CH.4.

STRESS
Multimedia Course on Continuum Mechanics
 Overview
 Forces Acting on a Continuum Body Lecture 1
 Cauchy’s Postulates Lecture 2
 Stress Tensor Lecture 3 Lecture 4
 Stress Tensor Components
 Scientific Notation
Lecture 5
 Engineering Notation
 Sign Criterion
 Properties of the Cauchy Stress Tensor
 Cauchy’s Equation of Motion Lecture 6
 Principal Stresses and Principal Stress Directions
 Mean Stress and Mean Pressure
Lecture 7
 Spherical and Deviatoric Parts of a Stress Tensor
 Stress Invariants

2
 Overview (cont’d)
 Stress Tensor in Different Coordinate Systems
 Cylindrical Coordinate System Lecture 8
 Spherical Coordinate System
 Mohr’s Circle Lecture 9
 Mohr’s Circle for a 3D State of Stress
Lecture 10
 Determination of the Mohr’s Circle
 Mohr’s Circle for a 2D State of Stress
 2D State of Stress Lecture 11
 Stresses in Oblique Plane
 Direct Problem
Lecture 12
 Inverse Problem
 Mohr´s Circle for a 2D State of Stress Lecture 13

3
 Overview (cont’d)
 Mohr’s Circle a 2D State of Stress (cont’d)
 Construction of Mohr’s Circle
 Mohr´s Circle Properties Lecture 14
 The Pole or the Origin of Planes Lecture 15
 Sign Convention in Soil Mechanics Lecture 16
 Particular Cases of Mohr’s Circle Lecture 17

4
 4.1. Forces on a Continuum Body
Ch.4. Stress

5
 Forces Acting on a Continuum Body
Forces acting on a continuum body:
 Body forces.
 Act on the elements of volume or mass inside the body.
 “Action-at-a-distance” force.
 E.g.: gravity, electrostatic forces, magnetic forces
fV = ∫ ρ b ( x, t ) dV body force per unit
V
mass
 Surface forces. (specific body forces)

 Contact forces acting on the body at its boundary surface.

 E.g.: contact forces between bodies, applied point or distributed
loads on the surface of a body
f S = ∫ t ( x, t ) dS surface force
∂V (traction vector)
per unit surface

6
 4.2. Cauchy’s Postulates
Ch.4. Stress

7
 Cauchy’s Postulates
1. Cauchy’s 1st postulate. REMARK
The traction vector t remains unchanged The traction vector (generalized to
for all surfaces passing through the point P internal points) is not influenced by
and having the same normal vector n at P . the curvature of the internal surfaces.

t = t ( P, n )

2. Cauchy’s fundamental lemma

(Cauchy reciprocal theorem)
The traction vectors acting at point P
on opposite sides of the same surface
are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction.
t ( P, n ) =
−t ( P, −n ) REMARK
Cauchy’s fundamental lemma is equivalent to
Newton's 3rd law (action and reaction).

8
 4.3. Stress Tensor
Ch.4. Stress

9
 Stress Tensor
 The areas of the faces of the tetrahedron
are:
S1 = n1S
n ≡ {n 1 , n 2 , n 3 }
T
S 2 = n2 S with
S3 = n3 S

 The “mean” stress vectors acting on these faces are

t* = t (x*S , n), − t (1)* = t (x*S , −eˆ1 ), − t ( 2)* = t (x*S , −eˆ 2 ), − t ( ) = t (x*S3 , −eˆ 3 )
3*

 *
1 2

x S= ∈ S ∈ S → mean value theorem

*
i
S i i 1, 2,3 ; x

 The surface normal vectors of the planes perpendicular to the axes are
n1 = −eˆ1 ; n2 = −eˆ 2 ; n3 = −eˆ 3 REMARK
 Following Cauchy’s fundamental lemma: The asterisk indicates an
t ( x, −eˆ i ) =
not
−t ( x, eˆ i ) =
− t (i ) ( x ) i ∈ {1, 2,3} mean value over the area.

10
 Mean Value Theorem
 Let f : [ a, b ] → R be a continuous function on the closed interval
[a, b] , and differentiable on the open interval ( a, b ) , where a < b .
Then, there exists some x* in ( a, b ) such that:

f ( x* )
1
f ( x ) dΩ
Ω Ω∫
=

 I.e.: f : [ a, b ] → R gets its

“mean value” f ( x* ) at the interior
of [ a, b ]

11
 Stress Tensor
 From equilibrium of forces, i.e. Newton’s 2nd law of motion:
R=∑ fi =∑ mi ai ∫ ρ b dV + ∫ t dS =∫ a ρ ∫ ρ a dV
dV =
i i V ∂V V dm V
resultant
body forces
(1) ( 2) ( 3)
∫
V
ρ b dV + ∫ t
S
dS + ∫ − t
S1
dS + ∫ − t
S2
dS + ∫ dS =∫ ρ a dV
− t
S3 V
resultant
 Considering the mean value theorem, surface forces

( ρ b)* V + t*S − t (1)*S1 − t ( 2)*S2 − t (3)*S3 =

( ρ a)* V

1
 Si ni S i ∈ {1, 2,3} and V = Sh ,
Introducing=
3
1 1
( ρ b)* h S + t*S − t (1)*n1S − t ( 2)*n2S − t (3)*n3S = ( ρ a)* hS
3 3

12
 Stress Tensor
 If the tetrahedron shrinks to point O,

x*Si → xO (
lim t (i )* x*Si , eˆ i  =
h →0   )
t (i ) ( O,eˆ i ) i ∈ {1, 2,3}

x*S → xO lim t* ( x*S , n )  =

t ( O, n )
h →0

1  1 
lim= ( ρ b )*
h =
 h →0 
lim ( ρ a )*
h  0

h →0 3
 3 

 The limit of the expression for the equilibrium of forces becomes,

= t (1) = t ( 2) = t ( 3)
1 (1)* ( 2 )* ( 3)* 1
( ρ b) h + t − t n1 − t n2 − t n3 =( ρ a)* h
* *
t ( O, n ) − t (i ) ni =
0
3 3
= t ( O, n )

13
 Stress Tensor
 Considering the traction vector’s Cartesian components :
=t (i ) ( P ) t =
(i )
ˆ σ ij eˆ j
j ( P) e j t ( P=
, n ) t (i ) ni ⇒
 i, j ∈ {1, 2,3}
σ ij ( P ) = t j ( P )
(i )
t j ( P=
,n) t=
(i )
j ni niσ ij
 
 σ ij
Cauchy’s Stress Tensor t ( P, n )= n ⋅ σ ( P)

σ σ ij eˆ i ⊗ eˆ j
=
P

 In the matrix form:

t1(1) t1( 2) t1( 3)
t j n=
= i σ ij σ Tji ni

 j ∈ {1, 2,3}

[ t ] = [ σ ] [n ]
T

t (1) t ( 2) t ( 3)
14
 Stress Tensor
REMARK 1
The expression t ( P, n )= n ⋅ σ ( P ) is consistent with Cauchy’s postulates:
t ( P, n )= n ⋅ σ
t ( P, n ) =
−t ( P, −n )
t ( P, −n ) =−n ⋅ σ

REMARK 2
The Cauchy stress tensor is constructed from the traction vectors on three
coordinate planes passing through point P.

σ 11 σ 12 σ 13 
σ ≡ σ 21 σ 22 σ 23 
σ 31 σ 32 σ 33 

Yet, this tensor contains information on the traction vectors acting on any plane
(identified by its normal n) which passes through point P.

15
 4.4.Stress Tensor Components
Ch.4. Stress

16
 Scientific Notation
 Cauchy’s stress tensor in scientific notation

σ 11 σ 12 σ 13 
σ ≡ σ 21 σ 22 σ 23 
σ 31 σ 32 σ 33 

 Each component σ ij is characterized by its sub-indices:

 Index i designates the coordinate plane on which the component acts.
 Index j identifies the coordinate direction in which the component acts.

17
 Engineering Notation
 Cauchy’s stress tensor in engineering notation

σ x τ xy τ xz 
 
σ ≡ τ yx σ y τ yz 
τ zx τ zy σ z 
 

 Where:
 σ a is the normal stress acting on plane a.
 τ ab is the tangential (shear) stress acting on the plane perpendicular to
the a-axis in the direction of the b-axis.

18
 Tension and compression
 The stress vector acting on point P of an
arbitrary plane may be resolved into:
 a vector normal to the plane (σ n = σ n)
 an in-plane (shear) component which acts on the plane.
(τ n ; τ n = τ )
 The sense of σ n with respect to n defines the normal stress character:
σ= σ n ⋅n >0 tensile stress (tension)
<0 compressive stress (compression)
 The sign criterion for the stress components is:
positive (+) tensile stress
σ ij or σ a negative (−) compressive stress
positive (+) positive direction of the b-axis
τ ab negative (−) negative direction of the b-axis
19
 4.5.Properties of the Cauchy Stress
Tensor
Ch.4. Stress

20
 Cauchy’s Equation of Motion
 Consider an arbitrary material volume,
 Cauchy’s equation of motion is:
∇ ⋅ σ + ρ= b ρ a ∀x ∈ V

 ∂σ ij
 ∂x + ρ b=
j ρ a j j ∈ {1, 2,3}
 i
 In engineering notation: b ( x, t ) x ∈ V
∂σ x ∂τ yx ∂τ zx t* ( x, t ) x ∈ ∂V
+ + + ρ bx =ρ ax
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂τ xy ∂σ y ∂τ zy REMARK
+ + + ρ by =ρ ay
∂x ∂y ∂z Cauchy’s equation of motion is derived
∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂σ z from the principle of balance of linear
+ + + ρ bz =ρ az momentum.
∂x ∂y ∂z

21
 Equilibrium Equations
 For a body in equilibrium a = 0 ,
Cauchy’s equation of motion becomes
∇ ⋅ σ + ρ b = 0 ∀x ∈ V
 ∂σ internal equilibrium
 ij + ρ b = 0 j ∈ {1, 2,3}
 ∂xi j equation


 The traction vector is now known at

the boundary
n ( x, t ) ⋅ σ=
( x, t ) t* ( x, t ) ∀x ∈ ∂V equilibrium equation

=
ni σij t *j j ∈ {1, 2,3} at the boundary

 The stress tensor symmetry is derived from the principle of balance of

angular momentum:
σ = σ T
σ i, j ∈ {1, 2,3}
=  ij σ ji

22
 Cauchy’s Equation of Motion
 Taking into account the symmetry of the
Cauchy Stress Tensor,
 Cauchy’s equation of motion
∇ ⋅ σ + ρ b = σ ⋅ ∇ + ρ b = ρ a ∀x ∈ V

 ∂σ ij ∂σ ji
 ∂x + ρ b = + ρbj = ρ a j j ∈ {1, 2,3}
∂
j
 i xi

b ( x, t ) x ∈ V
 Boundary conditions
t* ( x, t ) x ∈ ∂V
n ⋅ σ= σ ⋅ n= t (x, t ) ∀x ∈ ∂V
*


ni σij = σ ji ni = t j ( x, t ) ∀x ∈ ∂V i, j ∈ {1, 2,3}
*

23
 Principal Stresses and Principal
Stress Directions
 Regardless of the state of stress, it is always possible to choose a
special set of axes (principal axes of stress or principal stress
directions) so that the shear stress components vanish when the
stress components are referred to this system.
 The three planes perpendicular to the principal axes are the
principal planes.
 The normal stress components in the principal planes are the
principal stresses. σ 33
x3 σ 31 σ 32 x3
σ 13 x3′
σ 1 0 0 
σ 23
σ 11 σ 12 σ 21 σ x1′ σ3
[σ ] =  0 σ 2 0  22
σ1
 0 0 σ 3 
σ2
x1 x1
x2 x2
x2′
24
 Principal Stresses and Principal
Stress Directions
 The Cauchy stress tensor is a symmetric 2nd order tensor so it will
diagonalize in an orthonormal basis and its eigenvalues are
real numbers.
 For the eigenvalue λ and its corresponding eigenvector v :
σ⋅v =λv [ σ − λ 1] ⋅ v =0 INVARIANTS
not characteristic
det [ σ − λ 1] = σ − λ 1 =0 λ 3 − I 1 ( σ )λ 2 − I 2 ( σ )λ − I 3 ( σ ) =
0 equation
σ 33
λ1 ≡ σ 1 x3 σ 31 σ 32 x3
x3′
λ2 ≡ σ 2 σ 13 σ 23
λ3 ≡ σ 3 σ 11 σ 12 σ 21 σ x1′ σ3
σ1
22

REMARK σ2
x1 x1
The invariants associated with a x2 x2
tensor are values which do not change x2′

25
with the coordinate system being used.
 Mean Stress and Mean Pressure
 Given the Cauchy stress tensor σ and its principal stresses, the
following is defined:
σ 11 σ 12 σ 13 
 Mean stress
σ ≡ σ 21 σ 22 σ 23 
1 1 1
σ m= Tr (σ )= σ ii = (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) σ 31 σ 32 σ 33 
3 3 3
 Mean pressure
REMARK
1 In a hydrostatic state of stress, the
− (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 )
−σ m =
p=
3 stress tensor is isotropic and, thus,
its components are the same in
 A spherical or hydrostatic any Cartesian coordinate system.
state of stress: σ 0 0 As a consequence, any direction
is a principal direction and the
σ= σ= σ3 σ ≡  0 σ 0  =
σ1
1 2
stress state (traction vector) is the
 0 0 σ  same in any plane.

