CONCEPTIONS OF

CURRICULUM
November 2015

What are the different types of conceptions of

curriculum? “Conceptions of curriculum can be
used to look at a curriculum through
Social reconstruction conception: focuses on society needs various viewpoints. It’s simply a
(Eisner & Vallence, 1974). We should create an education where subject matter
focuses on environmental, economic, social and political issues or perspectives way to see how a curriculum is
happening in society (ie. pollution). This conception sees the curriculum as a way to
produce social change. (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; McNeil, 2006; Orstien & Hunkins, defined. When you're looking at a
2009; Pratt, 1994; Sowell, 2005) Education should be structured to prepare students curriculum is it focusing on social
for living in a changing society by providing them with tools they can use to function
appropriately. It’s about giving the learner real life situations they can experience in and culture needs, the individuals
the curriculum. (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; Sowell, 2005) This allows young learners needs or subject matter (Sowell,
to have a better understanding and connection with society where in the curriculum
they are learning ways on how to live (Sowell, 2005). Note: also called social 2005). This is what you notice when
transformation and reconceptualist.
you look deeply into a curriculum
and see how it should be used or
Cognitive process conception: focuses on the development of the what we should focus on.”
intellectual process. The curriculum should shape the intellectual and cognitive skills
of the learner. Once they gain the skills the learner can apply it to other forms of
learning and in any context. It focuses mainly on the learner, the materials and the
learning process where they see the individual as interactive. (Eisner & Vallance,
1974; Sowell, 2005) This approach believes if the learner is provided with the correct
set of intellectual skills they can grow to be intellectually independent and can use
them in situations outside of school (Eisner & Vallance, 1974). Note: also relates to
humanistic and technology conception.

Social Reconstruction: Curriculum should be an extension of society

Cognitive Process: Shaping the intellectual skills of young individuals

 Academic conception: is
the traditional way of approaching
curriculum (Eisner & Vallence,1974;
Sowell, 2005). The main mode of
teaching is that the individual needs to
learn various academic subjects (math,
English, science, history, social studies)
in school (Eisner & Vallence,1974;
McNeil, 2006; Schiro, 2008; Sowell,
2005). In each academic area there are a
set of academic standards. Academic
thinkers believe school should be
Technology: Technology can be to transmit learning through audio visual aids or computer structured to help repair needs and gaps
assisted programs giving students immediate knowledge in an individual's understanding. The
transmission of information should also
be taught by teachers through verbal or
written means (Pratt, 1994). Basically,
Technology conception: focuses on how curriculum should be the curriculum should be used to help
taught or how knowledge should be communicated. It looks for a system of individuals understand knowledge (skills,
instruction that can be used to teach any content. (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; tools, concepts) that they need to
Vallence, 1986). Curriculum technologists believe that learning is preplanned and
that goals, standards, expectations and objectives should be predetermined. The participate actively in their cultural needs
content, lesson plans, learning outcomes, assessment measures must align with (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; Sowell,
these elements. (McNeil, 2006; Orstien & Hunkins, 2009) It helps the learner see 2005). Note: also called cultural
what’s expected of them and where they can improve (McNeil, 2009). Through this transformation and scholar academic.
conception you focus more on the organization and presentation of materials to the
learner. Everything is decided before children come into the classroom (Eisner &
Vallence, 1974). Note: also called systemic, behavioural, social efficiency and
managerial.

Humanistic conception: focuses on the individual and the

individuals needs and interests (Orstien & Hunkins, 2009; Schiro, 2008). A
curriculum should be student oriented and child centred meaning children can
pursue their individual choices. This lens helps the learner discover and construct
learning for themselves. (Eisner & Vallence,1974; Schiro, 2008; Sowell, 2005) It
sees education fully supporting an individual's life and development (Eisner &
Vallence, 1974; Orstien & Hunkins, 2009; Pratt, 1994; Sowell, 2005). Everything
in the curriculum should bring personal meaning to each individual that relates to
experiences unique to the learner. This can allow the individual to learn ways on
how to manage things of personal significance. (McNeil, 2006; Pratt, 1994; Sowell,
2005) This conception is truly about developing the child’s fullest potential where
the curriculum should be responsible for developing a child identity, individuality,
personal freedom and autonomy (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; McNeil, 2006; Orstien
& Hunkins, 2009; Schiro, 2008). Notes: also called self actualization, individual
fulfillment and learner centred.

