

of the AE Measurement Instrument
Hideyuki Nakamura

This section describes the setup of an AE measurement instrument, the installation

of AE sensors, and a sensitivity check of the instrument. The sensitivity check in
this section is not a calibration of the absolute sensitivity of the instrument, but
rather, a simple sensitivity check that is part of the preparation for AE testing.

T. Shiotani (*)
Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
Y. Mizutani
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
H. Nakamura
IHI Inspection & Instrumentation Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Yuyama
Nippon Physical Acoustics, Ltd., Japan, Tokyo
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Japan 2016 61

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3_5
62 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.1 Appearance of an AE measuring instrument

5.1.1 Setup of the Instrument

Preparation for AE testing requires not only concrete tasks such as the installation
and mounting of the AE instrument and peripheral devices, but also the setting of
intangible conditions such as the measurement conditions indicated in the pro-
cedures. Procedures for the setup of the instrument, along with points to be noted
for different tasks, are given below.

5.1.1.1 Installation of the Instrument

An AE measuring instrument, as shown in Fig. 5.1, is installed near a test object.

Before installing the AE instrument, the effects of vibrations and electric noise
must be considered. Since any vibration can be causes to fail the AE instrument or
to be an electric noise, the instrument must either be installed in a place without
vibrations or vibration-proofing measures must be taken.
In some cases, electric noise generated by external devices can enter the mea-
suring instrument via a power line, and noise propagates through the air as a
electromagnetic wave. Consequently, attention should be paid to peripheral devices
such as welders, and rotating machines with motors and solenoid valves.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 63

Fig. 5.2 Device-to-device

cable connection

5.1.1.2 Connection of the Instrument

As shown in Fig. 5.2, cables connect the main unit of the AE instrument and devices
such as an analysis computer and monitor. Power cables are connected to the
individual devices.
When any electric noise enters the instrument via a power cable, the noise must
be reduced using a line filter or a noise cutoff transformer. After the AE instrument
has been connected, it must be operated without being connected to the sensors to
check for noise intrusion.

5.1.1.3 Connection of Signal Cables

Signal cables are connected to the AE measurement instrument (refer to Fig. 5.3).
When signal cables swing or rub against each other, their contact sometimes
creates acoustic noise, and in some cases generate electric noise. Furthermore,
when a cable is pulled, there can be poor contact or even disconnection, and electric
noise can be generated. In the case of the connection of a signal cable, it is thus
important to keep the area surrounding the connector free of any possible source of
applied force, and to also hold the cable at key points with adhesive tape or a cable
mount.
Note that signal cables should be arranged so as not to block nearby foot-traffic.
They also should not be placed beside devices that generate electromagnetic waves.

5.1.1.4 Setting of Measurement Conditions

The setting of AE measurement conditions is a critical task that affects the results of
the measurement. Consequently, a Level 1 engineer must set the measurement
64 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.3 Connection of

signal cables

Fig. 5.4 Setting of

measurement conditions

conditions in accordance with NDT instructions prepared by engineers of Level 2 or

higher (refer to Fig. 5.4).
When setting the conditions, it is recommended to record the set values as the
process can be repeated so that analysis proceeds readily.
The main measurement conditions to be established before measuring signals
are given below.
– Effective channels
The channels used for AE monitoring must be selected.
– AE threshold
A threshold for the identification of AE signals must be set. This threshold is set
to a level exceeding the amplitude of the background noise, and to a level at which
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 65

the necessary signals can be obtained. In general AE devices, the signal strength is
converted to dB (decibels); consequently, the threshold is also expressed in dB
units.
– Frequency filter
Different filters are employed according to their measurement applications: a
low-pass filter that allows only frequencies lower than a set value to pass, a high-
pass filter that only allows frequencies higher than a set value to pass, and a
bandpass filter that passes only specific frequency bands. Some devices have no
setting functions. In some cases, these filters are incorporated into a preamplifier
and other devices, so it is important to confirm the specifications of the devices to be
used before actual measurements.
– Hit discrimination time
The time for hit discrimination, in which different AE equipment manufacturers
refer to differently, refers to a time range in which the instrument determines
whether or not an input AE wave has been acquired as a hit.
When the input signal crosses the threshold, the instrument starts the time for hit
discrimination. If the signal again crosses the threshold within this time, the
instrument recognizes that the same AE wave continues and restarts the time for
hit identification. The instrument recognizes that a hit has been completed when no
signals crossing the threshold are input after the lapse of the time for hit
discrimination.
The time is determined according to the size and material of the measurement
object, and an assumed frequency of AE occurrence.
– Peak recognition time
The peak recognition time refers to a time at which the instrument identifies the
peak amplitude in one hit. With the input of a signal crossing the threshold into the
AE measuring instrument, the instrument starts a time period for peak recognition.
When an amplitude larger than the previous peak is input into the instrument within
that time, the instrument restarts the time for peak identification. In a case that no
signals exceeding the previous peak amplitude are input into the instrument, a peak
amplitude and rise time in the hit are determined. Some AE instruments automat-
ically calculate the time without setting the peak recognition time.
– Dead time
Dead time refers to the time between after the completion of the time for hit
discrimination, and the time when the data capture restarts. This dead time is set to
eliminate both of reflected waves and delayed waveforms to detect only effective
AE waveforms. The term, used to refer to the dead time varies from one manufac-
turer to another.
66 T. Shiotani et al.

– Gain
The gains, namely amplification rates of a main amplifier and preamplifier that
are actually connected are input as a set value.
– Selection of a floating threshold
General AE devices have the function to automatically change a threshold in
correspondence with variations in background noise. They equips the switch
whether this function is enabled or not. When it is enabled, it is necessary to set
the condition of the change. Normal AE measurements are conducted with a fixed
threshold.
– Recording waveform data
In the case that waveforms are recorded it is necessary to set pretriggers, a
sampling speed, a waveform length, and other parameters as described in the
following. Some AE devices have an additional function to determine if the signal
are recorded or not based on AE parameters.
– Setting of pretriggers
Waveforms are recorded from a starting point when AE waves exceeding a
threshold to a time before the starting point set as the pretrigger.
– Setting of sampling frequency for waveform data
Waveform data is a collection of amplitude points with constant time interval.
For this setting, the time internal of the point (sampling interval, inverse of
sampling frequency) is decided.
– Selection of waveform length
The length of a waveform that is recorded as one waveform is selected. In
general AE devices, the length is set by the number of samples per waveform.
– Selection of AE parameters
In some AE devices, one must first select the AE parameters to be acquired. In
other AE devices, acquisition conditions can be changed according to the individ-
ually set AE parameters conditions.
Typical AE parameters include the amplitude, count, rise time, duration, and
energy.
– Setting for input of external parameters
General AE devices have a terminal for the input of external measurement data
such as stress and strain, and can simultaneously sample the data and AE param-
eters. The input of external parameters requires the setting of a voltage range and a
coefficient.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 67

5.1.1.5 Setup of the Monitor Display

A diagram for the monitoring of AE data in the measurement is drawn.

– Display of AE parameters
The data name, unit, graph type, and display range for each axis in the diagram
are set. When displaying AE parameters, general AE instruments have a function to
set various types of filters.
– Display of results of the AE source location
When implementing AE source location, the shape of the target object, the
number of sensors to be used, the coordinates of the sensor(s), the size of the object,
its wave velocity, and other properties are set on a screen for location conditions. To
display the results of source location on the monitor, one must give settings to
display a graph, including the results of the above calculation.

5.1.2 Installation of an AE Sensor

In AE testing, AE waves that propagate from a measurement object to an AE sensor

placed on the object are converted to electric signals. For this reason, elastic waves
must be able to be freely transmitted in the space between the object and the sensor,
and must always be reproduced without variations during measurement. Detailed
procedures for the installation of the sensor, and points to be noted, are given below.

5.1.2.1 Selection of Position for Sensor Installation

The position for sensor installation is selected with consideration of the AE

location, propagation path and mode, the condition of the installed surface, and
the expected attenuation of the AE waves. In particular, in the case of using several
sensors, the positions where these sensors are installed are selected so as to obtain
sufficient precision of source location, with consideration of the arrangement and
intervals of all sensors that will be placed (refer to Fig. 5.5).
When the generation of noise is expected, one can reduce the noise by installing
the sensor away from the source of the noise. One can also identify noise by
installing guard sensors on the propagation route of the noise, as well as by taking
other countermeasures. During AE testing conducted as a fatigue or tensile test, the
measurement object is sometimes deformed, leading to detach sensors from the
surface of the object, or causing a gap at the contact surface between the sensor and
object. Both of these eventualities contribute to the generation of noise and a
reduction in the sensor’s sensitivity. In these cases, it is important to install a sensor
68 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.5 Selection of

position for sensor
installation

in a position on the object where there is little deformation. In AE testing of large

structures such as oil tanks, before deciding upon the positions where sensors will
be installed, it must be confirmed that there are no impediments such as marginal
welding or piping at those positions.

5.1.2.2 Pretreatment of the Surface Where a Sensor Will Be Installed

Before the installation of a sensor, the condition of the surface where it will be
installed must be examined, to determine if the surface could interfere with the
detection of AE waves. If this is the case, the surface must be pretreated as needed,
according to the detailed procedures given below.
– Projections and depressions on a coated surface
Projections and depressions on a coated surface reduce a sensor’s contact area
resulting in less sensitivity. They must be eliminated using sandpaper or a scraper to
achieve a flatness of the coated surface (refer to Fig. 5.6).
– Surface contaminated with rust or oil
When rust or oil adheres to the surface, the sensor’s adhesion to the surface is
compromised, resulting in a reduction in the sensitivity of the sensor. Rust must be
eliminated with sandpaper; an oily surface should be cleaned with an appropriate
cleaning solvent, and wiped clean with a disposable material.
For reference, when the sensor is attached with an adhesive, the surface must be
completely smooth without any oily agent.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 69

Fig. 5.6 Pretreatment of surface for sensor installation

Fig. 5.7 A sensor holder

5.1.2.3 Method for the Mechanical Installation of a Sensor

There are two general methods for the installation of AE sensors. One is that a
sensor is mechanically attached to a measurement object. Another is that the sensor
is affixed to the object by an adhesive. There are several methods of mechanical
installation. One simple method is to attach the sensor to the object by adhesive
tape, a rubber band, or a C-shaped clamp. Another is to use a special sensor holder
that equips a magnet and spring, as shown in Fig. 5.7. A third method is to use a
fixing jig fabricated to a measurement object. For the method that employs
mechanical pressure, a jig must be selected whose resonance or movement does
not become a source of noise. In this method, the pressure applied to the installation
surface changes the sensor’s sensitivity, so that it is important to keep the pressure
on all of the sensors constant. For the mechanical installation of a sensor, any gap
between the sensor and measurement object must be filled with a coupling medium.
General coupling media include machine oil, glycerin, water and grease. Any
coupling medium that does not deteriorate or run down during measurement is
70 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.8 Sensor installation

with adhesives

appropriate, with consideration of the test period, surroundings, temperature of the

object, and other factors. In general AE tests, such vacuum silicon grease or as a
coupling medium having relatively excellent durability and high viscosity, is used.