26
 Spherical and Deviatoric Parts of a
Stress Tensor
 The Cauchy stress tensor σ can be split into:
σ = σ sph + σ ′
 The spherical stress tensor:
 Also named mean hydrostatic stress tensor or volumetric stress tensor or
mean normal stress tensor.
 Is an isotropic tensor and defines a hydrostatic state of stress.
 Tends to change the volume of the stressed body
1 1
σ=
sph : σ =
m 1 Tr ( σ=) 1 σ ii 1 REMARK
3 3 The principal directions of a stress tensor
 The stress deviator tensor: and its deviator stress component coincide.
 Is an indicator of how far from a hydrostatic state of stress the state is.
 Tends to distort the volume of the stressed body
σ ′ dev
= = σ σ − σ m1

27
 Stress Invariants
 Principal stresses are invariants of the stress state:
 invariant w.r.t. rotation of the coordinate axes to which the stresses are
referred.
 The principal stresses are combined to form the stress invariants I :
I1 = Tr ( σ ) = σ ii = σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 REMARK
I 2 =( σ : σ − I12 ) =
1 The I invariants are obtained
− (σ 1σ 2 + σ 1σ 3 + σ 2σ 3 )
2 from the characteristic equation
I 3 = det ( σ ) of the eigenvalue problem.
 These invariants are combined, in turn, to obtain the invariants J :
J=
1 I=
1 σ ii REMARK
The J invariants can be
J2 =
2
(
1 2
I1 + 2 I 2 ) = σ ijσ ji = ( σ : σ )
1
2
1
2 expressed in the unified form:
J=
3
3
(
1 3
I1 + 3 I I
1 2 + 3 I =
3 ) 1
3
Tr ( σ ⋅ σ ⋅ σ
= )
1=
3
σ σ σ
ij jk ki
J i
1
i
Tr( )
σ i
i ∈ {1, 2,3}

28
 Stress Invariants of the Stress
Deviator Tensor
 The stress invariants of the stress deviator tensor:
= I1′ Tr
= ( σ′ ) 0
=I 2′
1
2
( )
σ′ : σ′ − I12 = σ 12′ σ 12′ + σ 13′ σ 13′ + σ 23
′ σ 23′

′ = (σ ij′σ ′jkσ ki′ )

1
I 3′ = det ( σ′ ) = σ 11′ σ 22
′ σ 33
′ + 2σ 12′ σ 23
′ σ 13′ − σ 12′2σ 33
′ − σ 23
′2σ 11′ − σ 13′2σ 22
3
 These correspond exactly with the invariants J of the same stress
deviator tensor:
′ I=
J=
1
′ 0
1

J 2′ =
1 2
2
( )
I1′ + 2 I 2′ =
1
I 2′ = ( σ′ : σ′ )
2

J 3′ =
3
( )
I1′ + 3I1′I 2′ + 3I 3′ = I 3′ = Tr ( σ′ ⋅ σ′ ⋅ σ′ ) = (σ ij′σ ′jkσ ki′ )
1 3 1
3
1
3

29
 4.6. Stress Tensor in Different
Coordinate Systems
Ch.4. Stress

30
 Stress Tensor in a Cylindrical
Coordinate System
 The cylindrical coordinate system is defined by:
dV = r dθ dr dz

 x = r cos θ

x( r , θ , z ) ≡  y = r sin θ
z = z

 The components of the stress tensor are then:
 σ x´ τ x´ y ´ τ x´ z ´  σ r τ rθ τ rz 
  τ
=σ =
τ x´ y ′ σ y ´ τ y ´ z ´   rθ σ θ τ θ z 
τ x´ z´ τ y´ z´ σ z´  τ rz τ θ z σ z 
 

31
 Stress Tensor in a Spherical
Coordinate System
dV = r 2 sen θ dr dθ dϕ
 The cylindrical coordinate system is defined by:

 x = r sen θ cos φ

x ( r ,θ , ϕ ) ≡  y = r sen θ sen φ
 The components of the stress tensor are then:  z = r cos θ

 σ x´ τ x´ y´ τ x´ z´  σ r τ rθ τ rφ 
   
σ ≡ τ x´ y′ σ y´ τ y´ z´  = τ
 rθ σ θ τ θφ 
τ x´ z´ τ y´ z´ σ z´  τ rφ τ φθ σ φ 
   

32
 4.7. Mohr´s Circle
Ch.4. Stress

33
 Mohr’s Circle
 Introduced by Otto Mohr in 1882.
 Mohr´s Circle is a two-dimensional graphical representation of
the state of stress at a point that:
 will differ in form for a state of stress in 2D or 3D.
 illustrates principal stresses and maximum shear stresses as well as stress
transformations.
 is a useful tool to rapidly grasp
the relation between stresses for a
given state of stress.

34
 4.8. Mohr´s Circle for a 3D State of
Stress
Ch.4. Stress

35
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 Consider the system of Cartesian axes linked to the principal
directions of the stress tensor at an arbitrary point P of a
continuous medium: x3
ê3
 The components of the stress tensor are ê1 σ3
σ 1 0 0  x1
σ ≡  0 σ 2 0  with σ2
 0 0 σ 3  ê2
x2
 The components of the traction vector are
σ 1 0 0   n1   σ 1 n1 
t = σ ⋅ n =  0 σ 2 0   n2  = σ n 
 2 2
 0 0 σ 3   n3  σ 3 n3 

where n is the unit normal to the base associated to the principal directions

36
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 The normal component of stress σ is
 n1 
σ = t ⋅ n = [σ 1n1 , σ 2 n2 , σ 3n3 ]  n2  = σ 1n12 + σ 2 n22 + σ 3n32

T  n3 
t  
 
n  σ n= σ ⋅n
 
 The squared modulus of the traction vector is

t = t ⋅ t = σ 12n12 + σ 22n22 + σ 32n32 

2

 σ 12n12 + σ 22n22 + σ 32n32 =σ 2 +τ 2

t = σ + τ : τ := τn
2

2 2

Mohr's 3D problem half - space

 The unit vector n must satisfy
n =1 n12 + n22 + n32 =
1

 Locus of all possible (σ ,τ ) points?

37
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 The previous system of equations can be written as a matrix
equation which can be solved for any couple
σ 12 σ 22 σ 32   n12  σ 2 + τ 2 
   2  
σ
 1 σ 2 σ 3 n
 2  = σ 
1 1 1   n3   1 
2
      
A x b
0 ≤ n12 ≤ 1
A feasible solution for x ≡  n12 , n22 , n32  requires that  for the
T

0 ≤ n2 ≤ 1
2

expression n12 + n22 + n32 =

1 to hold true. 0 ≤ n 2 ≤ 1
 3

 Every couple of numbers (σ ,τ ) which leads to a solution x , will be

considered a feasible point of the half-space.
 The feasible point is representative of the traction vector (σ ,τ ) on a
T
plane of normal n ≡  n1 , n2 , n3  which passes through point P.
 The locus of all feasible points is called the feasible region.

38
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 The system σ 12 σ 22 σ 32   n12  σ 2 + τ 2 
   2  
σ
 1 σ 2 σ 3 n
 2  = σ 
1 1 1   n3   1 
2
      
A x b

can be re-written as
( I ) → σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ 1 + σ 3 ) σ + σ 1σ 3 −
A
n12 =
0
(σ 1 − σ 3 )
( II ) → σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ 2 + σ 3 ) σ + σ 2σ 3 −
A
n22 =
0
(σ 2 − σ 3 )
( III ) → σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ 1 + σ 2 ) σ + σ 1σ 2 −
A
n32 =
0
(σ 1 − σ 2 )
with (σ 1 − σ 2 ) (σ 2 − σ 3 ) (σ 1 − σ 3 )
A=

39
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 Consider now equation ( III ) :
σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ 1 + σ 2 ) σ + σ 1σ 2 −
A
0 with
n32 = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) (σ 2 − σ 3 ) (σ 1 − σ 3 )
A=
(σ 1 − σ 2 )
 It can be written as: = a
1
(σ 1 + σ 2 )
2
(σ − a ) + τ 2 =
2
R 2 with 1
(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) (σ 1 − σ 3 ) n32
2
=
R
4
which is the equation of a semicircle of center C3 and radius R3 :
1 
=C3  (σ 1 + σ 2 ) , 0 
2  REMARK
A set of concentric semi-circles is
1
( σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) (σ 1 − σ 3 ) n32
2
R=
3
4 obtained with the different values of
n3 with center C3 and radius R3 ( n3 ) :
n32 = 0 =
R3min
1
2
(σ 1 − σ 2 )
n32 = 1 R3max =
1
2
(σ 1 + σ 2 ) − σ 3

40
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 Following a similar procedure with ( I ) and ( II ) , a total of three
semi-annuli with the following centers and radii are obtained:
1
1
C1 [ (σ 2 + σ 3 ) , 0]
=
=
R1min (σ 2 − σ 3 )
2
2

a1 = σ 1 − a1
R1max

1
1
C2 [ (σ 1 + σ 3 ) , 0]
= =
R2
max
(σ 1 − σ 3 )
2 2

a2 = σ 2 − a2
R2min

1 1
=
C3 [ (σ 1 + σ 2 ) , 0] =
R3min (σ 1 − σ 2 )
2
 2
a3 = σ 3 − a3
R3max

41
 Determination of Mohr’s Circle
 Superposing the three annuli,

 The final feasible region must be the intersection of these semi-annuli

 Every point of the feasible region in the Mohr’s space, corresponds to
the stress (traction vector) state on a certain plane at the considered
point
44
 4.9. Mohr´s Circle for a 2D State of
Stress
Ch.4. Stress

45
 2D State of Stress
3D general state of stress 2D state of stress
σ x τ xy τ xz  σ x τ xy 0 
  σ ≡ τ yx σ y 0 
σ ≡ τ yx σ y τ yz 
τ zx τ zy σ z   0 0 σ z 
 

3D problem

REMARK σ x τ xy 
σ≡ 
In 2D state of stress problems, the τ yx σ y 
principal stress in the disregarded
direction is known (or assumed) a priori. 2D (plane)
problem

46
 Stresses in a oblique plane
 Given a plane whose unit normal n forms an angle θ with the
x axis,
 Traction vector
σ x τ xy  cos θ  σ x cos θ + τ xy sin θ 
t = σ ⋅n =    = τ cos θ + σ sin θ 
τ
  σ θ
  xy 
sin
xy y
 y

σ  n 
   

 Normal stress
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ θ =t ⋅ n = + cos ( 2θ ) + τ xy sin ( 2θ ) cos θ 
=
 sin θ 
2 2 n=   m  − cos θ 
sin θ   
 Shear stress
σ x −σ y
τ θ =t ⋅ m = sin ( 2θ ) − τ xy cos ( 2θ )
2

 Tangential stress τ θ is now endowed with sign (τ θ ≥ 0 or τ θ < 0)

 Pay attention to the “positive” senses given in the figure
47
 Direct and Inverse Problems
 Direct Problem: Find the principal
stresses and principal stress directions
given σ in a certain set of axes.
equivalent stresses
 Inverse Problem: Find the stress state
on any plane, given the principal σ
stresses and principal stress directions.

48
 Direct Problem
 In the x´and y´axes, τ α = 0 then,
σ x −σ y
τα
= sin ( 2α ) − τ xy cos ( 2=
α) 0
2
τ xy
tan ( 2α ) =
σ x −σ y
2
 Using known trigonometric relations,
1 τ xy
sin ( 2α ) =
± =
±
This equation has two solutions:
1  σ x −σ y 
2
1+ 2
tg ( 2α )  + τ xy 1. α1 ( sign "+ ")
2

 2 
π
σ x −σ y 2. α2 =
α1 + ( sign " − ")
2
1 These define the principal stress
cos ( 2α ) =
± =
± 2
1 + tg ( 2α )
2
 σ x −σ y 
2
directions.
 + τ xy
2

 2  (The third direction is perpendicular to
the plane of analysis.)
49
 Direct Problem
 The angles θ = α1 and θ = α 2 are then introduced into the equation
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σθ = + cos ( 2θ ) + τ xy sin ( 2θ )
2 2

to obtain the principal stresses

(orthogonal to the plane of analysis):

 σx +σ y  σ x −σ y 
2
σ 1 = +   + τ xy
2

 2  2 
σα → 
 σx +σ y  σ x −σ y 
2

σ 2 = −  + τ xy
2

 2  2  θ ≡α

50
 Inverse Problem
 Given the directions and principal stresses σ 1 and σ 2, to find the
stresses in a plane characterized by the angle β :
 Take the equations

 Replace , , and θ ≡ β
to obtain:
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
σβ
= + cos ( 2 β )
2 2
σ −σ
τ β = 1 2 sin ( 2β )
2

51
 Mohr’s Circle for a 2D State of Stress

 Considering a reference system x´− y´

and characterizing the inclination of a
plane by ,
 From the inverse problem equations:
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
σ− = cos ( 2 β )
2 2
σ −σ
τ = 1 2 sin ( 2β )
2 σ1 − σ 2
R=
 Squaring both equations and adding them: 2
σ +σ2 
C = 1 , 0
 σ1 + σ 2 
2
 σ1 − σ 2 
2
REMARK  2 
 σ −  + τ 2
=
  This expression
 2   2 
is valid for any
Eq. of a circle with value of .
center C and radius R .
Mohr’s Circle

52
 Mohr’s Circle for a 2D State of Stress

 The locus of the points representative of the

state of stress on any of the planes passing
through a given point P is a circle.
(Mohr’s Circle)
 The inverse is also true:
 Given a point (σ ,τ ) in Mohr’s Circle, there is a plane passing through
P whose normal and tangential stresses are and τ , respectively.
 σ1 + σ 2  σ1 − σ 2
 σ −  Mohr's 2D problem space R=
 2  σ −a 2
cos ( 2 β ) =
=
 σ1 − σ 2  R
 
 2 
τ τ
sin ( 2 β )
= =
 σ1 − σ 2  R σ +σ2 
  C = 1 , 0
 2   2 

53
 Construction of Mohr’s Circle
 Interactive applets and animations:
 by M. Bergdorf:
http://www.zfm.ethz.ch/meca/applets/mohr/Mohrcircle.htm

 from MIT OpenCourseware:

http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/3/3.11/tools/mohrscircleapplet.html

 from Virginia Tech:

http://web.njit.edu/~ala/keith/JAVA/Mohr.html

 From Pennsilvania State University:

http://www.esm.psu.edu/courses/emch13d/design/animation/animation.htm

54
 Mohr’s Circle’s Properties
A. To obtain the point in Mohr’s Circle representative of the state of
stress on a plane which forms an angle β with the principal stress
direction σ 1:
1. Begin at the point on the circle (representative of the plane where σ 1
acts).
2. Rotate twice the angle in the sense σ 1 → σ β .
3. This point represents the shear and normal stresses at the desired plane
(representative of the stress state at the plane where acts).