Humanistic: Focuses on the whole child

 Academic: Focuses more on subjects, cognition and knowledge.

Educational Philosophies

Traditional Philosophies:
Perennialism Philosophy (Realism):
 To educate the rational individual
 Focuses on mastery of facts and knowledge
 Focuses on classical subjects
 Teaches traditional values
 Educator helps the child think rationally
 Content and knowledge focused
 Teacher lecture approach

Essentialism Philosophy (Idealism/Realism):

 Focuses on essential skills and academic subjects (english, science,
history, language and arithmetic)
 Mastery of concepts and principles in each subject is important
 Educator is the main authority in their area of expertise's
 Focuses on developing the intellectual growth of young individuals
 Used to educate the competent individual
 Teaching basic ideas

(Ornstein, 1991)
 Progressivism and Reconstructionism Philosophy

Contemporary Philosophies:

Progressivism Philosophy (Pragmatism):

 Knowledge emphasizes growth and development

 Focuses on active participation and interesting learning
 Educator is a guide, resource or facilitator
 Children's interest and needs are important
 Focuses on interdisciplinary subject matter, activities and projects
 Curriculum based on individuals experiences
 Focuses on the whole child

Reconstructionism Philosophy (Pragmatism):

 Education can lead to social change and improve society Perennialism Philosophy
Essentialism Philosophy
 The educator is a change agent, researcher and leader
 Education should help learners become knowledgeable about issues in
society (ie. social and economic issues)
 Children learn about real life experiences or their environment

(Orstein, 1991)
 Learner centred design: Focuses on learner

Curriculum Designs

Learner Centred Designs

 Learner centred designs can be categories into:

 Child Centred Design
 Experienced Centred Design
 Radical Design
 Humanistic Design
 Developmental Design

An overview of all learner centred designs:

 Children must be active in their learning environment and learning should not be
separate from students lives (pg. 165)
 Focuses on children's lives, needs and interests
 Children need opportunities to explore, firsthand, physical, social , emotional and
logical knowledge (pg. 165)
 Children should be taught in their natural environment
 Teaching needs to suit the whole child and promote personal growth
 The educator is seen as an observer
 Curriculum needs to emphasize the child's creativity and self direction
 Learning is a social activity (pg.166)
 Children should design their own learning by exploring problems and topics of their
interests
 Focuses on child’s point of view rather then the adult
 Radical design believes that individuals must critique knowledge (pg.167)
 Learning is reflective (pg.167)
 Children need to find their true selves through the curriculum (pg.167)
 Learning needs to start with a child's experience. Educators should analyze children’s
experiences and see how these experiences shape children’s knowledge. (pg.166)
 This design believes that an open and free school environment stimulates all students
to excel (pg.166)
 Classroom questions should foster learning and deep thinking. Children should also
experience learning with emotion, imagination and wonder. (pg.169)

(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009)

 Problem/Society centred design: Focuses on society and learners connection to society

Subject Centred Design

 Subject centred designs can be organized into single subject, interdisciplinary, thematic
instruction, discipline, board field, correlation and process design
 It stresses school standards where content is preplanned before instruction (thematic
instruction)
 Indicates with subjects such as language, mathematics, science and history
 Curriculum is organized according to how essential knowledge has developed in various
subjects (pg. 160)
 Consists of a variety of courses that meet students needs
 Students learn about one subject and the content within that subject.
 This design also believes in correlating or linking subjects together where learning in
one or two subject areas relate to each other. (Sowell, 2005)
 Teachers have a role in direction, lectures and large group discussions
 Introduces individuals to essential knowledge of society (pg. 160)
 Believes in filling students with knowledge and fostering student thinkers
 Process design focuses on students as meaning makers and teaching for intelligence and
on the development of intellectual character (pg.164)
 Individuals need to experience the subjects and be able to comprehend the information Subject centred design: Focuses on
subjects and knowledge

Problem/Society Centred Design

 Problem/society centred designs can be divided into life situation, social function or
reconstructionist design
 Content should be organized in ways that allow students to view problem areas (pg.
170)
 Students need to learn about social or life situations in society
 Children need to be directly involved in improving society
 Children should be engaged in critical analysis
 Curriculum should focus on societal problems and needs
 Curriculum should foster social action and promote social, political, economic
development (pg.170)
 Curriculum should address unmet need of the community and society (pg.169)
 Student should be given opportunities to connect outside the classroom.