5.1.2.4 Method for Attaching a Sensor with Adhesives

A method for attaching a sensor with an adhesive, as shown in Fig. 5.8, is used in
the case that a magnet-type sensor holder cannot be used because the measurement
object consists of non-magnetic substances such as resin and nonferrous metal, and
fixing jigs cannot be used owing to structural considerations. The sensor could be
damaged when being removed, and this must be taken into account when selecting
an adhesive and removing a sensor. An adhesive attaches a sensor and also serves as
a coupling medium. Consequently, a selected adhesive must not deteriorate or form
gaps during measurement, and the possible removal of the sensor must be taken into
account, as discussed above.
When installing the sensor, an instant adhesive that allows for easy bonding and
the application of a remover is generally used. An adhesive with high bonding
strength is sometimes required for tests involving vibration and strain, in this case
sensor-housing materials should be sufficiently rigid to withstand any stress when it
is removed, such as a sensor with a metal housing. The sensor must be removed by a
remover so that the sensor and the measurement object are not damaged. When a
sensor is installed on a resin or coated surface, the surface may deteriorate or
deform. Consequently, it is necessary to make a preliminary test and check the
effect of a given adhesive and remover on a bonded surface. Before using a given
adhesive, it is also important to check that it has the same acoustic properties as a
normal coupling medium.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 71

Fig. 5.9 Various types of waveguides

5.1.2.5 Waveguide

When it is difficult to place a sensor directly on the surface of a measurement object

owing to structural or environmental factors, a rod-like waveguide is used to guide
AE waves to a location away from the surface (Fig. 5.9). The waveguide can be
permanently welded to the surface, or temporarily fixed in the same way as a sensor.
When an AE signal is detected via a waveguide, certain shapes and materials of the
waveguide attenuate the propagating AE wave or convert its mode. Therefore,
before using the waveguide, one should conduct a preliminary test to understand
its propagation characteristics.
When source location is conducted, it is necessary to consider about propagation
time through the waveguide and need to adjust AE sensor locations used for the
calculation. If the waveguide comes into contact with other structures, an AE wave
may leak from the contact point. Consequently, the waveguide must be carefully
installed so that it makes no contact with other structures. When the waveguide is
inserted into objects such as thermal insulating material with which it maintains
steady contact, it is important to confirm the effect of this contact in advance.

5.1.2.6 Connection of a Preamplifier

When a preamplifier such as that shown in Fig. 5.10 is used, a shorter cable between
the sensor and preamplifier is conducive to the reduction of electric noise. However,
a preamplifier installed on the side of a testing machine or rotary equipment may
72 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.10 A preamplifier

capture electric noise. If any intrusion of noise is recognized, the preamplifier must
be isolated from the source of the noise, or measures must be taken to counteract
electromagnetic waves.

5.1.3 Sensitivity Check of an AE Sensor

After the complete setup of the devices and installation of the sensor, one must
confirm that these tasks have been properly performed. The sensor’s sensitivity,
including the effects of installation of the sensor and signal cables, must also be
checked.

5.1.3.1 Review of the Overall Connection Status

To confirm that the entire signal line is properly connected, a measurement object is
lightly hit, as shown in Fig. 5.11, or artificial AE signals are generated with a pulse
generator, thereby checking that signals are being input into the sensor for each
channel. If a channel gives no response, one should check the set values of the AE
devices, the installation condition of the sensor, the connections of the signal cables
and preamplifier, and the possible failure of individual devices. Appropriate mea-
sures must be taken to resolve any problem that is noted.

5.1.3.2 Sensitivity Check by Pencil Lead Break

The sensitivity of each sensor must be checked after confirming the status of the
overall connection.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 73

Fig. 5.11 Check of the

connection status

A simple method for an on-site sensitivity check is to use the lead of a mechan-
ical pencil that is pressed until broken. In this method, the AE wave that is
generated when the lead of the pencil is broken is treated as a AE source to check
the amplitude of the signal input into the sensor. In this sensitivity check, it is
determined whether each sensor demonstrates a given sensitivity, and whether any
difference in sensitivity between sensors falls within a given range. In general,
sensitivity is checked in terms of an average amplitude determined for the same
sensor, after several repetitions of breaking the pencil lead (Hsu-Nielsen source), in
consideration of variations in the intensities of AE waves generated. In this process,
because the amplitude obtained varies with the material and thickness of the
measurement object, one should conduct a preliminary test to confirm the ampli-
tudes to be obtained. For this sensitivity check, the position and angle at which the
pencil lead is broken, as well as the thickness and type of lead, should be kept
constant, for the purpose of reproducibility. The adaptor shown in Fig. 5.12 ensures
that the press/breakage angle of the pencil is constant, and it thus improves
reproducibility.

5.1.3.3 Sensitivity Check by a Pulse Generator

The previous section described a method that uses a breaking pencil lead as a AE
source. When higher reproducibility is required, a pulse generator (pulsar) is used
as a AE source to check sensitivity. In this method, an artificial AE generated by the
pulse generator is used as a AE source to confirm the amplitude of the signal input
into the sensor (refer to Fig. 5.13).
In this method, the amplitude of the artificial AE may vary with the position of
the pulse generator and the pressure imparted to the pulse generator. For this reason,
one should keep the interval between the sensor and pulse generator constant, and
keep the pressure imparted to the pulse generator constant by means of a jig. In
74 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.12 A pencil

breaking apparatus

Fig. 5.13 Sensitivity check

by a pulse generator (Left:
pulse generator, Right:
sensor)

addition, the most recent device has a function that can automatically measure the
sensitivity and propagation time of an adjacent sensor, and calculate the sensor-to-
sensor interval and wave velocity using a measuring sensor as a pulse generator.

5.2 Noise
Yoshihiro Mizutani

In AE testing, a very weak signal with magnitude of several tens of microvolts to

several tens of millivolts is amplified by a high-gain amplifier to measure. It is
important to create a noiseless environment for the AE measurement, as in the same
way that the chattering of birds and the sound of swaying plants can be recognized
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 75

Fig. 5.14 Some noises observed during an AE test

only in a quiet environment. Problematic noise includes not only acoustic noise
from mechanical vibrations, but also electric noise. Without sufficient knowledge
of noise, the low-noise environment required for AE measurement cannot be
realized. The ratio of the signal to noise is referred to as the SN ratio. Realizing a
high SN ratio is important when conducting AE testing. The noise level is some-
times expressed using the ASL (average signal level) or RMS (root-mean-square),
which were described in Chap. 4. This section presents types of noise that are
problematic during AE measurements, and describes preventive measures and
countermeasures against noise.

5.2.1 Types of Noise

“Electric noise” and “acoustic noise” as shown schematically in Fig. 5.14 intrude in
various forms during AE testing. It is necessary to eliminate noise that interferes
with AE measurement.
Two typical types of noise that are problematic during AE measurement are
presented below.

5.2.1.1 Acoustic Noise

Acoustic noise is noise that results mainly from mechanical vibrations, and is
elastic waves generated in an object to be measured, but not AE waves that should
be measured. When the object to be measured is a rotary device, or if the object is
connected to a vibration source via piping, a vibration noise may intrude. In a
materials test, the frictional noise of a pin or a chuck, used to apply loads to a test
specimen, can become problems in some cases.
76 T. Shiotani et al.

5.2.1.2 Electric Noise

Electric noise is noise that intrudes from a power line or signal cable. When an AE
measuring instrument is connected to an AC power supply to which noise-
generating devices are connected, noise sometimes intrudes into the AE measuring
instrument via the AC power supply. Furthermore, a signal cable serving as an
antenna can in some cases pick up electromagnetic waves from a broadcasting
station or power machinery.

5.2.2 Preventive Measures and Countermeasures Against

Generated Noise

The previous section presented two general types of noise. This section describes
preventive measures against the generation of electric and acoustic noise, as well as
countermeasures against noise.
1. Acoustic noise
When the source of acoustic noise can be predicted, a sensor must be placed in a
position where the sensor is insusceptible to noise. Furthermore, an AE sensor with
a frequency characteristic different from that of noise should be selected, with
consideration of the frequency band of the AE signal desired for detection. When
acoustic noise is not eliminated even by these measures, the noise is eliminated by
frequency filters, such as a high-pass filter or bandpass filter. When an object to be
measured vibrates, the signal cable should be fixed such that it does not vibrate with
the objects.
When the time range for AE occurrences can be predicted, as in the case that AE
signals are generated due to fatigue crack propagation during a fatigue test,
sometimes only signals within a specific time range are detected by a strobe
function (that inputs external signals and measures only AE signals within a specific
time range), as shown in Fig 5.15. In another method, guard sensors, as described in
Sect. 6.2, in Chap. 2, are used to eliminate acoustic noise propagating from outside
the range of interest.