3.

2. 1.

55
 Mohr’s Circle’s Properties
B. The representative points of the state of stress on two
orthogonal planes are aligned with the centre of Mohr’s Circle:
π
 This is a consequence of property A as β=
2 β1 + .
2

56
 Mohr’s Circle’s Properties
C. If the state of stress on two orthogonal planes is known, Mohr’s
Circle can be easily drawn:
1. Following property B, the two points representative of these planes will
be aligned with the centre of Mohr’s Circle.
2. Joining the points, the intersection with the σ axis will give the centre of
Mohr’s Circle.
3. Mohr’s Circle can be drawn.
3.
1.
2.

57
 Mohr’s Circle’s Properties
D. Given the components of the stress tensor in a particular
orthonormal base, Mohr’s Circle can be easily drawn:
 This is a particular case of property C in which the points
representative of the state of stress on the Cartesian planes is known.
1. Following property B, the two points representative of these planes will
be aligned with the centre of Mohr’s Circle.
2. Joining the points, the intersection with the σ axis will give the centre of
Mohr’s Circle.
3. Mohr’s Circle can be drawn. 3.
1.
2.

σ x τ xy 
σ= 
τ xy σ y 
58
 Mohr’s Circle’s Properties
 The radius and the diametric points of the circle can be obtained:

σ x τ xy 
σ= 
τ
 xy σ y

 σx −σ y 
2

=  + τ xy
2
R 
 2 

59
 Mohr’s Circle’s Properties
 Note that the application of property A for the point
representative of the vertical plane implies rotating in
the sense contrary to angle.

σ x τ xy 
σ= 
τ xy σ y 

60
 The Pole or the Origin of Planes
 The point called pole or origin of planes in Mohr’s circle has the
following characteristics:
 Any straight line drawn from the pole will intersect the Mohr circle at a
point that represents the state of stress on a plane parallel in space to
that line.
2.

1.

61
 The Pole or the Origin of Planes
 The point called pole or origin of planes in Mohr’s circle has the
following characteristics:
 If a straight line, parallel to a given plane, is drawn from the pole, the
intersection point represents the state of stress on this particular plane.

1.

2.

62
 Sign Convention in Soil Mechanics
 The sign criterion used in soil mechanics, is the inverse of the one
used in continuum mechanics:
 In soil mechanics,
negative (−) tensile stress
σβ
positive (+) compressive stress

positive (+) counterclockwise rotation continuum mechanics

τβ
negative (-) clockwise rotation

 But the sign criterion for angles is the same:

positive angles are measured counterclockwise
τ β* = −τ β
σ β* = −σ β
soil mechanics

63
 Sign Convention in Soil Mechanics
 For the same stress state, the principal stresses will be inverted.

σ 1* = −σ 2
τ β* = −τ β σ 2* = −σ 1
σ β* = −σ β β *= β +
π
continuum mechanics 2
soil mechanics

 The expressions for the normal and shear stresses are

 * −σ 2* − σ 1* −σ 2* + σ 1* 
=−
 βσ + cos

(

2 β

*
+ π

) 
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2   2 2  * σ 1* + σ 2* σ 1* − σ 2*
σβ = + cos ( 2 β )  −  2β * 

σβ = + cos ( 2β * )
2 2   cos 


   2 2
→ →
σ −σ  −τ * −σ 2 + σ 1 sin 2β * + π
* *
 τ * σ 1 − σ 2 sin 2β *
* *
τ β = 1 2 sin ( 2β )
2
=
  β
2 
(
 
) =
  β 2 
( )
  
− sin  2 β *  like in
   
continuum mechanics
 The Mohr’s circle construction and properties are the same in both
cases
64
 4.10. Particular Cases of Mohr’s Circle
Ch.4. Stress

65
 Particular Cases of Mohr’s Circles
 Hydrostatic state of stress

 Mohr’s circles of a stress tensor and its deviator

(σ sph = σ m 1) σ=
1 σ m + σ 1′
σ σ sph + σ′
= σ=2 σ m + σ 2′
σ=
3 σ m + σ 3′

 Pure shear state of stress

66
Chapter 4
Stress

rs
ee
s gin
4.1 Forces Acting on a Continuum Body

t d le En

r
Two types of forces that can act on a continuous medium will be considered:

ba
ge ro or
eS m
body forces and surface forces.

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
4.1.1 Body Forces
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

Definition 4.1. The body forces are the forces that act at a distance
le
liv or ec

on the internal particles of a continuous medium. Examples of this

M

.A

kind of forces are the gravitational, inertial or magnetic attraction

forces.
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.1: Body forces on a continuous medium.

127
128 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Consider b (x,t) is the spatial description of the vector field of body forces
per unit of mass. Multiplying the vector of body forces b (x,t) by the density ρ,
the vector of body forces per unit of volume ρb (x,t) (density of body forces) is
obtained. The total resultant, fV , of the body forces on the material volume V in
Figure 4.1 is 
fV = ρb (x,t) dV . (4.1)
V

Remark 4.1. In the definition of body forces given in (4.1), the exis-

rs
tence of the vector density of body forces ρb (x,t) is implicitly ac-

ee
cepted. This means that, given an arbitrary sequence of volumes ΔVi

s gin
that contain the particle P, and the corresponding sequence of body
forces fΔVi , there exists the limit

t d le En
fΔVi
ρb (x,t) = lim
ΔVi →0 ΔVi

r
ba
ge ro or
and, in addition, it is independent of the sequence of volumes con-

eS m
ci
sidered.
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

Example 4.1 – Given a continuous medium with volume V placed on the

le
liv or ec

Earth’s surface, obtain the value of the total resultant of the body forces in
terms of the gravitational constant g.
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Solution
Assuming a system of Cartesian axes (see figure above) such that the x3 -
axis is in the direction of the vertical from the center of the Earth, the vector
field b (x,t) of gravitational force per unit of mass is
b (x,t) ≡ [ 0 , 0 , −g ]T
not

and, finally, the vector of body forces is 

  T
not
fV = ρb (x,t) dV ≡ 0 , 0 , − ρg dV .
V
V

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Forces Acting on a Continuum Body 129

4.1.2 Surface Forces

Definition 4.2. The surface forces are the forces that act on the
boundary of the material volume considered. They can be regarded
as produced by the contact actions of the particles located in the
boundary of the medium with the exterior of this medium.

Consider the spatial description of the vector field of surface forces per unit of

rs
surface t (x,t) on the continuous medium shown in Figure 4.2. The resultant

ee
force on a differential surface element dS is t dS and the total resultant of the

s gin
surface forces acting on the boundary ∂V of volume V can be written as

fS = t (x,t) dS .

t d le En
(4.2)
∂V

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
Remark 4.2. In the definition of surface forces given in (4.2), the ex-
b
a
istence of the vector of surface forces per unit of surface t (x,t) (trac-
i
an an n

tion vector1 ) is implicitly accepted. In other words, if a sequence of

y ha

surfaces Δ Si , each containing point P, and the corresponding surface

le
liv or ec

forces fΔ Si are considered (see Figure 4.3), there exists the limit
M

.A

fΔ S i
t (x,t) = lim
Δ Si →0 Δ Si
m

and it is independent of the chosen sequence of surfaces.

uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.2: Surface forces on a continuous medium.

1 In literature, the vector of surface forces per unit of surface t (x,t) is often termed traction
vector, although this concept can be extended to points in the interior of the continuous
medium.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
130 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Figure 4.3: Traction vector.

rs
ee
4.2 Cauchy’s Postulates

s gin
Consider a continuous medium on which body and surface forces are acting (see

t d le En
Figure 4.4). Consider also a particle P in the interior of the continuous medium

r
and an arbitrary surface containing point P and with a unit normal vector n at

ba
ge ro or
eS m
this point, which divides the continuous medium into two parts (material vol-

ci
f
umes). The surface forces due to the contact between volumes will act on the

ra
C d P cs
imaginary separating surface, considered now a part of the boundary of each of
b
a
i
these material volumes.
an an n

Consider the traction vector t that acts at the chosen point P as part of the
y ha

boundary of the first material volume. In principle, this traction vector (de-
le
liv or ec

fined now at a material point belonging to the interior of the original continuous
M

.A

medium) will depend on

1) the particle being considered,
m

2) the orientation of the surface (defined by means of the normal n) and

d
uu

3) the separating surface itself.

e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.4: Cauchy’s postulates.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Cauchy’s Postulates 131

The following postulate2 makes it independent of this last condition.

Definition 4.3. Cauchy’s 1st postulate establishes that the traction

vector that acts at a material point P of a continuous medium ac-
cording to a plane with unit normal vector n depends only on the
point P and the normal n.

t = t (P, n)

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
Remark 4.3. Consider a particle P of a continuous medium and dif-

eS m
ci
ferent surfaces that contain this point P such that they all have the
f

ra
same unit normal vector n at said point. In accordance with Cauchy’s
C d P cs
b
a
postulate, the traction vectors at point P, according to each of these
i
an an n

surfaces, coincide. On the contrary, if the normal to the surfaces at P

y ha

is different, the corresponding traction vectors will not coincide (see

le
Figure 4.5).
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.5: Traction vector at a point according to different surfaces.

2 A postulate is a fundamental ingredient of a theory that is formulated as a principle of this

theory and, as such, does not need proof.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
132 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Definition 4.4. Cauchy’s 2nd postulate - action and reaction law es-
tablishes the traction vector at point P of a continuous medium, ac-
cording to a plane with unit normal vector n, has the same magnitude
and opposite direction to the traction vector at the same point P ac-
cording to a plane with unit normal vector −n at the same point (see
Figure 4.4).
t (P, n) = −t (P, −n)

rs
ee
s gin
4.3 Stress Tensor

t d le En
4.3.1 Application of Newton’s 2nd Law to a Continuous Medium

r
ba
ge ro or
Consider a discrete system of particles in motion such that a generic particle i

eS m
of this system has mass mi , velocity vi and acceleration ai = dvi /dt. In addition,

ci
f

ra
a force fi acts on each particle i, which is related to the particle’s acceleration
C d P cs
b
a
through Newton’s second law3 ,
i
an an n
y ha

fi = mi ai . (4.3)
le
liv or ec

Then, the resultant R of the forces that act on all the particles of the system is
M

.A

R = ∑ fi = ∑ mi ai . (4.4)
m

i i
d
uu
e

The previous concepts can be generalized for the case of continuous mediums
X Th

er
tin

when these are understood as discrete systems constituted by an infinite number

of particles. In this case, the application of Newton’s second law to a continu-
on

.O

ous medium with total mass M, on which external forces characterized by the
vector density of body forces ρb (x,t) and the traction vector t (x,t) are acting,
C

whose particles have an acceleration a (x,t), and that occupies at time t the space
©

volume Vt results in
   
R= ρb dV + t dS = a dm = ρa dV . (4.5)
 V
Vt ∂Vt M
    ρdV t

Resultant of Resultant of
the body the surface
forces forces

3 The Einstein notation introduced in (1.1) is not used here.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Stress Tensor 133

4.3.2 Stress Tensor

Consider now the particular case of a material volume constituted by an ele-
mental tetrahedron placed in the neighborhood of an arbitrary particle P of the
interior of the continuous medium and oriented according to the scheme in Fig-
ure 4.6. Without loss of generality, the origin of coordinates can be placed at P.
The tetrahedron has a vertex at P and its faces are completely defined by
means of a plane with normal n = [n1 , n2 , n3 ]T that intersects with the coordi-
nate planes, defining a generic surface with area S (the base of the tetrahedron)
at a distance h (the height of the tetrahedron) of point P. In turn, the coordinate
planes define the other faces of the tetrahedron with areas S1 , S2 and S3 , and

rs
(outward) normals −ê1 , −ê2 and −ê3 , respectively. Through geometric consid-

ee
erations, the relations

s gin
S1 = n1 S S2 = n2 S S3 = n3 S (4.6)

t d le En
can be established. The notation for the traction vectors on each of the faces of

r
the tetrahedron is introduced in Figure 4.7 as well as the corresponding normals

ba
ge ro or
eS m
with which they are associated.

ci
f

ra
According to Cauchy’s second postulate (see Definition 4.4), the traction vec-
C d P cs
b
a
tor on a generic point x belonging to one of the surfaces Si (with outward nor-
i
mal −êi ) can be written as
an an n
y ha

t (x, −êi ) = −t (x, êi ) = −t(i) (x)

not
i ∈ {1, 2, 3} .
le
(4.7)
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.6: Elemental tetrahedron in the neighborhood of a material point P.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
134 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
s gin
Figure 4.7: Traction vectors on an elemental tetrahedron.

t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
Remark 4.4. The mean value theorem establishes that, given a

ra
C d P cs
(scalar, vectorial o tensorial) function that is continuous in the in-
b
a
i
terior of a (compact) domain, the function reaches its mean value
an an n

in the interior of said domain. In mathematical terms, given f (x)

y ha

continuous in Ω ,
le
liv or ec


∃ x∗ ∈ Ω | f (x) dΩ = Ω · f (x∗ )
M

.A

Ω
m

where f (x∗ ) is the mean value of f in Ω . Figure 4.8 shows the

uu
e
X Th

graphical interpretation of the mean value theorem in one dimen-

er
tin

sion.
on

.O
C

Figure 4.8: Mean value theorem.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Stress Tensor 135

In virtue of the mean value theorem, the vector field t(i) (x), assumed to be
continuous in the domain Si , attains its mean value in the interior of this domain.