(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009)

 The relationship between the different conceptions of
curriculum, educational philosophies and curriculum
designs

Conceptions Philosophical Foundations Curriculum Design

of curriculum

Problem/
Traditional: Traditional: Contemporary: Contemporary: Subject Learner society
Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Reconstruction centred centred centred
Academic * *
Technology * *
*
Cognitive * * * *
*
Humanistic * *

Social * *
reconstruction

This table shows each conception and the corresponding educational philosophy and curriculum
design they relate too

The technology and cognitive process conception comes from the

Academic conception comes from the
traditional philosophy of essentialism. The cognitive process can also
traditional philosophy of perennialism.
come from the progressivism philosophy depending on how it used with
the learner.
Academic conception is based on
subject centred and single centred Technology and cognitive process conception are based on subject
curriculum design. centred designs such as correlated and discipline curriculum design. The
cognitive process conception can also be based on learner centred designs.
Why?
Why?
They all focus on content and believe
the teacher is the main source for They all emphasize in developing and fostering student thinkers. They
knowledge. They also believe the also believe students should act as little scholars.
materials for teaching subjects should
be standard and traditional.
(Sowell,2005)

Social reconstruction conception comes from the contemporary philosophy of

reconstructionism. This conception is based on problem/society centred design.
It focuses on the life situation and reconstructionist curriculum design.

Why?

They all believe education should focus on issues and problems in society and in
an individuals life.

Humanistic conception comes from the contemporary philosophy of

progressivism. This conception is based on learner centred curriculum design.

Why?

They all believe the curriculum should focus on the learners needs and interests.
 Planning in a learner centred design

Planning, Instruction and Assessment in the Different Curriculum Designs

Learner Centred Design
How is planning done in a learner centred design?

Students are co-planners where they get to participate and be involved in the planning (Canadian Education Association,
2013). Teachers plan some topics at the beginning but they don’t plan it all. The students will have interests or inquiry
questions they show excitement for as the year progresses. Teachers will plan as they go. The students have a voice on what
they want to explore. (Canadian Education Association, 2014) In other words, it comes from the students not the teacher.
Teachers also adapt the planning to each child’s learning needs (Canadian Education Association, 2013).

In this design teachers understand the curriculum better when they focus on the learner. When teachers plan they go through
the curriculum backwards. Teachers before they plan know and understand the outcomes. Then they use the topics from the
children to plan around it. (Canadian Education Association, 2014)
Topics and learning opportunities focus on one or more curriculum area or outcome. Teachers incorporate other curriculum
areas that would supplement the topic. Using this approach teachers can integrate all the outcomes without realizing it. When
teachers don’t do an outcome they either incorporate it into another topic or extend the current topic they are doing with the
students. (Canadian Education Association, 2014) Teachers try to add a new outcome each time.

How is instruction done in a learner centred design?