5.2.2.1 Electric Noise

A primary preventive method to protect against the intrusion of electric noise is to

use the manufacturer’s genuine devices, sensors and cables as specified. When
electric noise coming from sources (a) to (c) described below is detected, the
following countermeasures should be considered even after the above method has
been used.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 77

Fig. 5.15 Noise Load

elimination using a strobe
function

Time
AE count noise
rate

Time
Strobe
signal

Time
AE count
rate after
noise
elimination
Time

(a) Noise intrusion via a power cable

AC power is supplied from source that is not used by other devices.
A power line filter or noise filter transformer (noise cut transformer) with noise
elimination capability should be used when above countermeasure is not sufficient.
(b) Noise propagation through air, such as electromagnetic waves from a
broadcasting station or power equipment
When a device near the sensor generates electromagnetic waves, the device must
be turned off or moved away from AE systems. Since a signal cable may become an
antenna for electromagnetic waves, noise can intrude from the cable. For this
reason, a short signal cable should be used and the looping of the signal cable
should be minimized.
A sensor with a built-in preamplifier, as described in Sect. 3.5, Chap. 3, can
almost completely cut-out noise intruding between the AE sensor and the
preamplifier.
(c) Noise from ground currents
To keep a ground current from passing between the AE sensor ground and the
instrument’s ground, the use of only one grounding point is recommended. In
general, because of the difficulty of insulating the instrument from the ground,
the sensor is insulated from the ground. In particular, when a longer cable is used in
an on-site test, the countermeasures described above may need to be taken.
78 T. Shiotani et al.

5.2.3 Identification of the Noise Source

If noise is measured in an actual test, the source of the noise must be identified and
be eliminated employing the abovementioned methods. Noise monitoring is basi-
cally conducted under the AE testing conditions that are actually used.
Since it is difficult to identify a noise source only from AE parameters, AE
waveforms are used when an AE instrument has such a function. When an AE
instrument does not have this function, a digital oscilloscope or other instruments
are used to check waveforms. If a user becomes familiar with AE testing, he or she
can sometimes evaluate types of noise by connecting an audio monitor, as described
in Sect. 4.2 and 4.4, Chap. 4. In any case, much experience is required to determine
whether noise is acoustic or electric, and to diagnose the cause of the noise.
Detailed steps for identifying noise sources are given below.
1. Display AE waveforms or use an audio monitor to examine the frequencies and
duration of noise signals to predict types of noise.
2. Supply AC power from another source. Use a power line filter or noise filter
transformer.
3. Ground the device differently.
4. Replace a long signal cable with a short one. Check whether the cable forms a
loop or not.
5. Cut-off suspected propagation routes of acoustic noise.
6. Prevent vibration from sources such as motors and other power machinery.
Check whether the cable vibrates or not.
7. Turn off power sources that could generate electromagnetic waves.
8. Remove the sensor from the test specimen. (Electrically insulate the sensor and
the object to be measured.)
9. Replace an existing signal cable with a new one. (Assume that there is a
defective signal cable.)

5.3 Test Methods

Shigenori Yuyama

5.3.1 Loading Method

5.3.1.1 Material Evaluation Test

Material tests, such as tensile, bending, fracture toughness, and fatigue tests, are
normally conducted to evaluate the strength and characteristics of materials. AE
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 79

Fig. 5.16 Tensile test

Fig. 5.17 Bending test

measurement is employed to evaluate deformation characteristics, micro-crack

generation, or crack growth history. Loading methods and AE sensor locations on
test specimens are schematically shown in Figs. 5.16, 5.17, and 5.18.
Figure 5.16 shows a loading method employed during a tensile test. For the
tensile test, a rectangular or round-bar specimen is generally used. Both ends of the
specimen are arranged to be well fixed by a chuck, to avoid slippage between the
chuck and specimen. A load is then applied to the specimen at a proper rate. The AE
measurement is conducted to detect generation of AE associated with plastic or
twinning deformation or martensitic transformation during the test. In most cases, it
is sufficient to analyze a signal detected by one sensor. When noise resulting from
slippage between the specimen and chuck is significant, a spatial filter based on the
linear source location using two AE sensors placed at the ends of the specimen is
applied to eliminate extraneous noise.
Figure 5.17 shows a loading method used during a three-point bending test. This
bending test is often used to evaluate the strength and toughness of concrete
specimens. For this test, two AE sensors are usually placed near the two ends of
the specimen, and a spatial filter is applied to eliminate noise. After the noise has
been eliminated, only effective signals are used for analysis.
80 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.18 Fracture

toughness test

Figure 5.18 illustrates a fracture toughness test using a compact tension speci-
men. AE sensor positions are schematically shown in the figure.
Normally, two AE sensors are placed at the two ends of the test specimen to
detect and evaluate fatigue crack growth taking place at the tip of the fatigued
pre-crack.
Although fatigue tests are conducted under repeated loading, basic methods for
the loading and installation of AE sensors are the same as those used in tensile,
bending and fracture toughness tests. Because the load varies continuously under
repeated loading, mechanical noise is often generated continuously at the chuck and
pin supporting the load. Therefore, a spatial filter is applied to eliminate noise.

5.3.1.2 AE Testing of Structure

To evaluate structural integrity, AE testing is employed for various types of metal,

composite, or concrete structures such as refineries, chemical plants, power sta-
tions, offshore rigs, bridges, tunnels, buildings, aircraft, and rock structures.
AE testing is carried out in two ways in the field, namely pre-service and
in-service inspections. Structures are loaded pneumatically or hydrostatically in
accordance with a predetermined load schedule in either pre-service or in-service
inspection during periodic shut-down. Testing is schematically illustrated in
Fig. 5.19. When significant signals that continuously increase under stimulation
are produced or intense AE sources are detected during pneumatic or hydrostatic
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 81

Fig. 5.19 Hydrostatic test

of a pressure vessel

Fig. 5.20 AE test of a

reinforced concrete beam
by mobile loads

tests, the AE examiner reports the finding to the test manager for proper action to be
taken.
To evaluate the structural integrity of bridges, heavy vehicles with different
loads are often driven repeatedly across the structure. This situation is illustrated in
Fig. 5.20. If a structure is in operation, AE data are analyzed according to the load
variation resulting from the operation. For example, AE analysis is often carried out
during the start-up or shut-down in chemical plants or refineries. In the case of
bridges, AE activity is observed under live loads due to traffic. In the case of
railway bridges, AE activity in response to load changes due to passing trains is
commonly analyzed.

5.3.2 Data Sampling of External Analog Parameters

In materials tests or structural tests, external analog data such as load, strain, and
pressure data are input into the AE instrument in conjunction with the AE data
recorded during the tests. Such analog data are input into the instrument as analog
signals of
1 to
10 V, digitalized, and recorded as analog parameter data along
with the AE data. In material tests, the sampling rate is usually set to about
1 sample/s. In an impact fracture test, where a fracture is rapidly induced, or a
fatigue test, where the relationship between the loading phase and AE activity under
82 T. Shiotani et al.

cyclic loading is analyzed precisely, the rate is set to 10 to 100 samples/s. When
long-term measurement such as stress corrosion cracking or creep tests is conducted
over several weeks to several months, the rate is sometimes set to 1 sample per 10 s
to 1 min. In structural tests, data sampling is also conducted in the same manner as
in material tests. During AE tests of pressure components, analog data from a
pressure transducer is acquired by an AE instrument together with AE data. In
bridge monitoring, displacement data indicating the deflection of the bridge and the
strain of reinforced bars are sampled as external parameters. When analog signals
cannot be input directly into the AE instrument during testing, analog signals may
be manually input into the instrument by a potentiometer.

5.3.3 Data Display

When the results of AE tests are graphically presented for laboratory specimens or
structures, such data as load, displacement and strain data are plotted on the
horizontal axis, and the AE data (e.g., the AE signal amplitude, count, or energy)
are plotted on the vertical axis to visualize and analyze crack initiation and growth
that has produced AE signals. In tensile, bending, and fracture toughness tests, the
histories of AE activity are often plotted with load and displacement on the same
graph. In long-term tests such as stress corrosion cracking and creep tests, the
elapsed time is again used on the horizontal axis in comparison to the AE activity.
Examples of basic data displays are given in Fig. 5.21. Analysis software normally
has graphical functions such as the bar graph, correlation plot, line graph and stair
graph as standard selections. Bar graphs are often used to compare AE data with
other parameters. Correlation plots are employed to investigate correlation among
AE parameters. Line and stair graphs are used to observe the historical behavior of
AE activity over other parameters. Examples of a correlation plot and stair graph

Fig. 5.21 Sub-menu for graph setting

5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 83

Fig. 5.22 Correlation plot

Fig. 5.23 Stair differential chart

exhibiting the relationship between amplitude (in decibel scale) and elapsed time
are shown in Figs. 5.22 and 5.23, respectively. Average values of the data in bins of
4 s are plotted as a function of the elapsed time. Any bin width can be set by the
operator. A stair graph can also present the maximum and minimum values
(Max-Min), the total (Sum), and the maximum of the data within the bin (Maxi-
mum) instead of the average. Figure 5.24 shows an example of a stair graph for the
total (Sum) of data in each bin of 4 s as a function of the elapsed time.
Figures 5.25 and 5.26 show the history of cumulative hits, selecting elapsed time
for the horizontal axis and the number of hits for the vertical axis. Figure 5.25 is a
stair graph for the cumulative number of hits in increasing mode, while Fig. 5.26 is
a stair graph for the cumulative number of hits in decreasing mode. Note that the
84 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.24 Stair differential chart by bin summation

Fig. 5.25 Cumulative AE hits (minimum to maximum)

former version of the plot (Fig. 5.25) is usually used. Three parameters can be
displayed together in a three-dimensional display. Figure 5.27 shows the elapsed
time (X axis), number of hits (Y axis), and AE signal amplitude (Z axis) as a three-
dimensional display. In actual data analysis, AE data and external parameters (load,
displacement, and strain) acquired simultaneously are often displayed on the same
graph. For instance, Fig. 5.28 shows AE activity during a fracture toughness test of
a high-strength aluminum alloy, and Fig. 5.29 shows AE activity observed during a
three-point bending test of a concrete beam reinforced with a carbon-fiber-
reinforced plastic panel. These figures clearly indicate that a crack initiates or an
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 85

Fig. 5.26 Cumulative AE hits (maximum to minimum)

Time[s] (16\bin)
)
bin
(2\
b]
[d
p
Am
140
130
120
Hits

110
100
90
80
70
60
50 100
40
30 90
20
80
10
0 70
100
200 300 60
400
500

Fig. 5.27 3D display of time (X axis), number of hits (Y axis), and AE signal amplitude (Z axis)

existing crack has begun to grow at the point where AE activity increases signif-
icantly in response to a change in load and other parameters.
Figure 5.30 presents the historical AE activity and strain change observed in a
structural test of a concrete bridge under repeated loading due to the passing of a
86 T. Shiotani et al.