∗
Let x∗sI ∈ Si be the point where the mean value is reached and t(i) = t(i) x∗sI


this mean value. Analogously, the vectors t∗ = t x∗S , ρ ∗ b∗ = ρ (xV∗ ) b (xV∗ )
and ρ ∗ a∗ = ρ (xV∗ ) a (xV∗ ) are the mean values corresponding to the vector fields:
traction vector t (x) in S, density of body forces ρb (x) and inertial forces ρa (x),
respectively. These mean values are attained, again according to the mean value
theorem, at points x∗s ∈ S and xV∗ ∈ V of the interior of the corresponding do-
mains. Therefore, one can write

rs
 
∗
t(i) (x) dS = t(i) Si i ∈ {1, 2, 3} , t (x) dS = t∗ S ,

ee
s gin
Si S
(4.8)
 
ρ (x) b (x) dV = ρ ∗ b∗V ρ (x) a (x) dV = ρ ∗ a∗V .

t d le En
and

r
V V

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
Applying now (4.5) on the tetrahedron considered, results in
f

ra
    
C d P cs
b
a
ρb dV + t dS + t dS + t dS + t dS =
i
an an n
y ha

V S S1 S2 S3
      (4.9)
le
= ρb dV + t dS + −t(1) dS + −t(2) dS + −t(3) dS = ρa dV,
liv or ec
M

.A

V S S1 S2 S3 V
m

where (4.7) has been taken into account. Replacing (4.8) in (4.9), the latter can
d

be written in terms of the mean values as

uu
e
X Th

∗ ∗ ∗
ρ ∗ b∗ V + t∗ S − t(1) S1 − t(2) S2 − t(3) S3 = ρ ∗ a∗ V .
er
tin

(4.10)
on

.O

Introducing now (4.6) and expressing the total volume of the tetrahedron as
V = Sh/3, the equation above becomes
C

1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 1
ρ b h S + t∗ S − t(1) n1 S − t(2) n2 S − t(3) n3 S = ρ ∗ a∗ h S =⇒
3 3 (4.11)
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ (1)∗
(2) ∗
(3) ∗ 1 ∗ ∗
ρ b h + t − t n1 − t n2 − t n3 = ρ a h .
3 3
Expression (4.11) is valid for any tetrahedron defined by a plane with unit
normal vector n placed at a distance h of point P. Consider now an infinites-
imal
 tetrahedron,
 also in the neighborhood of point P, by making the value
of PP  = h tend to zero but maintaining the orientation of the plane constant
(n=constant). Then, the domains Si , S and V in (4.11) collapse into point P (see
Figure 4.7). Therefore, the points of the corresponding domains in which the

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
136 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

mean values are obtained also tend to point P,

∗

x∗Si → xP =⇒ lim t(i) x∗Si = t(i) (P) i ∈ {1, 2, 3} ,
h→0
(4.12)
x∗S → xP =⇒ lim t∗ (x∗S , n) = t (P, n) ,
h→0

and, in addition,
 
1 ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗
lim ρ b h = lim ρ a h =0. (4.13)
h→0 3 h→0 3

rs
ee
Taking the limit of (4.11) and replacing expressions (4.12) and (4.13) in it
leads to

s gin
t (P, n) − t(1) n1 − t(2) n2 − t(3) n3 = 0 =⇒ t (P, n) − t(i) ni = 0 . (4.14)

t d le En
The traction vector t(1) can be written in terms of its corresponding Cartesian

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
components (see Figure 4.9) as

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
t(1) = σ11 ê1 + σ12 ê2 + σ13 ê3 = σ1i êi . (4.15)
b
a
i
an an n

Operating in an analogous manner on traction vectors t(2) and t(3) (see Fig-
y ha

ure 4.10) results in

le
liv or ec

t(2) = σ21 ê1 + σ22 ê2 + σ23 ê3 = σ2i êi (4.16)
M

.A

t(3) = σ31 ê1 + σ32 ê2 + σ33 ê3 = σ3i êi

m

(4.17)
d
uu
e

and, for the general case,

X Th

er
tin

t(i) (P) = σi j ê j i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3} . (4.18)

on

.O

(i)
σi j (P) = t j (P) i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3}
C

(4.19)
©

Remark 4.5. Note that in expression (4.19) the functions σi j are

(i)
functions of (the components of) the traction vectors t j (P) on the
surfaces specifically oriented at point P. Thus, it is emphasized that
these functions depend on point P but not on the unit normal vec-
tor n.
σi j = σi j (P)

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Stress Tensor 137

Figure 4.9: Decomposition of the traction vector t(1) into its components.

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n

Figure 4.10: Traction vectors t(2) and t(3) .

y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A

Replacing (4.19) in (4.14) yields

(i)
m

t (P, n) = ni t(i) =⇒ t j (P, n) = ni t j (P) = ni σi j (P) i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3} =⇒

d
uu
e
X Th

t (P, n) = n · σ (P)
er

(4.20)
tin
on

where the Cauchy stress tensor σ is defined as

.O
C

σ = σi j êi ⊗ ê j . (4.21)
©

Remark 4.6. Note that expression (4.20) is consistent with Cauchy’s

first postulate (see Definition 4.3) and that the second postulate (see
Definition 4.4) is satisfied from
⎫
t (P, n) = n · σ ⎬
=⇒ t (P, n) = −t (P, −n) .
t (P, −n) = −n · σ ⎭

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
138 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Figure 4.11: Traction vectors for the construction of the Cauchy stress tensor.

rs
ee
s gin
Remark 4.7. In accordance with (4.18) and (4.21), the Cauchy stress

t d le En
tensor is constructed from the traction vectors according to three co-
ordinate planes that include point P (see Figure 4.11). However, by

r
ba
means of (4.20), the stress tensor σ (P) is seen to contain informa-

ge ro or
eS m
ci
tion on the traction vectors corresponding to any plane (identified by
f

ra
its normal n) that contains this point.
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec

4.3.3 Graphical Representation of the Stress State in a Point

M

.A

It is common to resort to graphical representations of the stress tensor based on

m

elemental parallelepipeds in the neighborhood of the particle considered, with

d

faces oriented in accordance to the Cartesian planes and in which the corre-
uu
e

sponding traction vectors are decomposed into their normal and tangent compo-
X Th

er
tin

nents following expressions (4.15) through (4.20) (see Figure 4.12).

on

.O

4.3.3.1 Scientific Notation

C

The representation in Figure 4.12 corresponds to what is known as scientific

©

notation. In this notation, the matrix of components of the stress tensor is written
as ⎡ ⎤
σ11 σ12 σ13
not ⎢ ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ σ21 σ22 σ23 ⎦ (4.22)
σ31 σ32 σ33
and each component σi j can be characterized in terms of its indices:
− Index i indicates the plane on which the stress acts (plane perpendicular to
the xi -axis).
− Index j indicates the direction of the stress (direction of the x j -axis).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Stress Tensor 139

rs
ee
Figure 4.12: Graphical representation of the stress tensor (scientific notation).

s gin
t d le En
4.3.3.2 Engineering Notation
In engineering notation, the components of the Cauchy stress tensor (see Fig-

r
ba
ge ro or
ure 4.13) are written as

eS m
⎡ ⎤

ci
σx τxy τxz
f

ra
not ⎢ ⎥
C d P cs
σ ≡ ⎣ τyx σy τyz ⎦
b
a
(4.23)
i
an an n

τzx τyz σz
y ha

le
and each component can be characterized as follows:
liv or ec

− The component σa is the normal stress acting on the plane perpendicular to

M

.A

the a-axis.
− The component τab is the tangential (shear) stress acting on the plane per-
m

pendicular to the a-axis in the direction of the b-axis.

uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.13: Graphical representation of the stress tensor (engineering notation).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
140 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

4.3.3.3 Sign Criterion

Consider a particle P of the continuous medium and a plane with unit normal
vector n that contains this particle (see Figure 4.14). The corresponding traction
vector t can be decomposed into its normal component σ n and its tangential
component τ n . The sign of the projection of t on n (σ = t · n) defines the tensile
σ n tends to pull on the plane ) or compressive (σ
(σ σ n tends to compress the plane)
character of the normal component.
This concept can be used to define the sign of the components of the stress
tensor. For this purpose, in the elemental parallelepiped of Figure 4.12, the dis-
tinction is made between the positive or visible faces (its outward normal has

rs
the same direction as the positive base vector and the faces can be seen in the

ee
figure) and the negative or hidden faces.
The sign criterion for the visible faces is

s gin

positive (+) ⇒ tension

t d le En
Normal stresses σi j or σa and
negative (−) ⇒ compression

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m


ci
positive (+) ⇒ direction of b-axis
Tangential stresses τab f

ra
C d P cs
negative (−) ⇒ opposite direction to b-axis
b
a
i
an an n

In accordance with this criterion, the directions of the stresses represented in

y ha

Figure 4.13 (on the visible faces of the parallelepiped) correspond to positive
le
liv or ec

values of the respective components of the stress tensor4 .

In virtue of the action and reaction law (see Definition 4.4) and for the hidden
M

.A

faces of the parallelepiped, the aforementioned positive values of the compo-

m

nents of the stress tensor correspond to opposite directions in their graphical

d

representation (see Figure 4.15).

uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

σ n = σn

> 0 tension
σ = t·n
< 0 compression

Figure 4.14: Decomposition of the traction vector.

4 It is obvious that the negative values of the components of the stress tensor will result in
graphical representations of opposite direction to the positive values indicated in the figures.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Properties of the Stress Tensor 141

Figure 4.15: Positive stresses in the hidden faces.

rs
ee
4.4 Properties of the Stress Tensor

s gin
Consider an arbitrary material volume V in a continuous medium and its bound-

t d le En
ary ∂V . The body forces b (x,t) act on V and the prescribed traction vector
t∗ (x,t) acts on ∂V . The acceleration vector field of the particles is a (x,t) and

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
the Cauchy stress tensor field is σ (x,t) (see Figure 4.16).

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O

Figure 4.16: Forces acting on a continuous medium.

C

4.4.1 Cauchy Equation. Internal Equilibrium Equation

The stress tensor, the body forces and the accelerations are related through
Cauchy’s equation,
⎧
⎪
⎨ ∇ · σ + ρb = ρa ∀x ∈ V
Cauchy’s
equation ⎪ ∂ σi j (4.24)
⎩ + ρb j = ρa j j ∈ {1, 2, 3}
∂ xi

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
142 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

whose explicit expression in engineering notation is

⎧
⎪
⎪ ∂ σx ∂ τyx ∂ τzx
⎪
⎪ + + + ρbx = ρax ,
⎪
⎪ ∂x ∂y ∂z
⎪
⎨
∂ τxy ∂ σy ∂ τzy
⎪ + + + ρby = ρay , (4.25)
⎪
⎪ ∂x ∂y ∂z
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ∂ τxz + ∂ τyz + ∂ σz + ρbz = ρaz .
⎪
∂x ∂y ∂z

rs
If the system is in equilibrium, the acceleration is null (a = 0), and (4.24) is

ee
reduced to
⎧

s gin
Internal ⎨ ∇ · σ + ρb = 0 ∀x ∈ V
∂ σi j

t d le En
equilibrium (4.26)
equation ⎩ ∂ x + ρb j = 0 j ∈ {1, 2, 3}

r
i

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
which is known as the internal equilibrium equation of the continuous medium.

ra
C d P cs
Cauchy’s equation of motion is derived from the principle of balance of linear
b
a
i
momentum, which will be studied in Chapter 5.
an an n
y ha

le
4.4.2 Equilibrium Equation at the Boundary
liv or ec

Equation (4.20) is applied on the boundary points taking into account that the
M

.A

traction vector is now known in said points (t = t∗ ). The result is denoted as

m

equilibrium equation at the boundary.

d
uu


e

Equilibrium n (x,t) · σ (x,t) = t∗ (x,t)

X Th

∀x ∈ ∂V
er
tin

equation at (4.27)
the boundary ni σi j = t ∗j j ∈ {1, 2, 3}
on

.O
C

4.4.3 Symmetry of the Cauchy Stress Tensor

The Cauchy stress tensor is proven to be symmetric by applying the principle of
balance of angular momentum (see Chapter 5).

σ = σT
(4.28)
σi j = σ ji i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3}

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Properties of the Stress Tensor 143

Remark 4.8. The symmetry of the stress tensor allows the Cauchy’s
equation (4.24) and the equilibrium equation at the boundary (4.27)
to be written, respectively, as
⎧
⎨ ∇ · σ + ρb = σ · ∇ + ρb = ρa ∀x ∈ V
∂σ ∂ σ ji
⎩ i j + ρb j = + ρb j = ρa j j ∈ {1, 2, 3}
∂ xi ∂ xi

n · σ = σ · n = t∗ (x,t) ∀x ∈ ∂V

rs
ni σi j = σ ji ni = t j∗ j ∈ {1, 2, 3}

ee
s gin
t d le En

r
Example 4.2 – A continuous medium moves with a velocity field whose spa-

ba
ge ro or
eS m
tial description is v (x,t) ≡ [z, x, y]T . The Cauchy stress tensor is
not

ci
f

ra
⎡ ⎤
C d P cs
y g (x, z,t) 0
b
a
not ⎢ ⎥
i
an an n

σ ≡ ⎣ h (y) z (1 + t) 0 ⎦ .
y ha

0 0 0
le
liv or ec

Determine the functions g, h and the spatial form of the body forces b (x,t)
M

.A

that generate the motion.

m

d
uu

Solution
e
X Th

er
tin

The stress tensor is symmetric, therefore


on

.O

h (y) = C ,
σ =σ T
=⇒ h (y) = g (x, z,t) =⇒
g (x, z,t) = C ,
C

where C is a constant. In addition, the divergence of the tensor is null,

⎡ ⎤
  y C 0
not ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎢ ⎥
∇·σ ≡ , , ⎣ C z (1 + t) 0 ⎦ = [0, 0, 0] .
∂x ∂y ∂z
0 0 0

Thus, Cauchy’s equation is reduced to

∇ · σ + ρb = ρa
=⇒ b=a.
∇·σ = 0

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
144 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Applying the expression for the material derivative of velocity,

dv ∂ v
a= = + v · ∇v with
dt ∂t
⎡ ⎤
∂
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ∂x ⎥
∂v ⎢ ⎥ 0 1 0
not ⎢ ⎥
=0 and ∇v = ∇ ⊗ v ≡ ⎢ ∂ ⎥ [z, x, y] = ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ .
∂t ⎢ ∂y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 1 0 0
⎣ ∂ ⎦

rs
∂z

ee
s gin
the acceleration
⎡ ⎤
0 1 0

t d le En
a = v · ∇v ≡ [z, x, y] ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ = [y, z, x]
not

r
ba
ge ro or
1 0 0

eS m
ci
f

ra
is obtained. Finally, the body forces are
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n

b (x,t) = a (x,t) ≡ [y, z, x]T .