Instruction can be done in peer groups and at tables. Students work together on learning opportunities. At the beginning of the
year teachers will teach how to work in groups where they talk to their students about strategies so they understand how
groups work. (Canadian Education Association, 2014) This is the same for a new topic teachers will teach them at first to
give students background knowledge. Then the students are on their own and they can construct their own learning and
discoveries. (Canadian Education Association, 2013) At this point, teachers act more as a mentor, a resource or a facilitator
with the students (TEDTalks, 2013).
They use different teaching styles with their students during instruction. If students are visual learners, hands on learners or
auditory learners they gear their activities or teaching to each child. (Canadian Education Association, 2013) Teachers also
instruct using music, dance, doodling or the arts to teach the students. Children also have a voice on what to do or how they
want to implement a learning opportunity (Canadian Education Association, 2014).
During instruction children are given time to work on projects and activities. If the work takes longer teachers provide extra
days or time slots to finish. There is not a set time frame (McMillan,2014). Instruction therefore is interactive between
teachers and students (Canadian Education Association, 2013).
 How is assessment done in a learner centred design?
Assessment is done at the beginning, middle and end of each topic. Teachers use many
modes of assessment which gives flexibility in how students demonstrate knowledge and
understanding (McMillan, 2014, pg. 6). At the beginning of the year they will assess each
What educators can use in a students. Teachers will physically ask the children how they learn, what learning
learner centred curriculum opportunities they want to do or what they need from their teachers. They use that to adapt
design to formulate their their curriculum and build on it. This helps them see what the students want in their
education. (Canadian Education Association, 2013) Teachers assess during each topic
assessment, planning and using ongoing assessment to see what a child can do independently and what they can do
instruction: with adult guidance. (Shepard, 2000). Teachers also provide ongoing feedback that is
specific and individualized to each child. This can encourage and develop a child self
Inquiry: Exploring inquiry confidence and motivation in their learning. (McMillan, 2014) Teachers assess at the end
questions of students in the of each topic using student self assessments. This helps increase students responsibility for
classroom (Canadian Associate their own learning and to make the relationship between teachers and students more
collaborative (Shepard, 2000, pg. 12).
Education, 2014).
Democracy education: Students Teachers also use other alternative forms of assessments such as teacher observations.
Teacher observations are used constantly in a learner centred design. This helps teachers
have a voice and freedom in assess their students progress, interests and understanding. Other forms of assessment that
school . these teachers use are performance based assessments such as exhibition, demonstrations or
Co-construction: Students are paintings of children’s work and knowledge. This gives children the freedom in their
responses to the topic. Teachers also assess students through oral questioning. (McMillan,
actively involved in constructing 2014). Teachers will know if their students are understanding the knowledge or not just by
their own meaning and learning the conservations they are having with them or other students. (Canadian Education
with others (Hayes, 2003). Association, 2014) They may also do this through individual interviews or conferences
(McMillan, 2014). Children also create journals of their learning or child centred portfolios.
Teachers use these to assess children’s learning. (Canadian Education Association, 2014)
Children are able to choose their own learning activities or projects. Since they have a
choice on what to do children are not assessed the same way as other children. (Canadian
Education Association, 2014) This gives students more choices in how to show mastery
and competence (McMillan, 2014, pg. 6).

Problem/Society Centred Design

How is planning done in a problem/society centred design?

Planning is done based on what is going on within society and the problems society is
facing. In other words, when something is going wrong or not working, you need to look at
the main problem; the big picture. Everything stems from something bigger and broader and
needs to be understood through that lens to be fully fixed or tweaked (Ursula Franklin, CBC
Radio). That’s why planning needs to be based on helping children prepare for the
environment in which they live. Planning also focuses on societal and environmental
issues. In this curriculum design teachers plan the curriculum backwards using
backwards mapping where they start with the outcome and then figure out what they need
to do to achieve it. (Hayes, 2003)

How is instruction done in a problem/society centred design?

Instruction is done through looking at society and social reform as a whole. Instruction is
also done through the use of technology or taking children outside into their environment
and community to learn. Learning needs to be connected to the outside world where
children need to learn about the issues and problems that are happening outside the context
of their classroom. It’s important to share with children what happening in society rather
than pushing them away from expanding and learning more about it. Children may have
thoughts or suggestions on how to make society and their environment a better place to live.

Example: Ursula F ranklin Academy has an enriched Wednesday program. The students
get to choose the courses they want to take on Wednesdays that have personal significance
to them. The curriculum areas include community building, connected knowledge, and
healthy and active living. These courses provide the students with the opportunity to
connect with other students from around the world or in other classes. It also provides them
with an opportunity to connect to their community and society by giving them experiences
to learn about societal issues that are happening in their lives. (Ursula Franklin Academy,
2015)
 Instruction in a problem centred design

How is assessment done in a problem/society centred design?