Load (ton)

AE energy (V2)
AE hit
Fig. 5.28 AE characteristics in a fracture toughness test of aluminum alloy 2024

Fig. 5.29 Histories of the AE hit rate and load; PAE is the load at which AE activity remarkably
increases

dump truck with three different loads. AE signals resulting from friction within
existing cracks are detected as the load changes. The number of detected AE signals
depends on the load of the truck. It has been demonstrated that the level of damage
to the concrete beam can be evaluated by observing the AE activity associated with
the load change. In AE data analysis, amplitude distributions, as illustrated in
Figs. 5.37 and 5.38, are often used to eliminate noise and identify AE sources.
These figures show the relationship between the detected signal amplitudes
(Am) and the number (n) of signals (hits). Details of the amplitude distribution
are described in the next section.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 87

No load Half load Full load

Relative strain AE hits

Number of detected

Relative strain
Elapsed time
Fig. 5.30 Histories of the AE hit rate and strain on the main reinforcement of a concrete bridge
under repeated loading due to the passing of a dump truck

5.4 Evaluation of Measurement Data and Test Recordings

Tomoki Shiotani

5.4.1 Interpretation and Evaluation of Measurement Data

It is preferred to record all AE signals exceeding a threshold as AE waveforms.

However, it is not easy to record all burst (transient) AE signals with current
sampling/recording speeds and capacities of recording media. For this reason, instead
of recording AE waveforms, AE parametric features characterizing AE signal
waveforms, as explained in Sect. 2.5 of Chap. 2, are generally recorded to evaluate
materials. In this section, taking the example of a uniaxial compression test of a
cylindrical concrete specimen, as illustrated in Fig. 5.31, material evaluation based on
AE parameters as well as AE sources determined in the test is demonstrated.

5.4.1.1 Test Conditions

Figure 5.31 outlines the test. The cylindrical specimen has a diameter of 10 cm and
height of 20 cm, and a total of six AE sensors are installed on the upper and lower
surfaces at intervals of 120 for the measurement.
The data recorded in this test are the histories of load/stress data and AE parameters.
Hard sponge is used in the compression test to prevent noise due to contact between the
88 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.31 Uniaxial compression test of concrete

end face of the specimen and the loading plate during the test. The sponge has the
additional role to fill any space at the interface. Hard sponge or rubber is also used to
place at the loading points or supporting points in three-point/four-point bending tests
of prism-shaped specimens to eliminate mechanical noise due to contact.

5.4.1.2 Evaluation of Data Series

AE data are generally evaluated over time or for a varying applied load. As an
example of AE data evaluation, Fig. 5.32 shows the time history of AE hits obtained
from all six sensors, while Fig. 5.33 shows the time history of AE energy obtained
from all six sensors.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 89

Fig. 5.32 AE hits versus 1000 10000

time
Hit rate
Cum hits

Hit rate/ sec

Cumulative hits
500 5000

0 0
50 100 150 200 250
Elapsed time (sec)

Fig. 5.33 AE energy 40000 80000

versus time Energy rate

Cumulative energy
Energy rate/sec

Cum energy

20000 40000

0 0
0 100 200

Elapsed time (sec)

Fig. 5.34 AE hits versus 600 4000

load
AE hit rate / Load (%)

Hit rate
Cumulative AE hit

Cum hits
300 2000

0 0
0 50 100
Load (%)

It is seen that AE activity increases as approaching to the ultimate stage of

loading in the AE hit-based evaluation, while there is a high level of AE energy in
the initial stage of loading in the energy-based evaluation.
Figures 5.34 and 5.35 show the load histories for AE hits and AE energy. The
load on the horizontal axis is normalized by the maximum value obtained in the test
i.e., it is a percentage of the maximum load. The use of the normalized load history
90 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.35 AE energy 40000 80000

Energy rate / Load (%)

versus load

Cumulative energy
20000 40000
Energy rate
Cum energy

0 0
0 50 100
Load (%)

Fig. 5.36 Correlation

between energy and
duration

makes it possible to evaluate parameters such as the intensity of AE activity, which

may increase as the number of AE hits increases from 90 % of the maximum load
(see Fig. 5.34), and the fracture scale, which appears to be more significant at 20 %
of the maximum load (see Fig. 5.35) according to energy. In this way, the fracture
process of materials can be examined and evaluated by studying the histories of
various AE parameters.

5.4.1.3 Evaluation of Correlations Among AE Parameters

To examine the factors contributing to AE sources generated by crack nucleation or

growth due to tensile or shear deformation or friction within defects, the evaluation
of correlations among AE parameters is effective in some cases in addition to the
quantitative analysis of waveforms. As an example, a chart showing the correlation
between AE energy and its duration is plotted in Fig. 5.36. The figure shows that the
AE signals generated in the initial stage of loading and after the intermediate stage
of loading represent respective characteristics between duration and energy. For
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 91

instance, AE signals obtained after the intermediate stage are found to have high
energy accompanied with short duration. In this way, the consideration of correla-
tions among AE parameters allows examination of the scale and mechanism of the
fracture resulting in AE sources.

5.4.1.4 Evaluation of Frequency in AE Parameters

The proper evaluation of the frequency change in AE parameters may allow assess-
ment of the process of fracture. A representative evaluation of the frequnecy in AE
parameters is based on the AE peak amplitude, which is referred to as the amplitude
distribution. Figure 5.37 shows an example of an amplitude distribution. The bars in
the figure (left vertical axis) represent the occurrence frequencies of amplitudes
(in 1 dB bins) obtained from AE measurement. This distribution is referred to as the
differential amplitude distribution. The figure shows that there are few AE signals with
large AE amplitude, while there are many AE signals with small amplitude. Focusing
on the gradient and variations of this amplitude, by characterizing the amplitude
distribution, several studies have been conducted, for example, to distinguish AE
activity from noise or to identify factors contributing to the generation of AE signals.
In practice, the distribution of the cumulative amplitude (cumulative amplitude
distribution, see the solid line in Fig. 5.37 and the right vertical axis), which is
obtained from the cumulative number of AE frequencies exceeding each amplitude,
is logarithmically expressed and used for actual analysis, instead of the bar charts
also shown in Fig. 5.37. The negative gradient of the curves is referred to as the b-
value1. In Fig. 5.38, AE data from Fig. 5.37 are divided into data for the initial load
and for the intermediate load to draw individual amplitude distributions. In
Fig. 5.38, the bar charts and solid lines represent the differential amplitude distri-
bution and distribution of cumulative amplitudes, respectively, in the same way as
in Fig. 5.37. In the figure, two distributions—one obtained for the initial stage of
loading and other after the intermediate stage of loading—are drawn. From the
figure, it is estimated that the gradient of the cumulative amplitude distribution for
the initial stage of loading is less than that after the intermediate stage of loading,

Fig. 5.37 Amplitude

distribution in a concrete
uniaxial compression test
92 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.38 Amplitude distributions with progression of damage

suggesting that AE activity with large amplitude occurs more frequently relative to
AE activity with small amplitude during initial loading than that in the case after the
intermediate stage.

5.4.1.5 Evaluation Based on AE Source Locations

As described in Sect. 2.6 of Chap. 2, the identification of an AE source is referred to

as AE source location. There are three ways to implement source location based on
the number of AE sensors, arrays and calculation algorithms, namely:
one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) source
locations. The combination of source locations and AE parameters allows us to
determine when and where the AE signal was generated, and what type of AE
occurred. This section presents evaluation methods based on 1D, 2D and 3D source
locations obtained during the uniaxial compression test of concrete specimen
described earlier.
(a) One-dimensional (Linear) source location
By considering AE source locations with load histories, one can evaluate when
an AE occurred and which type of AE it was. Figure 5.39 plots the heights of 1D AE
sources with elapsing time. Here, the diameter of each circle is drawn to reflect the
number of AE counts. The load history is superimposed on the AE events (see the
right vertical axis in the figure) as well. The figure shows that an AE event occurred
near a height of 100 mm before 100 s, the AE event gradually moved toward the
bottom of the specimen in the latter half of the fracture process, and the AE event
with a large parameter (here AE count) was observed mainly in the lower area of the
specimen immediately before the fracture. The intensity of spatial AE source
distributions can be evaluated by accumulating the frequency of 1D AE sources
for each height of the event. Figure 5.40 is a bar chart in which the accumulated AE
events in each 5-mm height interval are exhibited. The vertical and horizontal axes
represent the height of the specimen and the accumulated frequency of AE events,
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 93

Fig. 5.39 Time history of

AE events (with the
diameter of a circle
reflecting the AE count)

Fig. 5.40 AE events by

unit height

respectively. From the figure, one can estimate that the AE activity in the upper area
of the specimen (100–150 mm) was more intense than that in the lower area
(50–100 mm). Here, it is also possible to evaluate the AE event frequencies on
the horizontal axes using the various AE parameters presented instead of AE
events. Furthermore, drawing the same distribution of frequencies for each fracture
step as specified by an engineer is also helpful in associating AE data with fracture
phenomena.
(b) Two dimensional (Planar) source location
2D source location is effective in evaluating the characteristics of planar AE
events. Figure 5.41 shows 2D AE sources. In the figure, the horizontal and vertical
axes represent width and height, respectively. The positions of AE sensors are
denoted by “þ”. A concentration of AE events from the upper left to the lower right
of the specimen can be observed. Figure 5.42 shows AE events weighted by an AE
94 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.41 3D AE events

Fig. 5.42 2D AE events

weighted by an AE
parameter (with the
diameter of a circle
reflecting the AE count)

parameter, namely AE count. This chart allows to determine where an AE event

occurred and how large it was. In addition, by drawing the same type of figure for
unit time or unit fracture phase, the spatial progress of AE events in each fracture
phase can be evaluated.
(c) Three dimensional source location
3D source location determines the spatial coordinates of AE events, which
allows engineers to draw unique AE charts or interpret 3D AE data according to
their experience and insights. Figure 5.43 shows 3D plots projected on the plane,
front and side of the specimen. In all plots, the position of an AE sensor is denoted
by “þ”. AE events are observed at the center of the plane and on the front of the
specimen in Fig. 5.43c, a, and near the front of the specimen in Fig. 5.43b.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 95

Fig. 5.43 Visualization of 3D AE events

Figure 5.44 shows 3D plots of source location in which the AE counts of an AE

event are represented by the diameter of a circular. From Fig. 5.44b, it is found that
AE events observed at the intermediate height of the specimen, particularly those
near the front, have a large AE count. For reference, a case in which the source
locations are plotted in 3D coordinates is presented in Fig. 5.45. Recently, analysis
based on this 3D display has been well conducted.