not
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A

4.4.4 Diagonalization. Principal Stresses and Directions

m

Consider the stress tensor σ . Since it is a symmetric second-order tensor, it

uu
e

diagonalizes5 in an orthonormal basis and its eigenvalues are real. Consider,

X Th

er
tin

then, its matrix of components in the Cartesian basis {x, y, z} (see Figure 4.17),
⎡ ⎤
on

.O

σx τxy τxz
not ⎢ ⎥
C

σ ≡ ⎣ τyx σy τyz ⎦ . (4.29)

©

τzx τyz σz {x, y, z}

In the Cartesian system {x , y , z } in which σ diagonalizes, its matrix of com-

ponents will be
⎡ ⎤
σ1 0 0
not ⎢ ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ 0 σ2 0 ⎦ . (4.30)
0 0 σ3 {x , y , z }
5 A theorem of tensor algebra guarantees that all symmetric second-order tensor diagonalizes
in an orthonormal basis and its eigenvalues are real.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Properties of the Stress Tensor 145

rs
ee
Figure 4.17: Diagonalization of the stress tensor.

s gin
t d le En

r
Definition 4.5. The principal stress directions are the directions, as-

ba
ge ro or
sociated with the axes {x , y , z }, in which the stress tensor diago-

eS m
ci
nalizes.
f

ra
C d P cs
The principal stresses are the eigenvalues of the stress tensor
b
a
(σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ). In general, they will be assumed to be arranged in the
i
an an n

form σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 .
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A

To obtain the principal stress directions and the principal stresses, the eigen-
value problem associated with tensor σ must be posed. That is, if λ and v are an
m

eigenvalue and its corresponding eigenvector, respectively, then

uu
e
X Th

σ ·v = λv =⇒ σ − λ 1) · v = 0 .
(σ
er

(4.31)
tin

The solution to this system will not be trivial (will be different to v = 0) when
on

.O

the determinant of (4.31) is equal to zero, that is

C

not
det (σ σ − λ 1| = 0 .
σ − λ 1) = |σ (4.32)
Equation (4.32) is a third-grade polynomial equation in λ . Since tensor σ
is symmetric, its three solutions (λ1 ≡ σ1 , λ2 ≡ σ2 , λ3 ≡ σ3 ) are real. Once the
eigenvalues have been found and ordered according to the criterion σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 ,
the eigenvector v(i) can be obtained for each stress σi by resolving the system in
(4.31),
σ − σi 1) · v(i) = 0
(σ i ∈ {1, 2, 3} . (4.33)
This equation provides a non-trivial solution of the eigenvectors v(i) , orthogo-
nal between themselves, which, once it has been normalized, defines the three
elements of the base corresponding to the three principal directions.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
146 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Remark 4.9. In accordance with the graphical interpretation of the

components of the stress tensor in Section 4.3.3, only normal stresses
act on the faces of the elemental parallelepiped associated with the
principal stress directions, which are, precisely, the principal stresses
(see Figure 4.17).

rs
4.4.5 Mean Stress and Mean Pressure

ee
s gin
Definition 4.6. The mean stress is the mean value of the principal

t d le En
stresses.

r
1

ba
σm = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )

ge ro or
eS m
3

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n

Considering the matrix of components of the stress tensor in the principal stress
y ha

directions (4.30), results in

le
liv or ec

1 1
σm = σ) .
(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = Tr (σ (4.34)
M

.A

3 3
m

d
uu
e

Definition 4.7. The mean pressure is the mean stress with its sign
X Th

er
tin

changed.
not 1
mean pressure = p̄ = −σm = − (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )
on

3
.O
C

Definition 4.8. A spherical or hydrostatic stress state is a state in

which all three principal stress directions have the same value.
⎡ ⎤
σ 0 0
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 =⇒ σ ≡ ⎣ 0 σ 0 ⎦ ≡ σ 1
not not

0 0 σ

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Properties of the Stress Tensor 147

Remark 4.10. In a hydrostatic stress state, the stress tensor is

isotropic6 and, thus, its components are the same in every Cartesian
coordinate system.
As a consequence, any direction is a principal stress direction and
the stress state (traction vector) is the same in any plane.

rs
4.4.6 Decomposition of the Stress Tensor into its Spherical and

ee
Deviatoric Parts

s gin
The stress tensor σ can be split7 into a spherical part (or component) σ sph and
a deviatoric part σ  ,

t d le En
σ = σ sph + σ  . (4.35)
 

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
spherical deviatoric

ci
part part
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
The spherical part is defined as
i
an an n

⎡ ⎤
σm 0
y ha

0
de f 1 not ⎢ ⎥
le
σ sph : = σ ) 1 = σ m 1 ≡ ⎣ 0 σm 0 ⎦ ,
Tr (σ (4.36)
liv or ec

3
0 0 σm
M

.A
m

where σm is the mean stress defined in (4.34). According to definition (4.35), the
d
uu

deviatoric part of the stress tensor is

e
X Th

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
er
tin

σx τxy τxz σm 0 0
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ  = σ − σ sph ≡ ⎣ τxy σy τyz ⎦ − ⎣ 0 σm 0 ⎦
on

.O

(4.37)
τxz τyz σz 0 σm
C

0
©

resulting in
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
σx − σm τxy τxz σx  τxy  τxz 
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢  ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ τxy σy − σm τyz ⎦ = ⎣ τxy σy  τyz  ⎦ . (4.38)
τxz τyz σz − σm τxz  τyz  σz 

6 A tensor is defined as isotropic when it remains invariant under any change of orthogonal
basis. The general expression of an isotropic second-order tensor is T = α1 where α can be
any scalar.
7 This type of decomposition can be applied to any second-order tensor.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
148 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Remark 4.11. The spherical part of the stress tensor σ sph is an

isotropic tensor (and defines a hydrostatic stress state), therefore, it
remains invariant under any change of orthogonal basis.

Remark 4.12. The deviatoric component of the tensor is an indica-

tor of how far from a hydrostatic stress state the present state is

rs
(see (4.37) and Remark 4.11).

ee
s gin
t d le En

r
Remark 4.13. The principal directions of the stress tensor and of its

ba
ge ro or
eS m
deviatoric tensor coincide. Proof is trivial considering that, from Re-

ci
mark 4.11, the spherical part σ sph is diagonal in any coordinate sys-
f

ra
C d P cs
tem. Consequently, if σ diagonalizes for a certain basis in (4.37), σ 
b
a
i
will also diagonalize for that basis.
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A

Remark 4.14. The trace of the deviatoric (component) tensor is null.

m

Taking into account (4.34) and (4.37),

d
uu

Tr σ  = Tr σ − σ sph = Tr (σ σ ) − Tr σ sph = 3σm − 3σm = 0 .

X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

4.4.7 Tensor Invariants

The three fundamental invariants of the stress tensor8 (or I invariants) are
σ ) = σii = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ,
I1 = Tr (σ (4.39)
1

I2 = σ : σ − I12 = − (σ1 σ2 + σ1 σ3 + σ2 σ3 ) , (4.40)
2
σ) .
I3 = det (σ (4.41)

8 The tensor invariants are scalar algebraic combinations of the components of a tensor that
do not vary when the basis changes.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Stress Tensor in Curvilinear Orthogonal Coordinates 149

Any combination of the I invariants is, in turn, another invariant. In this manner,
the J invariants
J1 = I1 = σii , (4.42)
1
2  1 1
J2 = I1 + 2I2 = σi j σ ji = (σ σ : σ) , (4.43)
2 2 2
1
3  1 1
J3 = I1 + 3I1 I2 + 3I3 = Tr (σ σ · σ · σ ) = σi j σ jk σki , (4.44)
3 3 3
are defined.

rs
ee
Remark 4.15. For a purely deviatoric tensor σ  , the corresponding J

s gin
invariants are (see Remark 4.14 and equations (4.39) to (4.44))
⎧
⎪

t d le En
⎫ ⎪
⎪ J1  = I1  = 0
⎪
⎪
J1 = I1 = 0 ⎪
⎬ ⎪
⎨

r
ba
ge ro or
=⇒ σ  =⇒ J2  = I2  = 1 (σ 1

eS m
J2 = I2 σ  : σ  ) = σ  i j σ  ji

ci
⎪
⎭ ⎪
⎪
⎪ f2 2

ra
J3 = I3 ⎪
⎪ 

C d P cs
⎪ 1
b
⎩ J3 = I3  = σ  i j σ  jk σ  ki

a
i
3
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A

4.5 Stress Tensor in Curvilinear Orthogonal Coordinates

m

4.5.1 Cylindrical Coordinates

uu
e
X Th

Consider a point in space defined by the cylindrical coordinates {r, θ , z} (see

er
tin

Figure 4.18). A physical (orthonormal) basis {êr , êθ , êz } and a Cartesian system
of local axes {x , y , z } defined as dextrorotatory are considered at this point.
on

.O

The components of the stress tensor in this basis are

C

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
©

σx τx y τx z σr τrθ τrz

not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ τx y σy τy z ⎦ = ⎣ τrθ σθ τθ z ⎦ . (4.45)
τx z τy z σz τrz τθ z σz

The graphical representation on an elemental parallelepiped is shown in Fig-

ure 4.19, where the components of the stress tensor have been drawn on the
visible faces. Note that, here, the visible faces of the figure do not coincide with
the positive faces, defined (in the same direction as in Section 4.3.3.3) as those
whose unit normal vector has the same direction as a vector of the physical basis.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
150 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

⎡ ⎤
x = r cos θ
x (r, θ , z) ≡ ⎣ y = r sin θ ⎦
not

z=z

rs
ee
Figure 4.18: Cylindrical coordinates.

s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

Figure 4.19: Differential element in cylindrical coordinates.

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin

4.5.2 Spherical Coordinates

{r, θ , φ } (see Fig-
on

.O

A point in space is defined by the spherical ! coordinates

"
ure 4.20). A physical (orthonormal) basis êr , êθ , êφ and a Cartesian system
C

of local axes {x , y , z } defined as dextrorotatory are considered at this point.

©

The components of the stress tensor in this basis are

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
σx τx y τx z σr τrθ τrφ
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ τx y σy τy z ⎦ = ⎣ τrθ σθ τθ φ ⎦ . (4.46)
τx z τy z σz τrφ τθ φ σφ

The graphical representation on an elemental parallelepiped is shown in Fig-

ure 4.21, where the components of the stress tensor have been drawn on the
visible faces.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 3 Dimensions 151

⎡ ⎤
x = r sin θ cos φ
x (r, θ , φ ) ≡ ⎣ y = r sin θ sin φ ⎦
not

z = z cos θ

rs
ee
s gin
Figure 4.20: Spherical coordinates.

t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin

Figure 4.21: Differential element in spherical coordinates.

on

.O
C

4.6 Mohr’s Circle in 3 Dimensions

©

4.6.1 Graphical Interpretation of the Stress States

The stress tensor plays such a crucial role in engineering that, traditionally, sev-
eral procedures have been developed, essentially graphical ones, to visualize and
interpret it. The most common are the so-called Mohr’s circles.
Consider an arbitrary point in the continuous medium P and the stress tensor
σ (P) at this point. Consider also an arbitrary plane, with unit normal vector n,
that contains P (see Figure 4.22). The traction vector acting on point P corre-
sponding to this plane is t = σ · n. This vector can now be decomposed into its
components σ n , normal to the plane considered, and τ n , tangent to said plane.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
152 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Figure 4.22: Decomposition of the traction vector.

rs
ee
s gin
Consider now the normal component σ n = σ n, where σ is the normal com-
ponent of the stress on the plane, defined in accordance with the sign criterion

t d le En
detailed in Section 4.3.3.3,

σ > 0 tension ,

r
ba
σn = σ ·n

ge ro or
(4.47)

eS m
σ < 0 compression .

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
Consider now the tangential component τ n , of which only its module is of inter-
b
a
i
est,
an an n

τn = t−σn |ττ n | = τ ≥ 0 . (4.48)

y ha

The stress state on the plane with unit normal vector n at the point considered
le
liv or ec

can be characterized by means of the pair


M

.A

σ ∈R
(σ , τ) → (4.49)
τ ∈ R+
m

d
uu

which, in turn, determine a point of the half-plane (x ≡ σ , y ≡ τ) ∈ R × R+ in

e
X Th

er

Figure 4.23. If the infinite number of planes that contain point P are now con-
tin

sidered (characterized by all the possible unit normal vectors n(i) ) and the corre-
on

sponding values of the normal stress σi and tangential stress τi are obtained and,
.O

finally, are represented in the half-space mentioned above, a point cloud is ob-
C

tained. One can then wonder whether the point cloud occupies all the half-space
©

or is limited to a specific locus. The answer to this question is provided by the

following analysis.

n1 → (σ 1 , τ 1 )
n2 → (σ 2 , τ 2 )
· · ·
ni → (σ i , τ i )

Figure 4.23: Locus of points (σ , τ).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 3 Dimensions 153

4.6.2 Determination of the Mohr’s Circles

Consider the system of Cartesian axes associated with the principal directions
of the stress tensor. In this basis, the components of the stress tensor are
⎡ ⎤
σ1 0 0
not ⎢ ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ 0 σ2 0 ⎦ with σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 (4.50)
0 0 σ3

and the components of the traction vector are

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤

rs
σ1 0 0 n1 σ1 n1
not ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢

ee
⎥
t = σ · n ≡ ⎣ 0 σ2 0 ⎦ ⎣ n2 ⎦ = ⎣ σ2 n2 ⎦ , (4.51)

s gin
0 0 σ3 n3 σ3 n3

t d le En
where n1 , n2 , n3 are the components of the unit normal vector n in the basis as-

r
sociated with the principal stress directions. In view of (4.51), the normal com-