Assessment is based on a changing society. The diagram listed above comes
from the Ursula Franklin Academy. The list informs educators that they need
to assess real life issues and make sure the children are better prepared to
actively participate in society that is always facing challenges. Assessments
in this curriculum design are usually provided to the children before the
learning opportunity or project. The children have a clear picture and idea on
what is expected of them in the task. (Hayes, 2003) This design also believes
assessment should enhance a child’s learning and not just be used to
document the learning that transpires in an activity. Assessment should also
be used in a way to provide feedback or give children a chance to evaluate
and assess themselves through self assessment. (McMillian, 2014)

Subject Centred Design

How is planning done in a subject centred design?

 Planning is done based on the subjects and the curriculum

 Teachers organizes the content and their lesson plans based on what students are
expected to know in each subject

 The planning and the teaching materials used are all standard and traditional

How is instruction done in a subject centred design?

 Instruction is done based on standardization and is teacher directed

 The learning and the knowledge is all taught to the children

 Instruction is done through the curriculum and is based on getting children to

gain the skills teachers want them to achieve

 Instruction is also done through testing, reporting and standard lessons created
by the teacher
 Planning and assessment in a subject centred design

How is assessment done in a subject centred design?

 Teachers align assessment to state standards and content driven standards using the
standard based education.

 There are common objectives that are used to assess each student ‘s learning. In
doing this student’s achieve better on tests.

 One form of assessment that is most commonly used is high stake tests or
standardized tests. These types of tests influence teacher ‘s effectiveness and the
content they provide in the classroom. When they have these large scale tests
teachers use it as bases for assessment. They focus a lot on test prep by aligning tests
in the classroom to support these large scale test formats. Teachers also use
technology in evaluating and assessing students learning. (McMillian, 2014)

 Assessment is usually done after instruction but it is also done throughout in both
formal or informal ways. Some assessments that are done in a subject centred
classroom include both selected response assessments or constructed response
assessments. This could come in a form of multiple choice, matching, true and false,
short answer, label a diagram or show your work responses. There is usually one
right answer. This can be seen in tests and exams which is fundamental to assessing
children’s understanding and knowledge in this type of curriculum design. But essays
and papers with restricted responses and teacher created portfolios are also used.
These questions or responses are the same for every child. Teachers also use oral
questioning and teacher observations in formal ways. They use it as a way to test or
as a way to determine students understanding (McMillian, 2014, pg. 61).

 Assessments are done to support specific instructional goals that the teacher puts in
place. (Shepard, 2000). Assessments are usually preplanned before the learning
activities are determined (Hayes, 2003). Assessments are seen as separate from
instruction. (Shepard, 2000)

 Teachers provide a set time frame for assessments to be completed where they may
not allow for extra time.

 Teachers provide feedback to the learner about performance which will lead to self
correction and improvement ( Shepard, 2000, pg.11).

 Teachers provide children with the same scoring criteria and how they will be
evaluated before the assessment. Teachers use the same form of assessment for every
student making it standardized. Reporting is also standard for each student.
(McMillian, 2014)
 Curriculum in a Childcare
The conceptions of curriculum, the different educational philosophies and curriculum designs can be used as a tool for analyzing planning, instruction and
assessment in different professional settings. At any setting, you can view your content, the subject matter, the role the teachers play, how you format the
curriculum, your teaching style and the evaluation and assessment procedures used. By analyzing these elements you can see what view is being taken to
develop, organize and present the curriculum to students.
At my daycare setting, we have no set curriculum. We just have a philosophy we use to plan activities. We focus on the planning, instruction and
assessment aspect. When using the conceptions of curriculum, educational philosophies and curriculum designs to analyze how we plan and implement our
programs I found we use different ones. We focus on the cognitive process, technology and humanistic conception. We also focus on the essentialism and
progressivism philosophy as well as use subject and learner centred design. When we program plan we focus on developmental areas such as social,
emotional, cognitive, language, and literacy, motor and creative. In relation to the humanistic conception we focus on the whole child. In each
developmental area there are skills that a child needs to learn and be taught for them to fully participate as individuals. For example, they need to learn
their numbers, letters, colours, shapes, learn skills on how to socialize with others, how to share and take turns, learn how to express emotions
appropriately, learn how to hold a pencil, learn how to kick a ball etc. We focus on these areas and many other skills in our activity plans. The main area
that we focus on is cognitive where we integrate these skills in all activity plans. For example, we may plan an art and craft activity that will support a
specific skill in fine motor, a specific skill in creative and cognitive. We hope through our program plans the children will learn the necessary skills needed
to move to the next level in their development. This relates to the cognitive process conception because we believe in shaping the cognitive skills of the
children so they learn the tools and skills needed to participate actively in other contexts. This idea also supports the essentialism philosophy because we
believe in focusing on teaching essential skills to the children. But how we plan also supports the technology conception and the subject centred design
because all the skills we incorporate into our plans are predetermined skills that a child at a specific age must achieve. We believe this helps a child progress
better in their learning.