5.4.1.6 Criteria for Structural Integrity in AE Testing

As an example of the evaluation criteria necessary for structural maintenance,

Fig. 5.46 depicts a criterion for classifying damage in concrete (see NDIS2421 or
96 T. Shiotani et al.

Fig. 5.44 Visualization of 3D AE events (with the diameter of a circle reflecting the AE count)

Recommendation of RILEM TC-212-ACD). The figure is composed of two prom-

ising parameters: Calm and Load, and these indices are obtained during the
repeated load applications of concrete. The Calm is a ratio of cumulative AE hits
during unloading to that during both loading and unloading, and the Load is a ratio
of the value of such reference parameters as deformation, strain, and load showing
the onset of AE activity to the past maximum value of the parameter. As combining
these two parameters as shown in this chart, one can determine the damage of
concrete as serious, intermediate and moderate/ intact condition.
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 97

Fig. 5.45 3D image of AE events

Fig. 5.46 Criterion for classifying damage in concrete

5.4.2 Records of AE Testing

Examples of items recorded in AE testing are given below. It is recommended to

record the following issues, depending on the field and type of test.
98 T. Shiotani et al.

5.4.2.1 Items Relating to the Test Environment

– Test date
– Test location
– Name of tester
– Test devices and jigs
– Test environment (e.g., noise around the test devices)
– Test (loading) method
– Test time/duration
– Other necessary data concerning other test environments

5.4.2.2 Items Relating to Test Pieces/Specimens

– Materials
– Size and shape
– Nominal number of test pieces or name/type of test specimens
– Other necessary data concerning other test specimens or pieces

5.4.2.3 AE Sensors

– Type of AE sensor
– Manufacturer and serial number
– Resonant frequency or sensitive frequency band assured by manufacturer
– Sensitivity test before installation (pencil lead break/contact method)

5.4.2.4 Installation of AE Sensor

– Positions of AE sensor installation

– Installation methods (e.g., crimping/fixing, vinyl tape/magnet holder)
– Couplant (e.g., high-vacuum grease, thermoplastic resin/machine oil/water)
– Sensitivity test after installation (dB/V, pencil lead break/ pulsar method)

5.4.2.5 AE Measurement

– Measurement block diagram (i.e., diagram of equipment connection)

– Type of AE instrumentation
– Manufacturer and serial number
– Frequency filter (HPF/LPF/BPF)
– Gain during measurement (dB)
– AE threshold during measurement (dB or V)
5 Practical AE Testing, Data Recording and Analysis 99

5.4.2.6 Setting of peripheral devices

– Setting conditions for the data logging device

– Setting conditions for other peripheral devices

5.4.2.7 AE Measurement Environment

– Background noise level (dB or V)

– Type of noise and characteristics of the noise signal (e.g., jig friction/electric
pulse noise/mechanical vibration/oil pressure source; periodic/discontinuous)
– Other required data regarding noise

5.4.2.8 Recording and Reporting of Test Results

– Recording of data acquired in AE testing and analysis results

– Classification and reporting of AE test results according to documentation on
acceptance criteria
Chapter 6
Field Application Examples of AE Testing

Shigenori Yuyama, Masaaki Nakano, Tomoki Shiotani,

and Sunao Sugimoto

Abstract Field applications of AE testing are introduced, showing such integrity

evaluations as vessels, pipelines, transformers, bridges, rock slopes and aircrafts.
Specifically evaluation of initial ground/rock stress and identification of leakage in
pipes with AE testing are demonstrated.

Keywords Field applications of AT Vessels • Pipeline • Gas storage bottle • Above

ground storage tank • Leak • Transformer • Railway bridge • Rock slope • Ground
stress • Aircraft

6.1 Large Pressure Vessel

Masaaki Nakano

In this section, a case is presented involving the AE testing of reactors made of steel
in a desulfurization unit of a petroleum refinery at restart of the plant after periodic
inspection. Table 6.1 lists the main specifications of the tested equipment, or reactor
B. At restart, the plant enters a transient state in which both the temperature and
pressure rise, and this is a good example for AE testing.

S. Yuyama (*)
Nippon Physical Acoustics, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Nakano
Chiyoda Corporation, Yokohama, Japan
T. Shiotani
Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Sugimoto
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Japan 2016 101

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3_6
102 S. Yuyama et al.

Table 6.1 Specifications of the equipment

Item Reactor B
Dimensions O.D. (mm) 3302
Length (mm) 10,000
Thickness (mm) 151
Material 1.25 Cr–0.5 Mo
Design Press. (MPa) 9.4
Design Temp. (deg. C) 420

6.1.1 AE Testing Method

This application required simultaneous AE measurements of two reactors (A and B)

connected in series, and AE sensors with a total of 32 channels were used, with
16 channels for each reactor. The measurement results for Reactor B are presented
here. Since the temperature of the tested equipment reaches several hundred
degrees Celsius at a steady state, normal AE sensors could not be used. Conse-
quently, high-temperature waveguide sensor/preamplifier assemblies were installed
on the tested equipment, using a special attachment, as shown in Fig. 6.1. Figure 6.2
shows the configuration of the AE sensors for reactor B.
Before the AE testing began, the propagation characteristics of the reactors were
measured using an artificial AE wave source. The wave velocity was found to be
about 3000 m/s, while the attenuation rate was 2–3 dB/m, which corresponded to
attenuation of less than 10 dB for the maximum distance between sensors.
Analog signals for pressure at one point and the temperature at three points were
input into the AE measurement system as external parameters, and recorded
simultaneously with the AE data. After the restart, an AE measurement was
conducted continuously for about 60 h until the process reached a steady state.

6.1.2 Results of AE Testing

Figure 6.3 shows the trends of the number of cumulative AE hits in a representative
channel and the pressure and temperature. Figure 6.4 shows the trends of the noise
levels for 100 min, mainly in the range of 54–55 h after the start of the measure-
ment, for eight of the 16 channels used for Reactor B.
As seen in Fig. 6.4, a high level of noise was often observed, principally as the
result of internal fluid flow and temperature variation in the startup period of the
plant. In Fig. 6.3, the number of cumulative AE hits reaches tens of thousands.
When the AE measurement is conducted under such conditions, software filtering
based on the correlation between the AE parameters is effective for discriminating
noise.
Figure 6.5 shows a two-dimensional AE source location map for Reactor B. The
heads were omitted because there were few located sources in these areas. The
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 103

Fig. 6.1 Installation of a

high-temperature AE sensor

Fig. 6.2 AE sensor

configuration (top head and
shell, Reactor B)

located sources were slightly concentrated in three regions near weld lines, showing
clusters; however, these clusters had a small number of AE events and low AE
energy. Consequently, they were determined to be Grade C in accordance with the
criteria given in Table 6.2. In this test, no AE indicating significant defects was
detected in either of the two reactors. The reactors were therefore judged to have no
structural integrity problems.
104 S. Yuyama et al.

Fig. 6.3 Trends of cumulative AE hits, pressure, and temperature

As stated above, the application of AE testing to this type of actual structure is

important because the integrity of the entire structure can be extensively verified by
confirming the absence of significant AE.

6.2 Pipelines

Shigenori Yuyama

Long-distance pipelines exist in the states of Alaska, Utah, and Texas, USA, where
AE testing has been widely applied as a practical inspection technique for effective
maintenance. Advantages of the AE application include the ability to inspect a
relatively long section of pipeline, giving location information on defects or leaks in
one test, since a long sensor distance can be applied because of low attenuation in
the pipeline.
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 105

Fig. 6.4 Variation in the noise level

The sensor distance applicable to the testing depends on the type of product in
the pipe (liquid or gas), the pressure inside the pipe, and the setup conditions of the
pipe (aboveground or buried). If well-dried and high-pressure air is used for
pressurization, the sensor distance can be extended to approximately 600 m.
AE testing is usually conducted for long-distance oil or natural gas pipelines.
However, many cases have also been reported for short-distance pipelines in the
transportation of naphtha or ammonia in chemical plants.
Recent works made in both the laboratory and field have reported useful
information on AE behavior resulting from corrosion and fundamental tests of
AE wave propagation in pipes. The applicability of AE testing to corrosion damage
evaluation of buried pipes was investigated by comparing the results of AE testing
with those from an ultrasonic test (UT) and visual test (VT). AE tests were
conducted for 13 buried pipes in service in a refinery, as shown in Fig. 6.6, to
make a comparison between the AE testing results and those of a UT and VT. Good
correlation was found between the results of AE and other test methods. It has been
reported that AE testing has been widely applied in refineries and chemical plants to
evaluate corrosion damage in pipes.
106 S. Yuyama et al.