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ponent of the stress (σ ), defined in (4.47), is

ci
⎡ ⎤ f

ra
C d P cs
n1
b
a
⎢ ⎥
i
not
t · n ≡ [σ1 n1 , σ2 n2 , σ3 n3 ] ⎣ n2 ⎦ = σ1 n21 + σ2 n22 + σ3 n23 = σ (4.52)
an an n
y ha

n3
le
liv or ec

and the module of the traction vector is

M

.A

|t|2 = t · t = σ12 n21 + σ22 n22 + σ32 n23 . (4.53)

m

The modules of the traction vector and of its normal and tangential components
uu
e

can also be related through

X Th

er
tin

|t|2 = σ12 n21 + σ22 n22 + σ32 n23 = σ 2 + τ 2 , (4.54)

on

.O

where (4.53) has been taken into account. Finally, the condition that n is a unit
C

normal vector can be expressed in terms of its components as

©

|n| = 1 =⇒ n21 + n22 + n23 = 1 . (4.55)

Equations (4.54), (4.52) and (4.55) can be summarized in the following ma-
trix equation.
⎡ 2 2 2 ⎤⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
σ1 σ2 σ3 n1 σ + τ2
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ σ1 σ2 σ3 ⎦ ⎣ n22 ⎦ = ⎣ σ ⎦ =⇒ A · x = b (4.56)
1 1 1 n23 1
     
A x b

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
154 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

System (4.56) can be interpreted as a linear system with:

a) A matrix of coefficients, A (σσ ), defined by the stress tensor at point P
(by means of the principal stresses).
b) An independent term, b, defined by the coordinates of a certain point
in the half-space σ − τ (representative, in turn, of the stress state on a
certain plane).
c) A vector of unknowns x that determines (by means of the components
of the unit normal vector n) in which plane the values of the selected σ
and τ correspond.

rs
ee
Remark 4.16. Only the solutions of system (4.56) whose compo-

s gin
not # $T
nents x ≡ n21 , n22 , n23 are positive and smaller than 1 will be fea-

t d le En
sible (see (4.55)), i.e.,
0 ≤ n21 ≤ 1 , 0 ≤ n22 ≤ 1 0 ≤ n23 ≤ 1 .

r
and

ba
ge ro or
eS m
Every pair (σ , τ) that leads to a solution x that satisfies this require-

ci
f

ra
ment will be considered a feasible point of the half-space σ − τ,
C d P cs
b
a
which is representative of the stress state on a plane that contains P.
i
The locus of feasible points (σ , τ) is named feasible zone of the half-
an an n
y ha

space σ − τ.
le
liv or ec
M

.A

Consider now the goal of finding the feasible region. Through some algebraic
m

operations, system (4.56) can be rewritten as

⎧
d
uu

⎪ A
e

⎪
⎪ σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ1 + σ3 ) σ + σ1 σ3 − n2 = 0 (I)
⎪
X Th

⎪ (σ1 − σ3 ) 1
er

⎪
tin

⎨
A
σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ2 + σ3 ) σ + σ2 σ3 − n22 = 0 (II)
on

.O

⎪
⎪ (σ − σ )
⎪
⎪
2 3
(4.57)
⎪ A
C

⎪
⎩ σ 2 + τ 2 − (σ1 + σ2 ) σ + σ1 σ2 − n23 = 0 (III)
©

(σ1 − σ2 )

with A = (σ1 − σ2 ) (σ2 − σ3 ) (σ1 − σ3 ) .

Given, for example, equation (III) of the system in (4.57), it is easily verifiable
that it can be written as
1
(σ − a)2 + τ 2 = R2 with a = (σ1 + σ2 )
2
% (4.58)
1 2
and R = (σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) (σ1 − σ3 ) n23 ,
4

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 3 Dimensions 155

which corresponds to the equation of a semicircle in the half-space σ − τ of

center C3 and a radius R3 , given by

1
C3 = (σ1 + σ2 ) , 0 and
2 (4.59)
%
1 2
R3 = (σ1 − σ2 ) + (σ2 − σ3 ) (σ1 − σ3 ) n23 .
4

The different values of n23 ∈ [0, 1] determine a set of concentric semicircles

of center C3 and radii R3 (n3 ) belonging to the half-space σ − τ and whose

rs
points occupy a certain region of this half-space. This region is delimited by

ee
the maximum and minimum values of R3 (n3 ). Observing that the radical in the

s gin
expression of R3 in (4.59) is positive, these values are obtained for n23 = 0 (the
minimum radius) and n23 = 1 (the maximum radius).

t d le En
1

r
n23 = 0 =⇒ R3min = (σ1 − σ2 )

ba
ge ro or
2

eS m
(4.60)

ci
1f

ra
n23 =1 =⇒ R3max = (σ1 + σ2 ) − σ3
C d P cs
b
a
2
i
an an n

The domain delimited by both semicircles defines an initial limitation of the

y ha

feasible domain, shown in Figure 4.24.

le
liv or ec

This process is repeated for the other two equations, (I) and (II), in (4.57),
M

.A

resulting in: ⎧
&1 ' ⎨ R min = 1 (σ − σ )
m

1 2 3
− Equation (I) : C1 = (σ2 + σ3 ), 0 =⇒ 2
d

2 ⎩ R max = |σ − a |
uu

 
e

1 1 1
X Th

a1
er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.24: Initial limitation of the feasible domain.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
156 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
s gin
Figure 4.25: Feasible region.

t d le En

r
⎧

ba
ge ro or
&1 ' ⎨ R min = 1 (σ − σ )

eS m
ci
2 1 3
− Equation (II) : C2 = (σ1 + σ3 ), 0 =⇒
f 2

ra
2 ⎩ R max = |σ − a |
C d P cs
 
b
a
2 2 2
a2
i
an an n

⎧
y ha

&1 ' ⎨ R min = 1 (σ − σ )

le
3 1 2
− Equation (III) : C3 = (σ1 + σ2 ), 0 =⇒ 2
liv or ec

2 ⎩ R max = |σ − a |


M

.A

3 3 3
a3
For each case, a feasible region that consists in a semi-annulus defined by the
m

minimum and maximum radii is obtained. Obviously, the final feasible region
uu
e

must be in the intersection of these semi-annuli, as depicted in Figure 4.25.

X Th

er

Figure 4.26 shows the final construction that results of the three Mohr’s semi-
tin

circles that contain points σ1 , σ2 and σ3 . It can also be shown that every point
on

.O

within the domain enclosed by the Mohr’s circles is feasible (in the sense that
the corresponding values of σ and τ correspond to stress states on a certain plane
C

that contains point P).

©

The construction of Mohr’s circle is trivial (once the three principal stresses
are known) and is useful for discriminating possible stress states on planes, de-
termining maximum values of shear stresses, etc.

Figure 4.26: Mohr’s circle in three dimensions.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 157

Example 4.3 – The principal stresses at a certain point in a continuous

medium are
σ1 = 10 , σ2 = 5 and σ3 = 2 .
The normal and tangential stresses on a plane that contains this point are σ
and τ, respectively. Justify if the following values of σ and τ are possible or
not.
a) σ = 10 and τ = 1.
b) σ = 5 and τ = 4.
c) σ = 3 and τ = 1.

rs
Solution

ee
s gin
The Mohr’s circle for the defined stress state is drawn and the given points
are marked in the half-space σ − τ.

t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

Only the points belonging to the gray zone represent stress states (feasible
uu
e

points). It is verified that none of the given points are feasible.

X Th

er
tin
on

.O

4.7 Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions

C

Many real-life problems in engineering are assimilated to an ideal bi-dimensional

©

stress state9 in which one of the principal stress directions is known (or assumed)
a priori. In these cases, the Cartesian axis x3 (or z-axis) is made to coincide with
said principal direction (see Figure 4.25) and, thus, the components of the stress
tensor can be written as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
σ11 σ12 0 σx τxy 0
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ ≡ ⎣ σ12 σ22 0 ⎦ = ⎣ τxy σy 0 ⎦ . (4.61)
0 0 σ33 0 0 σz

9 This type of problems will be analyzed in depth in Chapter 7, dedicated to bi-dimensional

elasticity.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
158 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Consider now only the family of planes parallel to the x3 -axis (therefore, the
component n3 of its unit normal vector is null). The corresponding traction vec-
tor is ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
t1 σ11 σ12 0 n1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
t (P, n) = σ · n =⇒ ⎣ t2 ⎦ = ⎣ σ12 σ22 0 ⎦ ⎣ n2 ⎦ (4.62)
0 0 0 σ33 0

and its component t3 vanishes. In (4.61) and (4.62) the components of the stress
tensor, σ , of the unit normal vector defining the plane, n, and of the traction

rs
vector, t, associated with direction x3 are either well known (this is the case for
σ13 , σ23 , n3 or t3 ), or do not intervene in the problem (as is the case for σ33 ). This

ee
circumstance suggests ignoring the third dimension and reducing the analysis to

s gin
the two dimensions associated with the x1 - and x2 -axes (or x- and y-axes), as
indicated in Figure 4.27. Then, the problem can be defined in the plane through

t d le En
the components of the stress tensor
( ) ( )

r
σ11 σ12 σx τxy

ba
ge ro or
eS m
not
σ≡ = (4.63)

ci
σ12 σ22 τxy σy
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
and the components of the traction vector
i
an an n

( ) ( )( )
y ha

not t1 σ11 σ12 n1

t (P, n) = σ · n ≡ = . (4.64)
le
liv or ec

t2 σ12 σ22 n2
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.27: Reduction of the problem from three to two dimensions.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 159

4.7.1 Stress State on a Given Plane

Consider a plane (always parallel to the z-axis) whose unit normal vector n forms
an angle θ with the x-axis. A unit vector m is defined in the tangential direction
to the trace of the plane as indicated in Figure 4.28.

Remark 4.17. The unit normal vector n, the unit tangent vector m,
and the angle θ in Figure 4.28 have the following positive directions
associated with them.

rs
• Unit normal vector n: towards the exterior of the plane (with re-

ee
spect to the position of point P).

s gin
• Unit tangent vector m: generates a clockwise rotation with re-
spect to point P.

t d le En
• Angle θ : defined as counterclockwise.

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
Consider σ , the stress tensor at a given point, whose components are defined
C d P cs
b
a
in a Cartesian base, ( )
i
an an n

σx τxy
y ha

not
σ≡ . (4.65)
τxy σy
le
liv or ec

Using (4.64), the traction vector on the given point, which belongs to the plane
M

.A

considered, is
m

( )( ) ( )
d

σx τxy cos θ σx cos θ + τxy sin θ

uu

not
t = σ ·n ≡ = .
e

(4.66)
X Th

τxy σy sin θ τxy cos θ + σy sin θ

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.28: Stress state on a given plane.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
160 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Taking into consideration the expression t = σθ n + τθ m, the normal stress

σθ and the tangent stress τθ on the plane with inclination θ (see Figure 4.28)
are defined, respectively, as
 
not cos θ
σθ = t · n ≡ [σx cos θ + τxy sin θ , τxy cos θ + σy sin θ ] =
sin θ (4.67)
= σx cos2 θ + τxy 2 sin θ cos θ + σy sin2 θ

and
 

rs
not sin θ
τθ = t · m ≡ [σx cos θ + τxy sin θ , τxy cos θ + σy sin θ ] =

ee
− cos θ (4.68)

2 

s gin
= σx sin θ cos θ − σy sin θ cos θ + τxy sin θ − cos θ ,2

t d le En
which can be rewritten as10

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
σx + σy σx − σy

ci
σθ = + cos (2θ ) + τxy sin (2θ )
f

ra
2 2
C d P cs
(4.69)
b
a
σx − σy
i
an an n

τθ = sin (2θ ) − τxy cos (2θ )

y ha

2
le
liv or ec
M

.A

Direct problem
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Inverse problem

Figure 4.29: Direct and inverse problems.

10 The following trigonometric relations are used here: sin (2θ ) = 2 sin θ cos θ ,
cos2 θ = (1 + cos (2θ ) ) / 2 and sin2 θ = (1 − cos (2θ ) ) / 2.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 161

4.7.2 Direct Problem: Diagonalization of the Stress Tensor

The direct problem consists in obtaining the principal stresses and the principal
stress directions given the components of the stress tensor (4.65) in a certain
system of axes x − y (see Figure 4.29).
The principal stress directions associated with the x - and y -axes defined by
the angles α and π/2 + α (see Figure 4.29) determine the inclinations of the
two planes on which the stresses only have a normal component σα , being the
tangent component τα null. Imposing this condition on (4.69) yields

σx − σy τxy

rs
τα = sin (2α) − τxy cos (2α) = 0 =⇒ tan (2α) = σ − σ ,

ee
2 x y
2

s gin
1 τxy
sin (2α) = ± % = ± * ,

t d le En
1 2 
1+ 2  σx − σy 
tan (2α)  + τxy 
2

ba
(4.70)

ge ro or
 2 

eS m
ci
f

ra
σx − σy
C d P cs
b
a
1
i
cos (2α) = ± + = ± * 2 .
an an n

1 + tan2 (2α) 2 
y ha

 σx − σy 
 + τxy 
2
le

liv or ec

 2 
M

.A

Equation (4.70) provides two solutions (associated with the + and − signs) α1
m

and α2 = α1 + π/2, which define the two principal stress directions (orthogonal)
d
uu

to the plane being analyzed11 . The corresponding principal stress directions are
e
X Th

obtained replacing the angle θ = α in (4.70) in (4.69), resulting in

er
tin

σx + σy σx − σy
on

.O

σα = + cos (2α) + τxy sin (2α) . (4.71)

2 2
C

⎧
©

* 
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ σ x + σy σx − σy 2
⎪
⎨ σ1 = + + τxy
2
2 2
σα → * (4.72)
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪ σ + σ σ − σ
⎪
⎩ σ2 =
x y
−
x y
+ τxy
2
2 2

11 The third principal stress direction is the direction perpendicular to the plane being ana-
lyzed (z- or x3 -axis), see (4.61) and Figure 4.27.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
162 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
Figure 4.30: Inverse problem.

ee
s gin
4.7.3 Inverse Problem

t d le En
The problem consists in obtaining the stress state on any plane given the prin-
cipal stresses and the principal stress directions σ1 and σ2 in the plane being

r
ba
analyzed. The stress state on any plane is characterized by the angle β that

ge ro or
eS m
ci
forms the unit normal vector of the plane with the principal stress direction cor-
f

ra
responding to σ1 . As a particular case, the components of the stress tensor on
C d P cs
b
a
an elemental rectangle associated with the system of axes x − y can be obtained
i
an an n

