#MICROPHONES

How and Why Microphones Work

Microphones appear in an almost endless variety of shapes, sizes, and

design types, but no matter what their physical attributes, their purpose is the
same—to convert acoustic vibrations (in the form of air pressure) to electrical
energy so it can be amplified or recorded. Most achieve this by the action of
the air vibrating a diaphragm connected to something that either creates or
allows a small electron flow.

There are three basic mechanical techniques that are used in building
microphones for professional audio purposes, but all three types have the
same three major parts:

A Diaphragm​—The sound waves strike the diaphragm, causing it to vibrate

in sympathy with the sound wave. In order to accurately reproduce high
frequency sounds, it must be as light as possible.
A Transducer​—The mechanical vibrations of the diaphragm are converted
into an electronic signal by the transducer.

A Casing​—As well as providing mechanical support and protec-tion for the

diaphragm and transducer, the casing can also be made to help control the
directional response of the microphone.

Let’s take a close look at the three types of microphones.

The Dynamic Microphone

The dynamic microphone is the workhorse of the microphone breed. Ranging

from really inexpensive to moderately expensive, there’s a dynamic model to
fit just about any application.

HOW IT WORKS

In a moving coil (or more commonly

called “dynamic”) micro-phone,
sound waves cause movement of a
thin metallic diaphragm and an
attached coil of wire that is located
inside a permanent magnet. When
sound waves make the diaphragm
vibrate, the connected coils also
vibrate in the magnetic field, causing
current to flow. Since the current is
produced by the motion of the dia-phragm and the amount of current is determined by
the speed of that motion, this kind of microphone is known as velocity sensitive.

The ability of the microphone to respond to transients and higher frequency

signals is dependent upon how heavy the moving parts are. In this type of
microphone, both the diaphragm and the coil move, so that means it’s
relatively heavy. As a result, the frequency response falls off above about
10kHz.
The microphone also has a resonant frequency (a frequency or group of
frequencies that is emphasized) that is typically somewhere from about 1 to
4kHz. This resonant response is sometimes called the presence peak, since
it occurs in the frequency region that directly affects voice intelligibility.
Because of this natural effect, dynamic microphones are often preferred by
vocalists, especially in sound reinforcement.

These microphones tend to be expensive because they’re some-what

complex to manufacture, but they’re generally very robust (you can actually
hammer nails with some of them—and they’ll still work!) and insensitive to
changes in humidity.

Advantages Robust and durable, can be relatively inexpensive, insensitive

to changes in humidity, need no external or internal power to operate,
can be made fairly small.

Disadvantages Resonant peak in the frequency response, typically weak

high-frequency response beyond 10kHz.

The Ribbon Microphone

The ribbon microphone operates almost

the same as the moving coil microphone.
The major difference is that the transducer
is a strip of extremely thin aluminum foil
wide enough and light enough to be
vibrated directly by the moving molecules
of air of the sound wave, so no separate
diaphragm is necessary. However, the
electrical signal generated is very small
compared to a moving coil microphone, so
an output transformer is needed to boost the signal to a usable level.
Like the dynamic microphone, the high frequency response is governed by
the mass of the moving parts. But because the diaphragm is also the
transducer, the mass is usually a lot less than a dynamic type. As a result,
the upper frequency response tends to reach slightly higher, to around
14kHz. The frequency response is also generally flatter than for a moving coil
microphone.

All good studio ribbon mics provide more opportunity to EQ to taste since
they “take” EQ well. Ribbon mics have their resonance peak at the bottom of
their frequency range, which means that a ribbon just doesn’t add any extra
high frequency hype like condenser mics do.

Advantages Relatively flat frequency response, extended high frequency

response as compared to dynamics, needs no external or internal power to
operate.

Disadvantages ​Fragile—requires care during operation and handling,

moderately expensive.

The Condenser Microphone

The condenser microphone has two electrically charged plates: one that can move,
which acts as a diaphragm, and one that is fixed, called a backplate. This is, in effect, a
capacitor (or “con-denser”) with a positively and negatively charged electrode and an air
space in between. Sound depresses the diaphragm, causing a change in the spacing
between it and the backplate. This change in capacitance and distance between it and
the back plate causes a change in voltage potential that can be amplified to a usable
level. To boost this small voltage, a vacuum tube or FET transistors are used as an
amplifier. This is why a battery or phantom power is needed to charge the plates and
also to run the preamp. Because the voltage requirements to power a vacuum tube are
so high and therefore require some large and heavy components, some microphones
have the power supply in a separate outboard box.
 A condenser has an omnidirectional
pickup pattern in its native state. In
order to make it directional, little holes
are punched in the backplate. The
object of the holes is to delay the
arrival of sound at the rear of the
diaphragm to coincide with the same
sound at the front, which then cancels the sound out. The size and position of the holes
determine the frequencies that will be cancelled.