Fig. 6.5 Result of the AE source location (shell, Reactor B)

Table 6.2 Grade classification of AE sources

Number of Concentration of
Grade Activity AE events AE sources Action
A Very Many High Unload, then confirm by other NDTs
active
B Active Medium Medium Hold, or unload if necessary, then
confirm by other NDTs
C Slightly A few Low Continue AE test, record of results
active necessary
D Not Very few Sparse Continue AE test, record of results
active not necessary
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 107

Fig. 6.6 Buried pipes in a

refinery where the AE tests
were conducted

6.3 High-Pressure Gas Storage Bottle

Shigenori Yuyama

In some states of the USA, AE testing is mandatory as an acceptance test, and

periodic tests are performed every 5 years for high-pressure gas storage bottles of
trailers. Linear (two-dimensional) source location with two AE sensors is applied
and AE signals produced during pressurization to 110 % of the maximum opera-
tional pressure are detected and analyzed, as shown in Fig. 6.7. After the test, a UT
is conducted for the locations where intense AE sources are detected by the source
location. If defects with depth greater than 0.1 in. are found in the tested bottle, it
will be discarded from operation according to the states’ regulations.
Furthermore, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA) has
conducted AE tests of 120 or more gas storage vessels. The reason that AE testing
has been applied to many containers is that it is a very time- and cost-effective test
method for containers in service. Thus, the AE method has been widely employed
as an inspection tool for pressure components. A pocket-type portable AE instru-
ment widely used in the field is presented in Fig. 6.8.

6.4 Above Ground Storage Tank

Shigenori Yuyama

The bottom of above ground storage tank cannot be observed and inspected during
operation. According to Japanese regulations, periodic internal inspection is
required for tanks with storage capacity greater than 1000 kL. In the case of a
108 S. Yuyama et al.

Fig. 6.7 Schematic representation of the AE testing of a high-pressure gas storage bottle

Fig. 6.8 Portable AE system

large above ground tank with capacity of 100,000 kL, it is very expensive to open
the tank for internal inspection because of the high costs resulting from shut-down,
cleaning, and inspection, which may often exceed several tens of millions of Yen.
An evaluation method has been developed in Europe and is based on a test
procedure and a database consisting of data sheets for thousands of tests. In this
method, multiple AE sensors are used to detect the AE signals resulting from active
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 109

Fig. 6.9 Schematic illustration of the AE testing of a tank bottom

corrosion, making it possible to globally evaluate corrosion damage on a tank

bottom.
As schematically shown in Fig. 6.9, AE sensors are placed at equal intervals in a
circumferential direction on the tank wall at the height of 1–1.5 m above the tank
floor. An experienced certified engineer collects AE data under the condition where
no environmental noise due to rain and/or wind are detected, using an AE instru-
ment installed in a vehicle parked outside an oil protection fence.
In European countries such as UK, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy,
Spain and Greece, more than 1000 tanks are tested every year, while in the USA, a
major oil company recently began an AE testing project as a part of AE application
to risk-based inspection. It has been reported that about 500 tanks are tested
annually in the USA. In Europe, this inspection method is in the process of being
standardized by CEN (the European Committee for Standardization). Following
these developments, AE testing for the evaluation of tank bottoms may be stan-
dardized in the very near future.
In Japan, the High Pressure Institute of Japan published a code (HPIS: Technical
guideline for evaluation of corrosion damage to a tank bottom) with regard to AE
testing of a tank bottom in May 2005. More than 250 tanks have been tested in
accordance with the Japanese regulations and the AE results have been compared
with thickness data obtained during internal inspection from either point measure-
ments or floor scanning to confirm the applicability of the AE testing. Following the
test procedure described in the HPIS code, several tens of tanks have been tested
annually in Japan so far.
110 S. Yuyama et al.

6.5 Leak Detection

Shigenori Yuyama

An effective technique for leak detection is most important in chemical plants to

prevent serious accidents and financial losses due to leaks. Since AE sensors are
very sensitive to leak noise, the AE method has been employed for leak detection in
various fields. For instance, Monsanto Chemical Company carried out continuous
AE monitoring for the early detection of leaks in their plants around the world,
installing four or eight waterproof integral preamplifier sensors with a resonant
frequency of 60 kHz at critical sections in the plants.
AE testing is used to evaluate valve leaks in refineries, which are a major
concern. In the case of a gas leak, even if the volume of leaking gas is small,
long-term leakage will result in enormous gas losses and huge economic losses.
Therefore, it has been important to develop a reliable inspection technique that
makes it possible to determine leaking valves among the hundreds of valves in a
refinery and to quantitatively evaluate the volume of leaking gas.
At the beginning of 1980s, an oil company in UK developed an AE testing
method that allows quantitative evaluation based on the correlation between
detected AE data and leaks from valves. This method was developed in the
following manner. First, a database was created for the relationship between the
recorded AE data and the leaks, using artificially made leaks in different types of
valves with different sizes under different pressures. This makes it possible to
quantitatively evaluate the leaking volume by referring to the AE data. This AE
technique has been used in several hundred refineries around the world in practical
maintenance of valves as a daily inspection. Figure 6.10 demonstrates how the AE
test is performed in a refinery.

6.6 Transformer

Shigenori Yuyama

A power station or substation has many large transformers, as shown in Fig. 6.11.
Because of the aging of these units, an inspection technique is needed to evaluate
the statuses of the units in a simple and reliable manner.
A partial discharge in a transformer has traditionally been evaluated by chemical
analysis of sampled insulating oil collected from the transformer. However, the
partial discharge generated in a transformer has long been known to produce
detectable AE signals. Furthermore, it has been reported that oil gasification due
to an increase in the local temperature of the insulating oil of a transformer also
generates detectable AE signals. Thus, partial discharges and a local temperature
increase of the transformer in service can be evaluated by monitoring AE signals.
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 111

Fig. 6.10 Detection and evaluation of a valve leak in a refinery using a portable leak monitor
(Photos courtesy of www.mistrasgroup.com)

Fig. 6.11 Evaluation of partial discharge in a large transformer employing the AE method
(Photos courtesy of www.mistrasgroup.com)
112 S. Yuyama et al.

The partial discharge and temperature increase in a transformer should generate

burst-type signals. AE source location using multiple sensors installed on the
exterior wall of the transformer can be applied to evaluate approximate locations
of the deteriorated areas. In addition, progress of the deterioration and operational
conditions can be monitored using the AE data. The continuous AE monitoring of
transformers with wireless AE sensors has been widely employed in power stations
and sub-stations in the USA under a smart grid project.

6.7 Railway Bridges

Tomoki Shiotani

Aging of railway structures, most of which were constructed prior to other infra-
structure, is becoming a serious problem, leading to maintenance problems in some
cases. When an investigation of earthquake damage to a railway structure and a
seismic diagnosis of such a structure are conducted, the presence, location, and
degree of damage to the superstructure can be checked visually. On the other hand,
the visual inspection of such underground substructures as foundations requires a
higher cost and longer construction period for ground excavation and intervenes the
running of in-service trains. For this reason, this type of visual inspection cannot
actually be implemented. Accordingly, a useful method for investigating earth-
quake damage to bridge substructures based on AE activity was developed. The AE
activity induced by the mobile load of an in-service train in the damaged area of the
bridge structure is used to evaluate the damage of bridge.
As shown in Fig. 6.12, AE sensors are installed on the bridge pier to measure the
AE activity generated from the defect in the bridge when the mobile load is
imposed by the train. For this measurement, the AE source location is implemented
to eliminate the train vibration noise and extract only useful AE signals. The Calm
ratios, load ratios, amplitude distributions, and other parameters described in
Chap. 5 for the AE events (Fig. 6.13) extracted by the source location are examined
to estimate the level of deterioration of bridge.
For reference, Fig. 6.14 shows the workflow for evaluating the integrity of
railway bridge piers by AE measurement. The necessity of continuous AE measur-
ing is determined from the number of AE events. Then damage level of the bridge is
estimated using b-values obtained from the amplitude distributions.
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 113

AE sensor

Railway concrete piers

Fig. 6.12 AE monitoring of railway piers

500 400

400 300

300 200
Y (cm)

Y (cm)

200 100

100 0

0 -100
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
X (cm) X (cm)
300 250
250 200
200
150
Z (cm)

Z (cm)

150
100
100
50
50
0 0

-50 -50
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
X (cm) X (cm)

Fig. 6.13 AE events released from defects of railway piers (left: intact, right: seriously damaged)
114 S. Yuyama et al.

Fig. 6.14 Evaluation

workflow with AE Collection of AE data
monitoring

Integrity evaluation
Identification of
linear AE sources
Periodic inspection

NAE: Number of NAE < 5

AE events per train

NAE >= 5
Estimation of potential
damage areas

Ib-value analysis

Damage grading

Repair/ Reinforcement

6.8 Stability Monitoring of a Rock Slope

Tomoki Shiotani

Another field in which AE testing is expected to be employed to estimate the state

of an inside fracture of materials and contribute to the prediction of final fracture is
the stability monitoring of rock slopes. There are many challenges in measuring AE
activity on rock slopes. A method to understand the AE activity generated in the
inside of rocks and a method to eliminate the inevitable AE activity that is totally
unrelated to rock deformations in the long-term measurements are needed.
Therefore, a method was developed how to place AE sensors into a measurement
borehole in the rock slope, accompanied with a reinforcing bar, filling the void in
the borehole with cementitious materials that have the same physical properties as
the actual rock.
In this method, the inside of the measurement borehole, as shown in Fig. 6.15, is
replaced with cementitious materials. For this reason, existing cracks do not affect
the propagation of AE waves. A local fracture along the existing cracks will
generate an AE wave associated with the fracture of the filled materials. The
detection of this AE wave by several AE sensors linearly arrayed on the reinforcing
bar enables one-dimensional AE source location. Furthermore, it is possible to trace
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 115

Macroscopic
crack

Steel rebar

Generation of
Microscopic crack
AE waves

Cementitious filler

(i) After sensors installation (ii) AE waves due to rock deformation

Fig. 6.15 Schematic illustration of the AE monitoring of rock

the fracturing process to eventual failure by tracking the AE activity generated from
the friction between the reinforcing bar and filled materials.
Various types of fracture tests for different materials can be carried out in
laboratory. Consequently, specific AE parameters can be determined according to
the fracture patterns and levels. In this way, it becomes possible to reasonably
evaluate the AE signals obtained from the actual rock slope on the basis of the
fracture criterion obtained from the laboratory test. Figure 6.16 shows an example
of AE application. AE sensors were installed on the reinforcing bar at intervals of
1.5 m. In this case, five AE sensors were placed within the AE measurement
borehole, while cementitious materials with the same physical properties as the
surrounding rock were used to fill the void in the rock.