(see Figure 4.29).

y ha

Consider now the Cartesian system x − y , associated with the principal stress
le
directions (see Figure 4.30). Applying (4.69) with σx = σ1 , σy = σ2 , τx y = 0
liv or ec

and θ ≡ β results in
M

.A
m

σ1 + σ2 σ1 − σ2
d

σβ = + cos (2β )
uu
e

2 2 (4.73)
X Th

er
tin

σ1 − σ2
τβ = sin (2β )
2
on

.O
C

4.7.4 Mohr’s Circle for Plane States (in 2 Dimensions)

Consider all the possible planes that contain point P and the values of the normal
and tangent stresses, σθ and τθ , defined in (4.69) for all the possible values of
θ ∈ [0, 2π]. The stress state in the point for an inclined plane θ can now be
characterized by means of the pair

(σ = σθ , τ = τθ ) where σ ∈ R and τ ∈R, (4.74)

which, in turn, determines a point (x ≡ σ , y ≡ τ) ∈ R × R of the plane σ − τ
in Figure 4.31. To determine the locus of points of said plane that characterizes

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 163

all the possible stress states for planes that contain the point being analyzed, the
ensuing procedure is followed.
Considering a reference system that coincides with the principal stress di-
rections (as in Figure 4.30) and characterizing the inclination of the planes
by means of the angle β with the principal stress direction σ1 , one obtains
from (4.73) ⎧
⎪
⎪ σ + σ2 σ1 − σ2
⎨σ − 1 = cos (2β )
2 2 (4.75)
⎪
⎩ τ = σ1 − σ2 sin (2β )
⎪

rs
2

ee
and, squaring both equations and adding them up results in
 

s gin
σ1 + σ2 2 σ1 − σ 2 2
σ− +τ =2
. (4.76)

t d le En
2 2

r
Note that this equation, which will be valid for any value of the angle β , or,

ba
ge ro or
eS m
in other words, for any arbitrarily oriented plane that contains the point, corre-

ci
f
sponds to a circle with center C and radius R in the plane σ − τ given by (see

ra
C d P cs
b
a
Figure 4.31) 
i
σ1 + σ2 σ1 − σ2
an an n

C= ,0 and R = . (4.77)
y ha

2 2
le
liv or ec

Consequently, the locus of points representative of a stress state on the planes

that contain P is a circle (named Mohr’s circle), whose construction is defined
M

.A

in Figure 4.31.
m

The inverse proposition is also true: given a point of Mohr’s circle with co-
d

ordinates (σ , τ), there exists a plane that contains P whose normal and tangent
uu
e

stresses are σ and τ, respectively. In effect, using (4.75) the following trigono-
X Th

er
tin

metric expressions are obtained.

on

.O
C

Figure 4.31: Mohr’s circle for plane stress states.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
164 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
Figure 4.32: Interpretation of the angle β .

s gin


t d le En
σ1 + σ2
σ−
2 σ −a

r
cos (2β ) =  =

ba
ge ro or
eS m
σ1 − σ2 R

ci
f

ra
2 (4.78)
C d P cs
b
a
τ τ
i
sin (2β ) = =
an an n

σ1 − σ R
y ha

2
le
2
liv or ec
M

These expressions uniquely define the angle β between the normal direction to
.A

the plane and the principal stress direction σ1 . The plane obtained corresponds
m

to the aforementioned stresses σ and τ. Figure 4.32 provides an interpretation

d
uu

of the angle 2β in the Mohr’s circle itself.

e
X Th

er
tin

4.7.5 Properties of the Mohr’s Circle

on

.O

a) Obtaining the point in Mohr’s circle that is representative of the stress state
C

on a plane whose normal direction forms an angle β with the principal stress
©

direction σ1 .
Take a representative point of the plane on which the principal stress direc-
tion σ1 acts (point (σ1 , 0)) and rotate an angle 2β in the direction going
from σ1 to σβ (see Figure 4.32 and Figure 4.33).

b) The representative points in Mohr’s circle of two orthogonal planes are

aligned with the center of the circle (as a consequence of property a) ) for
β2 = β1 + π/2 (see Figure 4.34).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 165

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
Figure 4.33: Representative point associated with angle β in Mohr’s circle.

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

Figure 4.34: Representative points for two orthogonal planes in Mohr’s circle.
d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin

c) Mohr’s circle can be drawn if the stress state on two orthogonal planes is
known.
on

.O

In effect, by means of property b) the points representative of these two or-

C

thogonal planes in plane σ − τ are aligned with the center of Mohr’s circle.
©

Therefore, joining both points provides the intersection with the σ -axis that
corresponds to the center of the circle. Since two additional points of the
circle are known, the circle can be drawn.

d) Mohr’s circle can be drawn if the components of the stress tensor in a certain
orthonormal base are known.
This is a particular case of property c) in which the points representative
of a stress state on Cartesian planes are known (see Figure 4.35). Note, in
this figure, how the radius and the diametrical points of the circle can be
obtained. In addition, note that the application of property a) on the point
representative of the plane perpendicular to the x-axis implies moving in the

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
166 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
Figure 4.35: Calculation of the radius and diametrical points of Mohr’s circle for a stress
an an n
y ha

state on Cartesian planes.

le
liv or ec
M

.A

opposite direction to that of angle α (angle of σx with σ1 = - angle of σ1 with

σx = −α).
m

d
uu
e

4.7.6 The Pole of Mohr’s Circle

X Th

er
tin
on

.O

Theorem 4.1. There exists a point in Mohr’s circle denoted pole or

C

origin of planes that has the following properties:

©

• Any straight line drawn from the pole P will intersect Mohr’s cir-
cle at a point A that represents the stress state on a plane parallel
in space to that line (see Figure 4.36).
• The inverse is also verified, that is, if a straight line, paral-
lel to a given plane, is drawn from the pole P, the intersection
point B represents the stress state on this particular plane (see
Figure 4.37).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 167

rs
ee
s gin
Figure 4.36: First property of the pole of Mohr’s circle.

t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

Figure 4.37: Second property of the pole of Mohr’s circle.

er
tin
on

.O

Proof
C

Consider the stress tensor at the point being analyzed and its graphical rep-
resentation on the Cartesian planes of Figure 4.38 (left)12 denoted as plane A
(vertical plane) and plane B (horizontal plane). A and B are the corresponding
points in the Mohr’s circle drawn in Figure 4.38 (right).
1) Assuming property a) is verified, the pole of Mohr’s circle can be obtained
by drawing a vertical line from point A (parallel to plane A). Then, the pole P
is located at the intersection of this line with the Mohr’s circle. Also, drawing
a horizontal line from point B (parallel to plane B) determines the location of

12Note that, following the sign criterion of Mohr’s circle, the tangent stress on plane A is
τ = −τxy .

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
168 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
Figure 4.38: Proof of the properties of the pole of Mohr’s circle (1).

s gin
t d le En
the pole at the intersection of this line with the Mohr’s circle. The same point
P is obtained in both cases, as is verified in the Figure 4.38.

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
2) Consider now an arbitrary plane whose normal direction forms an angle θ

ci
f

ra
with the horizontal direction (see Figure 4.39, left) and consider also the
C d P cs
normal and tangent stresses, σθ and τθ , respectively, according to this plane.
b
a
i
Assuming that the major principal stress direction σ1 forms an angle α with
an an n

the direction of stress σx , then, the direction of stress σθ forms an angle

y ha

(θ − α) with the major principal stress direction σ1 .

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Figure 4.39: Proof of the properties of the pole of Mohr’s circle (2).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 169

3) Consider the Mohr’s circle and the pole P obtained in step 1) (see Figure 4.39,
right)13 . Using property a) of Section 4.7.5, point C can be obtained. This
point is representative of the Mohr’s circle that corresponds to the plane con-
sidered, obtained by rotating from point M a double angle equal to 2 (θ − α)
such that the angle MOC is 2 (θ − α). By construction, angle AOM is 2α
and angle AOC, the sum of both, is 2 (θ − α) + 2α = 2θ . The arc included
by this angle is AMC = 2θ . Then, the angle semi-inscribed in APC, which
includes arc AMC, will be θ , which proves that the straight line PC is paral-
lel to the trace of the plane considered. Since this plane could be any plane,
the validity of the property is proven.

rs
ee
Example 4.4 – Calculate the stresses acting on state III = I + II:

s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

Solution
d
uu
e

To be able to add states I and II, the stresses must act on the same planes.
X Th

er
tin

Since the two states present planes with different orientations, the stresses
acting in state II must be found for the planes given in state I. To this aim, the
on

.O

Mohr’s circle for state II must be drawn.

C

13 The following geometric properties are used here: a) the value of a central angle of a circle
is the same as the arc it includes; and b) the value of an angle semi-inscribed in a circle is
equal to half the arc it includes.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
170 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
To draw the circle, planes a and b are represented since their stress states are
known. The corresponding points in the Mohr’s circle belong to the abscissa

r
ba
and determine, thus, the diameter of the circle.

ge ro or
eS m
The pole is obtained as the intersection of the lines that are parallel to the two

ci
f
planes inclined at 45◦ and that contain the points that they represent. Once

ra
C d P cs
b
a
the pole is determined, a horizontal line is drawn from it, whose intersection
i
an an n

with the Mohr’s circle (because it is tangent to the point, the intersection in
y ha

this case is the same pole) determines the point representative of the horizon-
tal plane (2, 1). The same procedure is repeated for a vertical plane to obtain
le
liv or ec

point (2, −1). With this information, state II can be reconstructed on the hor-
M

.A

izontal and vertical planes. Then, the stresses obtained are added to those of
state I to finally obtain state III.
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle in 2 Dimensions 171

continuum mechanics soil mechanics

Figure 4.40: Differences in the sign criterion for continuum mechanics and soil mechan-
ics.

rs
ee
s gin
4.7.7 Mohr’s Circle with the Soil Mechanics Sign Criterion
The sign criterion, with respect to the normal and tangent stresses, used in soil

t d le En
mechanics is the inverse of the one used in continuum mechanics (see Fig-

r
ure 4.40). The differences are:

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
• The positive stresses in soil mechanics are in the opposite direction (normal
f

ra
C d P cs
stresses are positive when they are compressive, and the direction of the pos-
b
a
itive tangent stresses is defined by a counterclockwise rotation with respect
i
an an n

to the plane).
y ha

• The sign criterion for angles is the same (counterclockwise angles are posi-
le
liv or ec

tive).
M

.A

Consequently, if the order of the principal stresses is respected (σ1 ≥ σ2 ), the

order of the principal stresses will be inverted in soil mechanics with respect to
m

continuum mechanics for a same stress state (see Figure 4.41).

uu
e

Consider the fundamental expressions in (4.73), which are the starting point
X Th

er
tin

in the construction and determination of the properties of the Mohr’s circle.

Using the two sign criteria for a same stress state results in:
on

.O
C

continuum mechanics soil mechanics

Figure 4.41: Direction of the principal stresses for continuum mechanics and soil me-
chanics.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
172 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Continuum mechanics: σβ , τβ , σ1 , σ2 , β
⎧ ∗
⎪
⎪ σβ = −σβ
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∗
⎨ τβ = −τβ (4.79)
Soil mechanics: σ1∗ = −σ2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ σ ∗ = −σ1
⎪
⎩ 2∗
β = β + π/2

Replacing (4.79) in (4.73) yields

−σ2∗ − σ1∗ −σ2∗ + σ1∗

rs
−σβ∗ = + cos (2β ∗ − π) ,
 

ee
2 2
− cos (2β ∗ )

s gin
−σ2∗ + σ1∗ (4.80)
−τβ∗ = sin (2β ∗ − π) ,
 

t d le En
2
− sin (2β ∗ )

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
and, operating on these expressions finally results in

ci
f

ra
σ1∗ + σ2∗ σ1∗ − σ2∗
C d P cs
σβ∗ =
b cos (2β ∗ ) ,

a
+
i
2 2
an an n

(4.81)
σ ∗ − σ2∗
y ha

τβ∗ = 1 sin (2β ∗ ) .

le
2
liv or ec

Note that the fundamental expressions in (4.81), obtained on the basis of the sign
M

.A

criterion in soil mechanics, are the same as those in (4.73), obtained on the basis
m

of the sign criterion in continuum mechanics. Therefore, the construction of the

d

Mohr’s circle and the determination of its properties is the same in both cases.
uu
e
X Th

er
tin

4.8 Mohr’s Circle for Particular Cases

on

.O

4.8.1 Hydrostatic Stress State

C

In an hydrostatic stress state, characterized by σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ , the Mohr’s

©

circles in three dimensions collapses into a point (see Figure 4.42).

Figure 4.42: Mohr’s circle for a hydrostatic stress state.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Mohr’s Circle for Particular Cases 173

4.8.2 Mohr’s Circles for a Tensor and its Deviator

The Mohr’s circles in three dimensions associated with a stress state and its
deviator differ in a translation equal to the mean stress (see Figure 4.43).

⎡ ⎤ ⎧
σm 0 0 ⎪ 
⎨ σ1 = σm + σ1
not ⎢ ⎥
σ= σ sph + σ  ; σ sph ≡ ⎣ 0 σm 0 ⎦ =⇒ σ2 = σm + σ2 
  ⎪
⎩
spherical deviator 0 0 σm σ3 = σm + σ3 
part part

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
Figure 4.43: Mohr’s circle for a stress state and its deviator.

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n

4.8.3 Mohr’s Circles for a Plane Pure Shear Stress State

y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A

Definition 4.9. A plane pure shear stress state occurs at a point

when there are two orthogonal planes on which there is only tan-
m

gent (shear) stress (see Figure 4.44).

uu
e
X Th

er
tin

The Mohr’s circle corresponding to a pure shear stress state characterized by

on

.O

a tangent stress τ ∗ has as center the origin of axes and as radius R = |τ ∗ |.