We also incorporate humanistic ideas in our planning. We use a play based philosophy to plan our activities for the children. This philosophy believes
children learn about themselves, the world and others through play and social interactions. We try to capture that in our program plans when we create
hands on, playful, child centred activities that allow children to discover and explore their play materials freely. To us each child is unique and has a
potential to learn, so our plans are individualized to the children’s needs and interests. If some children have an interest in cars, buildings or animals then we
plan activities around that interest and we explore that topic. Also if children are at different levels in their development then we gear our activity plans
towards those needs so each child can be included. This relates to the humanistic approach, the learner centred design and the progressivism philosophy
where a curriculum should focus on active participation of individuals in the planning giving them the opportunity to learn on their own and gain personal
fulfilment of their abilities (Orstien & Hunkins, 2013). Our activity plans and use of play materials help our children gain confidence in their own skills.

When looking at how we use instruction, I found we use both humanistic, academic and technology. But it also supports the subject centred and learner
centred design. There are moments where we use a teacher directed approach where we sometimes use the traditional ways of teaching children. We may
focus more on the product rather then the process of learning. We feel that if we don’t teach them these skills at a young age they won’t learn the skills
needed to participate in the public school system. We tend to implement teaching related activities where we teach them something like letter recognition or
French. It usually involves us telling them what to do. We may also use a computer program to instruct and transmit information to the children. For
example, to teach French we use a computer with video recordings of songs for the children to listen to and sing. This relates to academic rationalism and
technology as well as subject centred design because it’s a teacher focused instruction that we choose. But sometimes, we change our role and act more like
a resource or a guide where we step back and let the children learn on their own where we provide individual choice or free play. The children get to choose
the activities they want to play with and how they want the activity to be implemented. We give the children the opportunity to work with peers or they can
sit on the floor or at the table to do their activity. The children have as long as they want on their activities since there is not a set time frame. We also feel a
child needs an adult who is nurturing, caring and respectful which can help a child develop in our classroom. This is what a teacher in a humanistic and
learner centred classroom displays.

When looking at assessment we don’t focus on the formative assessments we do more informative assessments of children’s learning. This relates to the
humanistic, progressivism and learner centred design. Before we plan we observe the children in their play. We observe the conservations they are having
with other children or the materials they are playing with to see what their interests are and where they are developmentally. We document these ideas and
interests and use them in our planning of activities and the type of teaching style we use to teach the children. We also assess the children during the
implementation of activities to see how the children are learning or grasping the skills we wanted to work on. We do that through oral conversations,
documentation of children’s work, taking pictures or through the use of anecdotal observations. Then we use these evaluation pieces to try to make
connections to other things the children want to learn about to expand their understanding. At the end of each topic, with the help of the children we make a
child centred scrapbook of all the children’s accomplishments to show the parents. In my centre we are always doing assessment not just at the end of each
topic. This supports the humanistic conception and learner centred design because we are focusing on the child and their learning where they get a chance
to be involved in documenting and assessing their own learning.

Using the conceptions, philosophies and curriculum designs to analyze my professional context allowed me to go deeper into how educators at my work
plan and implement program plans and assess the children. I never knew we took different viewpoints to define our philosophy and incorporated them into
the learning opportunities we present to the children. It showed me that the traditional way is still being used sometimes influencing our choice of focusing
strictly on the individual. I learned using these conceptions, philosophies and designs can be helpful because it makes people see what view they are taking
and what they could do to change or adjust their curriculum to make it better for the learner.