6.9 Initial Ground Stress

Tomoki Shiotani

When artificial underground structures such as tunnels are constructed, it is important

to estimate the inherent ground pressure of the rock, so as to monitor behavior of the
surrounding rock and design necessary reinforcements for the structure. On the other
hand, a phenomenon (the Kaiser effect) has been well known, showing that there is no
AE activity until the load reaches the maximum load the material has previously
experienced. Consequently, a method for estimating the initial ground stress based on
the Kaiser effect has been established.
AE testing to estimate the initial ground stress is conducted through uniaxial
compression tests of a fresh test specimen (tested within 3 days of being sampled)
sampled in-situ (at the point to be measured). In this case, based on the number of
AE hits or the cumulative number of AE hits generated at applied stresses, the stress
that causes a remarkable increase in AE hits is taken as the estimated initial stress
(see Fig. 6.17). It is important to note that in this AE-based test for the estimation of
116 S. Yuyama et al.

(m )
45
3D crack gauge (3D) 7.08 m

Borehole strain m eter (BS)

2.32

AE sensor (AE)
40
Joint observed clearly Seism om eter

3D-1
Borehole No.1
L=15 m BS1-2 BS1-1

35 3D-2
3D-3

3D-4

30 8.50
Borehole No.2 6.20
L=10 m 3.60
BS2-2 BS2-1

BS2-3

3D-5
25 Borehole No.4 for AE AE-5
L=10.25 m AE-4
8 . 6 AE-3
5 AE-1
AE-2
Borehole No.3
L=10 m BS3-1

20

Joint observed

15
Section view

Fine sand (L= 1.0 m ) Reinforcem ent (D13)

Ch-5 Ch-4 Ch-3 Ch-2 Ch-1
f = 86 m m

2.55 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50

10.25 m

Array of AE sensors
Fig. 6.16 Application of the AE monitoring of rock
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 117

Fig. 6.17 Estimation of

initial ground stress

cumulative AE activity
AE activity rate or
Estimated initial
ground stress

Stress

initial ground stress, the estimated ground initial stress corresponds to the load-
applied direction. Accordingly, when it is desirable to estimate the initial ground
stresses in different directions, cores are sampled corresponding to these directions,
and the loads are applied according to the sampling directions.

6.10 Aircraft

Sunao Sugimoto

The requirement of airframe structures is a high level of compatibility between

weight saving and structural integrity for flight in air. Design concepts of the
structures have changed repeatedly as a result of various accidents or problems.
The present airframes are manufactured according to damage-tolerance design that
ensures the remaining airframe life fully even if cracks are detected during an
inspection. AE testing was used for the verification of airworthiness or integrity of
the airframes as long as the design concept changes from traditional designs to the
damage-tolerance design.
For example, General Dynamics F-111 fighter was manufactured before the
introduction of the concept of damage-tolerant design. Although a safe-life struc-
ture in which there is no fatigue cracking in the airframes during the defined design
life was adopted in this fighter design, the operation of the fighter had been
suspended owing to a fatal failure accident before reaching the design service
life. This has led to the implementation of the F-111 recovery program
(G. Redmond, Proc. of 10th Asia-Pacific Conf. on NDT, 2001). A high load (
3
to þ7.33 G) was applied to the airframe for 2–3 h at a temperature of
43  C. These
loading tests were carried out to avoid decreasing the fracture toughness (to a more
dangerous level) and the damage propagation to its secondary structure. The AE
signals generated during the loading tests were used to evaluate the integrity of the
118 S. Yuyama et al.

Fig. 6.18 AE sensor positions and crack path observed during structural test of a horizontal
stabilizer in CFRP

fighter airframe. The test program has been implemented for new aircraft
manufactured since 1969 to 1979, and shifted to Phase I (1973–1983), Phase II
(1986–1998), and Phase III (1993–) as a structural inspection program for existing
aircrafts.
Composite materials, particularly carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRPs), have
increasingly been used for aircraft structures. Applications of the AE method to
composite structures are also being promoted. A structural test was performed for a
horizontal stabilizer in CFRP at the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan
(currently the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) as part of a joint development
of a mid-sized civil aircraft by the Boeing Company of the USA and the Japan
Aircraft Development Corporation (JADC), in which AE testing was employed for
a residual strength test.
In this test, a monitoring area was divided into regular triangles with sides of
40 cm. Fig. 6.18 shows the overview of location of 28 AE sensors and crack path.
An enlarged view of the source location result is shown in Fig. 6.19. When local
damage occurred at 157 % of the limit load, the locations of the damage were
confirmed by many AE sources in the area surrounded by three AE sensors:
No. 6, No. 12 and No. 13 sensors. Furthermore, numerous AE signals were detected
in the area surrounded by four AE sensors: No. 19, No. 20, No. 26 and
No. 28 sensors at 167 % of the limit load. The interesting result is that the final
failure occurred along the line connecting these two damage areas.
Besides the above mentioned examples, AE testing has been applied to a wide
variety of aircrafts and military aircrafts because they are operated under severe
6 Field Application Examples of AE Testing 119

Fig. 6.19 AE source location observed during structural test of a horizontal stabilizer in CFRP

temperature and load conditions. For example, although landing gears are not
damage tolerance structures generally, their operation has been optimized using
an AE measurement system. There has been an increase in such research into the
structural health monitoring of aircraft, and the AE technique is expected to
contribute to further developments in this field.
Glossary

Precautions

1. This Glossary is presented to help beginners learn about acoustic emission

testing. The definitions for the terms adhere to JIS (Japanese Industrial Stan-
dards) and NDIS (JSNDI Standards), but additions to the wording and partial
omissions were made to facilitate understanding.
2. The symbol “!” refers to an opposite or related term. After searching for a
target term, any associated term marked with ! can be looked up to gain a better
understanding.
3. Different technical terms are used in related industries. Although this is true in
relation to the terms used for this glossary adopts the terms most widely used as
idiomatic expressions in the industry. Consequently, some of the terms differ
from those specified in JIS and NDIS.
Acoustic emission (AE) Phenomenon that produces elastic waves through the
release of the strain energy accumulated when a solid is deformed or fractured,
or the transient elastic wave generated in this way
Acoustic emission event !event
Acoustic emission testing (AET, AE testing, AT) Non-destructive testing and
material evaluation test conducted with the use of AE
Acousto-ultrasonic (AU) Non-destructive testing method used to generate elastic
waves to detect and evaluate the distribution of flaws in a structure, severity of
the damage, and any change in the mechanical characteristics of the test piece
Note: This AE inspection method is a combination of an AE signal-based analysis
method and an ultrasonic material properties testing method.
AE !Acoustic emission

© Springer Japan 2016 121

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3
122 Glossary

AE channel A measuring system with a combination of the following devices and

cable:
(1) AE sensor
(2) Preamplifier or impedance matching transducer
(3) Filter, secondary amplifier, or other necessary equipment
(4) Connection cable
(5) Detector or processor
AE count (ring down count, count, emission count) The number of times that an
AE signal exceeds a preset threshold during any selected portion of a test
AE count rate (emission rate, count rate) AE counts per unit time
AE energy A value determined after an instantaneous value squared is integrated;
the maximum amplitude squared, or the maximum amplitude multiplied by a
duration is used as a simple value; note that the definition depends on the device
AE event !Event
AE root-mean-square (RMS) value Effective value of an AE signal
AE sensor (AE transducer) Converter that converts AE waves to electric signals.
AE signal Electric signal that is converted from an AE wave with an AE sensor
AE signal amplitude !Amplitude
AE signal duration !duration
AE signal end Recognized termination of an AE signal, usually defined as the last
crossing of the threshold by that signal
AE signal maximum amplitude !Amplitude
AE signal peak amplitude !Amplitude
AE signal rise time !Rise time
AE signal start Beginning of an AE signal as recognized by the system processor,
usually defined by an amplitude excursion exceeding threshold
AE source Source where AE is generated
AE testing !Acoustic emission testing
AE wave Elastic wave generated by AE
AE waveguide (waveguide) !waveguide
Amplitude (AE signal amplitude, AE signal maximum amplitude, AE signal
peak amplitude) Maximum voltage of an AE signal waveform in one emission
event; it sometimes refers to the maximum of an absolute value in an envelope
for AE signals
Arrival time difference The difference in the arrival times that AE waves reach
several AE sensors
Artificial AE source Source of elastic waves simulating AE waves that are used
for the calibration and sensitivity setting of an AE sensor or measuring
instrument
ASL !Average signal level
Attenuation Attenuation of amplitude due to the absorption and diffusion of AE
waves when the waves propagate through a medium
Note: This is normally expressed as a dB value per unit length
Glossary 123

AU !Acousto-ultrasonic method
Average signal level (ASL) Rectified and time-averaged logarithmic AE signal.
Value measured on a logarithmic scale for AE amplitudes and reported as a unit
of dBAE; 1 μV (micro volt) is defined as 0 dBAE at the input terminal of a
preamplifier
Burst AE (Burst emission, Transient AE, Transient emission) AE signal that
can be apparently divided on a temporal basis
Burst emission !Burst AE
Continuous AE (Continuous emission) AE signal that apparently cannot be
divided on a temporal basis
Continuous emission !Continuous AE
Couplant Material used at the interface between a structure and an AE sensor for
the smooth transmission of acoustic energy in AE monitoring
Cumulative AE amplitude distribution !Cumulative amplitude distribution
Cumulative amplitude distribution (Cumulative AE amplitude distribution)
Number of AE events with signals that exceed arbitrary amplitudes as a function
of amplitude V
dbAE Logarithmic value of the AE signal amplitude relative to 1 μV (micro volt);
it is expressed as the peak amplitude of the signal [(dBAE) ¼ 20 log10 (A1/A0)],
where
A0: is equal to 1 μV at the sensor output (before amplification) and
A1: is the peak voltage of the measured AE signal.
Dead time Any interval during data acquisition when a measuring instrument or
system cannot receive new data
Differential amplitude distribution (Differential AE amplitude distribution)
Number of AE events with signal amplitudes between amplitudes of V and V
+ ΔV as a function of the amplitude V, where f(V) is the absolute value of the
derivative of the cumulative amplitude distribution F(V)
Duration (AE signal duration) Time from the start to end of an AE signal
Dynamic range The difference between the overload level and minimum signal
level in a system or sensor as expressed in dB
Emission event !Event
Evaluation threshold Threshold used for the analysis of data after testing; the
threshold is set to the same value as the voltage threshold in most cases
Event (AE event, acoustic emission event, emission event) Local material
change giving rise to acoustic emission
Event count (AE event count) The number obtained by counting each discernable
acoustic emission event once
Event count rate (AE event count rate) Event count per unit time
Hit (AE hit) Any signal that exceeds a threshold and provides system channel data
Kaiser effect Absence of detectable AE at a fixed trigger level until previously
applied stress levels are exceeded
Linear source location !One-dimensional source location
124 Glossary