C

The proof is immediate from the construction criteria of the Mohr’s circle (see
©

Figure 4.44, left).

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
174 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
Figure 4.44: Mohr’s circle for a plane pure shear stress state.

ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 175

P ROBLEMS

Problem 4.1 – The solid below is subjected to the following stress state in
equilibrium.

( )
xy 5y

rs
not
σ≡ (in MPa)

ee
5y 4x

s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
Determine:
f

ra
C d P cs
1) The expression of the forces per unit of mass acting on the solid.
b
a
i
2) The expression of the normal and tangent components of the forces act-
an an n

ing on the boundary, indicating their sign according to the Mohr’s cir-
y ha

cle criterion.
le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

Solution
d
uu
e

1) The expression of the body forces is obtained directly from the internal equi-
X Th

er

librium equation (4.26),

tin

 ( ) ( )
on

.O

1 not 1 ∂ ∂ xy 5y 1 y+5
b = − ∇ · σ =⇒ b ≡ − , =− .
ρ ρ ∂x ∂y ρ
C

5y 4x 0
©

2) The normal (σ ) and tangent (τ) components of the body forces acting on the
boundary are given by

σ = t·n and τ = t·m with t = n · σ ,

where n and m are the unit normal vector and the unit tangent vector of the
boundary, respectively. The boundary of the solid can be divided into three parts,
according to their n and m vectors:

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
176 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
Boundary 1
The traction vector for this surface is

s gin
( )( )
1 xy 5y 1 xy + 5y

t d le En
not
t1 = n1 · σ ≡ √ [1, 1] =√ .
2 5y 4x 2 5y + 4x

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
Then, the corresponding normal and tangent components of the body forces are
f

ra
( )
C d P cs
b
a
not 1 1 1 1
i
σ1 = t1 · n1 ≡ √ [xy + 5y, 5y + 4x] √ = (4x + 10y + xy) ,
an an n

2 2 1 2
y ha

( )
le
liv or ec

not 1 1 1 1
τ1 = t1 · m1 ≡ √ [xy + 5y, 5y + 4x] √ = (−4x + xy) .
M

.A

2 2 −1 2
m

This is now particularized for the x and y values corresponding to the boundary,
d
uu

that is, for y = 1 − x and x ∈ [0, 1],

e
X Th

er

⎧
tin

⎪
⎪ 1

⎨ σ1 = 10 − 5x − x2 with x ∈ [0, 1] ,
on

.O

2
⎪
⎩ τ1 = 1
−3x − x2  with x ∈ [0, 1] .
⎪
C

Boundary 2
The traction vector for this surface is
( ) ( )
not xy 5y −5y
t2 = n2 · σ ≡ [0, −1] = .
5y 4x −4x

Then, the corresponding normal and tangent components of the body forces are

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 177

( )
not 0
σ2 = t2 · n2 ≡ [−5y, −4x] = 4x ,
−1
( )
not −1
τ2 = t2 · m2 ≡ [−5y, −4x] = 5y .
0
This is now particularized for the x and y values corresponding to the boundary,
that is, for y = 0 and x ∈ [0, 1],
⎧
⎨ σ2 = 4x with x ∈ [0, 1] ,

rs
ee
⎩τ = 0.
2

s gin
t d le En
Boundary 3

r
The traction vector for this surface is

ba
ge ro or
( ) ( )

eS m
ci
−xy
f xy 5y

ra
not
t3 = n3 · σ ≡ [−1, 0] = .
C d P cs
b −5y

a
5y 4x
i
an an n
y ha

Then, the corresponding normal and tangent components of the body forces are
( )
le
liv or ec

not −1
σ3 = t3 · n3 ≡ [−xy, −5y] = xy ,
M

.A

0
m

( )
d
uu

0
e

not
τ3 = t3 · m3 ≡ [−xy, −5y] = −5y .
X Th

er

1
tin

This is now particularized for the x and y values corresponding to the boundary,
on

.O

that is, for x = 0 and y ∈ [0, 1],

C

⎧
©

⎨ σ3 = 0 ,
⎩ τ = −5y with y ∈ [0, 1] .
3

Note that the results for boundaries 2 and 3 could have been obtained by direct
comparison since they are a horizontal and a vertical surface, respectively:

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
178 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
s gin
⎧ ⎧
⎨ σ2 = σy with x ∈ [0, 1] ⎨ σ3 = σx with x = 0

t d le En
⎩τ = τ with y = 0 ⎩ τ = −τ = −5y with y ∈ [0, 1]

r
2 xy 3 xy

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
Finally, the expression of the normal and tangent components of the forces act-
i
an an n

ing on the boundary of the solid are drawn, indicating the most significant val-
y ha

ues.
le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 179

Problem 4.2 – The following is known of a stress state.

1) The z-direction is a principal stress direction and σzz = a.
2) The mean stress is σm = a > 0.
3) The maximum shear stress in the planes that are parallel to the z-axis
is τmax = b > 0.
Draw, indicating the most significant values, the Mohr’s circle in three dimen-
sions of the stress tensor and its deviatoric tensor.

rs
ee
s gin
Solution

t d le En
Note that the only difference there will be between the two circles is that one
will be translated a distance σm with respect to the other.

r
ba
By means of the definition of the deviatoric stress tensor,

ge ro or
eS m
ci
σ  = σ − σm 1 =⇒ f
σzz = σzz − σm = a − a = 0 =⇒ σzz = 0

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
is deduced. The fact that the trace is an invariant and that the trace of the devia-
an an n

σ  ) = 0, results in
toric stress tensor is zero, Tr (σ
y ha


le
liv or ec

  σzz = σ2 = 0 ,
σxx + σyy = 0 =⇒
M

.A

σ1 + σ3 = 0 .
m

Finally, the radius of the major circumference (between σ1 and σ3 ) is determined
d
uu
e

through the application of condition 3). The two Mohr’s circles are shown below.
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
180 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Problem 4.3 – Given the following information of a stress state in a certain

point,
1) σx = 1 (where the x-axis is a principal stress direction).
2) The maximum shear stress in the planes that are parallel to the x-axis
is 3.
3) The maximum shear stress in the planes that are parallel to the minor
principal stress direction is 2.

rs
obtain all the possible Mohr’s circles corresponding to this state, indicating the
values of the principal stresses.

ee
s gin
t d le En
Solution

r
ba
The following property of the Mohr’s circle in 3D must be taken into account to

ge ro or
eS m
solve this problem.

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

Circle number:
1 − corresponds to planes parallel to the principal stress direction of σ3 .
2 − corresponds to planes parallel to the principal stress direction of σ1 .
3 − corresponds to planes parallel to the principal stress direction of σ2 .

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 181

Then, the following possibilities are considered.

1. σx is the major principal stress, which results in the following Mohr’s
circle.

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
2. σx is the intermediate principal stress, which results in the following

r
ba
ge ro or
Mohr’s circle.

eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

3. σx is the minor principal stress, which is an impossible situation because

er
tin

conditions 2) and 3) cannot be satisfied at the same time since they refer
on

to the maximum shear stress on the same plane.

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
182 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

Problem 4.4 – Determine the values of α and β for which the following stress
states are possible, considering that σ > 0 and τ = 0.5σ .

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
Solution

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
The problem is solved following the same steps in all three cases, which are:

ra
C d P cs
b
a
Step 1: Draw the Mohr’s circle corresponding to the stress state. Even for the
i
stress states in which only two different pairs of points (σ , τ) belonging to the
an an n
y ha

Mohr’s circle are given, the circle can be drawn taking into account that it must
le
be symmetric with respect to the longitudinal axis.
liv or ec

Step 2: Identify the pole. In all cases, a straight horizontal line is drawn, which
M

.A

must contain the point of the Mohr’s circle corresponding to the horizontal plane.
m

Then, the pole is identified as the point where the line crosses the circle again.
d

The horizontal plane is used to identify the pole because, of the three planes
uu
e

shown for each stress state, it is the only one with a known orientation.
X Th

er
tin

Step 3: Draw a straight line joining the pole and the two (σ , τ) points corre-
on

sponding to the planes whose inclination must be obtained. The inclination of

.O

these planes and, thus, the angles α and β are given directly by the orientation
C

of the lines drawn.

©

Step 4: The schematic description of the stress states on the three planes can be
redrawn with the appropriate inclination.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 183

(a)

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

(b)
er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
184 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

rs
ee
s gin
(c)

t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 185

Problem 4.5 – Calculate the possible values of σ , σ  , σ  , τ, τ  and α for which

state III is the sum of states I and II, considering that τ ≥ 0.

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
Solution

ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
Stress state II on the vertical plane must be found to be able to add states I and
f

ra
II together.
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O

The Mohr’s circle of state II will allow determining the normal and shear stress
C

on the vertical plane. The known stress state on the horizontal plane (4, −3)
©

belongs to the Mohr’s circle. Since it is known to be symmetric with respect

to the longitudinal axis, the stress state (4, 3) must also belong to the Mohr’s
circle. Observing the figure representing state II, and considering that τ ≥ 0, it
is concluded that this point, (4, 3), corresponds to the stress state on the plane
inclined at 45◦ in the counterclockwise direction. Thus,

τ =3 .

Now, a third point belonging to the Mohr’s circle must be obtained in order to be
able to draw the complete circle. Because there exists only one pole and it must
belong to the Mohr’s circle, finding this point will allow completing the circle. A
straight horizontal line (parallel to the horizontal plane) is draw at point (4, −3),

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
186 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

which corresponds to the stress state on a horizontal plane. Another straight line,
parallel to the other plane with a known stress state, the plane inclined at 45◦
in the counterclockwise direction, is drawn passing through the corresponding
stress state, (4, 3). The point where these to lines meet provide the pole of the
Mohr’s circle, which is found to be at (−2, −3):

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

Once these three points are known, the Mohr’s circle can be drawn. Before cal-
le
liv or ec

culating the stress state on the vertical plane, the value of σ is sought. To obtain
the stress state on the plane inclined at 45◦ in the clockwise direction, a straight
M

.A

line must be drawn, parallel to this plane, that crosses the pole.
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

This results in a line tangent to the pole, therefore, the stress state corresponding
to the pole is also the stress state on this plane and

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 187

σ = −2 .
Finally, a vertical line is drawn from the pole and the intersection of this line with
the Mohr’s circle provides the stress state on the vertical plane, which results
in (−2, 3).

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n

Then, stress state II is defined on a vertical and horizontal plane as follows.

y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

This allows adding stress states I and II to obtain state III,

©

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
188 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

revealing the values of σ  and σ  .

σ = 3
σ  = 7

The values of τ  and α remain to be found. To this aim, the Mohr’s circle of
stress state III must be drawn. The points corresponding to the known stress
states on the vertical and horizontal planes are marked on the σ − τ space and,
in a procedure analogous to the one used for the Mohr’s circle of state II, the
pole is obtained. The circle can now be drawn and simple trigonometry allows

rs
calculating its center at (2, 0), which will be useful in the calculation of τ  and

ee
α.

s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin

Drawing a vertical line at σ = 6 provides the values of τ  at the intersection of

this line with the circle. Two options are possible, one corresponding to a posi-
on

.O

tive value of τ  and another corresponding to the same value but with a negative
C

sign. Following the sign criterion for the Mohr’s circle, and to be consistent with
the directions drawn in the figure representing state III, the value of τ  must be
©

√
τ  = −3 2 .

Since there are two possible values of τ  , two values of α will exist, each cor-
responding to one of the τ  values. To obtain the values of α, a straight line is
drawn from the pole to each of the points representing the possible stress states
of the plane inclined at α in a clockwise direction.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 189

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
Determining the inclination of these two lines will result directly in the possible

ba
ge ro or
eS m
values of α.

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
√ & √ '
b
a
τ  = −3 2 ⇒ α + = 180◦ − arctan 1+3 2  141◦
i
an an n

&√ '
y ha

√
−τ  = 3 2 ⇒ α − = arctan 2−1  8◦
le
liv or ec

3
M

.A

The two possible configurations of stress state III are pictured below.
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
190 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

E XERCISES

4.1 – Determine all the possible values of

σ (σ > 0) and τ (τ > 0) in the figure knowing
that the maximum shear stress on any plane at
the point is τmax = 1.

rs
ee
s gin
4.2 – The following is known of the stress state in a point of a continuous

t d le En
medium. The maximum shear stress in planes parallel to the principal stress

r
direction of σ1 is τmax = 2. Obtain all the values of σ1 , σ2 and σ3 that make

ba
ge ro or
eS m
possible the stress state σ = 2 and τ = 2 on a certain plane for the following

ci
cases (separately). f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
a) The maximum shear stress in planes parallel to the principal stress di-
i
an an n

rection of σ2 is τ2max = 2.
y ha

b) The maximum shear stress in planes parallel to the principal stress di-
le
liv or ec

rection of σ3 is τ3max = 0.
M

.A

c) The maximum shear stress in planes parallel to the principal stress di-
rection of σ2 is τ2max = 4.
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin

4.3 – Determine for which values of σ ∗ the fol-

lowing stress states are possible in the planes
on

.O

belonging to P.
C

a) σ = 4 and τ = 2.
©

b) σ = 4 and τ = 1.
c) σ = 7 and τ = 0.

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 191

4.4 – Obtain, in terms of τ, the principal stresses and the value of the maximum
shear stress of the state that results from the sum of states I and II.

rs
ee
s gin
t d le En

r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
4.5 – Given states I and II, determine the possible values of σ and τ for which

ci
f
state III = I + II verifies that the principal stress σ2 is positive and its direction

ra
C d P cs
forms a 30◦ angle with the y-axis.
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
192 C HAPTER 4. S TRESS

4.6 – Determine all the possible values of τ ∗ for which the stress state that is the
sum of states I and II verifies the following conditions (separately).

rs
ee
s gin
a) There do not exist tensile stresses on any plane.
b) There do not exist compressive stresses on any plane.

t d le En
c) The maximum shear stress (τmax ) is less than 2.

r
d) It is a pure shear stress state.

ba
ge ro or
eS m
e) It is a hydrostatic stress state.

ci
f

ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha

le
liv or ec
M

.A
m

d
uu
e
X Th

er
tin
on

.O
C

X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961