One-dimensional source location (linear source location) The determination of

a one-dimensional source location requiring two channels or more
Planar source location !Two-dimensional source location
Ring down count !AE count
Rise time (AE signal rise time) Time interval between an AE signal start and the
peak amplitude of that AE signal
RMS !AE Root mean square value
SN ratio Ratio of the signal amplitude to the noise level
Source location (AE source location) !One-dimensional location,
two-dimensional location, three-dimensional location
Method for determining the position of AE sources in a structure
Three-dimensional source location The determination of a three-dimensional
source location requiring four channels or more; 5 channels or more are gener-
ally used
Transient AE !Burst AE
Transient emission !Burst AE
Two-dimensional source location (planar source location) The determination of
a two-dimensional source location requiring three channels or more
Voltage threshold Voltage above which a signal is recognized; this voltage
threshold can be adjusted and fixed by users or made an automatic floating type
Waveguide (AE waveguide) Device that couples elastic energy from a structure
or other test object to a remotely mounted sensor during AE monitoring
Note: An example of an AE waveguide would be a solid wire or rod that is coupled
to a monitored structure at one end and to a sensor at the other end.
Zone location Method to determine the general region of an AE source (using, for
example, the total AE counts, energy, or hits)
Note: Several approaches to zone location are employed, including independent
channel zone location, first-hit zone location and arrival sequence zone location.
Appendix: List of Codes and Standards

Introduction

Acoustic emission testing is widely used for materials testing, the evaluation of
structural integrity and the continuous monitoring of structures. Numerous codes
and standards have been issued so far in Japan and other countries, providing
guidelines for sensor calibration, instrument evaluation, test procedures, and data
collection.

Codes and Standards

1. ISO 12713: “Non-destructive testing – Acoustic emission inspection – Primary

calibration of transducers”
2. ISO 12714: “Non-destructive testing – Acoustic emission inspection – Second-
ary calibration of acoustic emission sensors”
3. ISO 12716: “Non-destructive testing – Acoustic emission inspection –
Vocabulary”
4. ISO 9712: “Non-destructive testing – Qualification and certification of
personnel”
5. ISO/DIS 16148: “Gas cylinders – Refillable seamless steel gas cylinders and
tubes – Acoustic emission examination (AT) and follow-up ultrasonic exami-
nation (UT) for periodic inspection and testing”
6. ISO TR 13115: “Non-destructive testing-Methods for absolute calibration of
acoustic emission transducers by reciprocity technique”
7. ISO TR 25107: “Non-destructive testing – Guidelines for NDT training sylla-
buses” (under discussion)
8. ISO TR 25108: “Non-destructive testing – Guidelines for NDT personnel
training organizations” (under discussion)

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Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3
126 Appendix: List of Codes and Standards

9. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: “Acoustic Emission Examination of

Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Vessels” Section V, Article 11
10. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: “Acoustic emission examination of
metallic vessels during pressure testing” Section V, Article 12
11. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: “Continuous Acoustic Emission
Monitoring” Section V, Article 13
12. Recommended practice No. SNT-TC-1A*, Personnel qualification and certifi-
cation in nondestructive testing, ASNT, 1996
13. ASTM E 569-76: “Standard recommended practice for acoustic emission
monitoring of structures during controlled stimulation”
14. ASTM E1888/E1888M-02: “Acoustic Emission Examination of Pressurized
Containers Made of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic with Balsa Wood Cores”
15. ASTM E2076-05: “Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Fan Blades
Using Acoustic Emission”
16. ASTM E2191-02: “Examination of Gas-Filled Filament-Wound Composite
Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic Emission”
17. ASTM E1930-02: “Examination of Liquid Filled Atmospheric and Low Pres-
sure Metal Storage Tanks Using Acoustic Emission”
18. ASTM E1419-02b: “Examination of Seamless, Gas-Filled, Pressure Vessels
Using Acoustic Emission”
19. ASTM E1106-86(2002): “Primary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors”
20. ASTM E1067-01: “Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels”
21. ASTM E1118-05: “Acoustic Emission Examination of Reinforced Thermoset-
ting Resin Pipe (RTRP)”
22. ASTM E749-01: “Acoustic Emission Monitoring During Continuous
Welding”
23. ASTM E751-01: “Acoustic Emission Monitoring During Resistance Spot-
Welding”
24. ASTM E569-02: “Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures During Con-
trolled Stimulation”
25. ASTM E1736-05: “Acousto-Ultrasonic Assessment of Filament-Wound Pres-
sure Vessels”
26. ASTM E750-04: “Characterizing Acoustic Emission Instrumentation”
27. ASTM E1139-02: “Continuous Monitoring of Acoustic Emission from Metal
Pressure Boundaries”
28. ASTM E1211-02: “Leak Detection and Location Using Surface-Mounted
Acoustic Emission Sensors”
29. ASTM E1781-98(2003): “Secondary Calibration of Acoustic Emission
Sensors”
30. ASTM E2075-05: “Verifying the Consistency of AE-Sensor Response Using
an Acrylic Rod”
31. ASTM E1932-97(200): “Acoustic Emission Examination of Small Parts”
32. ASTM E2374-04: “Acoustic Emission System Performance Verification”
Appendix: List of Codes and Standards 127

33. ASTM E1495-02: “Acousto-Ultrasonic Assessment of Composites, Laminates,

and Bonded Joints”
34. ASTM E976-00: “Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sen-
sor Response”
35. ASTM E650-97(2002): “Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors”
36. DIN EN 14584: “Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Examination
of Metallic Pressure Equipment during Proof Testing; Planar Location of AE
Sources”
37. EN 1330-9: “Non-Destructive Testing – Terminology – Part 9, Terms Used in
Acoustic Emission Testing”
38. EN 13477-1: “Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Equipment
Characterization – Part 1, Equipment Description”
39. EN 13477-2: “Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Equipment
Characterization – Part 2, Verification of Operating Characteristics”
40. EN 13554: “Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – General
Principles”
41. JIS Z 2342: Method for acoustic emission testing of pressure vessels during
pressure tests and classification of test results
42. NIDS 2106: Methods for assessing the performance characteristics of an
acoustic emission testing system
43. NDIS 2109: Method for absolute calibration of acoustic emission transducers
employing reciprocity
44. NDIS 2110: Method for measuring the sensitivity degradation of an acoustic
emission transducer
45. NDIS 2419: Recommended practice for continuous monitoring of metal pres-
sure vessel by acoustic emission
46. NDIS2421: Recommended practice for in situ monitoring of concrete struc-
tures by acoustic emission
47. HPIS G 110 TR 2005: Recommended practice for acoustic emission evaluation
of corrosion damage to the8bottom plate of oil storage tanks
48. HPIS E 102 TR 2012: Recommended practice for acoustic emission evaluation
of corrosion damages in underground tanks
Index

A D
Acoustic emission (AE), 6 dBAE, 28, 49, 50, 124
channel, 20, 124 Dead time, 25, 65, 122
count, 27, 28, 123 Differential amplitude distribution, 91, 122
count rate, 28, 123 Duration, 27, 28, 122
energy, 28, 123
sensor, 20, 35–43, 67–74, 98, 123
E
signal, 20–25, 41, 123
Emission count. See Acoustic emission count
signal end, 25, 123
Emission rate. See Acoustic emission count
signal start, 25, 123
rate
source, 10–12, 123
Evaluation threshold, 27, 28, 122
transducer, 35–43, 123
Event, 20, 26, 121
Acoustic emission testing (AT), 9, 121
Event count, 29, 121
AE. See Acoustic emission (AE)
Event count rate, 29, 121
Amplitude, 23, 27, 28, 123
Arrival time difference, 30, 122
ASL. See Average signal level (ASL) G
AT. See Acoustic emission testing (AT) Guard sensor, 31–32, 76
Attenuation, 15–16, 122
Average signal level (ASL), 29, 52, 75, 122,
H
123
Hit, 23, 65, 122
Hsu-Nielsen source, 73
B
Background noise, 22, 64, 99 K
Burst AE, 11, 122 Kaiser effect, 10, 115, 122

C L
Calibration, 42–43 Leak detection, 110
Continuous AE, 11, 12, 29, 123 Linear source location. See One-dimentional
Couplant, 98, 122 source location
Cumulative amplitude distribution, 91, 123 Longitudinal wave, 13–15

© Springer Japan 2016 129

The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection, Practical Acoustic Emission
Testing, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-55072-3
130 Index

O SN ratio, 51, 75, 124

One-dimensional source location, 29–31, Snell’s law, 16
92–93, 124 Source location, 29–34, 92–95, 121

P T
Pencil lead break, 30, 72–73 Three-dimensional source location, 94–95, 124
Planar source location, 31, 93–94, 124 Transient AE. See Burst AE
Preamplifier, 20, 42, 45, 47–53, 72 Transverse wave, 13–18
Pulsar. See Pulse generator Two-dimensional source location, 29–31,
Pulse generator, 30, 56, 73–74 93–94, 124

R
Rayleigh wave, 13, 15 V
Reflection, 15–19 Voltage threshold, 22–26, 122
Refraction, 18
Ring-down count. See Acoustic emission count
Rise time, 27, 28, 122 W
Root-mean-square (RMS), 29, 51, 75, 123 Waveguide, 71, 102, 123

S Z
Sensitivity, 37–39, 42–43, 61, 72–74 Zone location, 32–33, 122