Most large diaphragm condensers are multi-pattern microphones. This

design consists of a single backplate placed between two diaphragms. By
varying how much signal from each diaphragm is fed to the preamp, the
microphone can have select-able patterns ranging from a tight cardioid to a
figure-8 to full omnidirectional.

Condenser mics, however, always ring (resonate) a bit, typically in the 8 to

12kHz range. A condenser mic’s pattern of resonances is a major part of its
character. Their built-in top end response bump limits the EQ you might want
to add, since a little bit of high frequency boost can start to sound a bit “edgy”
rather quickly.

ELECTRET CONDENSER
Another less expensive type of condenser microphone is the electret condenser. An
electret microphone uses a per-manently polarized electret material as a diaphragm,
thus avoiding the necessity for the biasing DC voltage required in a conventional
condenser. Electrets can be made very small and inexpensively and are the typical
microphones on portable tape recorders. Better quality electret condensers incorporate
a preamplifier to match their extremely high impedance and boost the signal. One of the
problems with early electret condenser microphones is that the electret material loses
its charge over time.

Advantages ​Excellent high frequency and upper harmonic response, can have
excellent low frequency response.
Disadvantages ​Moderate to very expensive, requires external powering, can be
relatively bulky; low cost (and some expensive) models can suffer from poor or
inconsistent frequency response, two mics of the same model may sound quite
different, humidity and temperature affect performance.

PHANTOM POWER

Unlike dynamic and ribbon microphones, all condenser microphones require

power of some type. Older tube condensers require an outboard power
supply, while electret condensers are some-times powered with a battery. All
other condenser microphones require a power from an outside source called
“phantom power.” This is a 48-volt DC power source fed by a recording
console or microphone preamp over the same cable that carries the audio.
On most recording consoles, phantom power is switchable, since it may
cause a loud pop when disconnecting a cable connected to a dynamic mic.

Microphone Specifications

While hardly anyone selects a microphone on specifications, it’s good to

know some of the issues. The following won’t delve too much into the actual
electronic specs as much as the considerations they imply on your
application.
SENSITIVITY
This is a measure of how much electrical output is produced by a given
sound pressure. In other words, this tells you how loud a microphone is.
Generally speaking, for the same sound pressure, ribbon microphones are
the quietest, while condensers, thanks to their built-in preamplifier, are the
loudest.

Where this might be a concern is in how your signal chain is responding

when recording loud signals. For instance, a condenser mic on a loud source
might easily overload the console or outboard microphone preamp because
of its inherent high output.

On the other hand, the low output of a ribbon mic placed on a quiet source
might cause you to turn up that same mic preamp to such a point that
electronic noise becomes an issue.

Sensitivity ratings for microphones may not be exactly comparable, since different
manufacturers use different rating systems. Typically, the microphone output (in a
sound field of specified intensity) is stated in dB (decibels) compared to a reference
level. Most reference levels are well above the output level of the microphone, so the
resulting number (in dB) will be negative. Thus, as in Figure 4, a ribbon microphone with
a sensitivity rating of -38 will provide a 16dB hotter signal than a microphone with a
sensitivity of -54dB, which will in turn provide a 6dB hotter signal than one rated at
-60dB. ​Note that good sensitivity does not necessarily make a microphone “better” for
an application.​

OVERLOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Any microphone will produce distortion when it is overdriven by loud sounds.
This is caused by various factors. With a dynamic microphone, the coil may
be pulled out of the magnetic field; in a condenser, the internal amplifier might
clip. Sustained overdriving or extremely loud sounds can permanently distort
the diaphragm, degrading performance at ordinary sound levels. In the case
of a ribbon mic, the ribbon could be stretched out of shape, again causing the
performance to seriously degrade. Loud sounds are encountered more often
than you might think, especially if you place the mic very close to loud
instruments like a snare drum or the bell of a trumpet. In fact, in many large
facilities, a microphone that has been used on a kick drum, for instance, is
labeled as such and is not used on any other instrument afterward.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Although a flat frequency response has been the main goal of microphone
companies for the last three or four decades, that doesn’t necessarily mean
that a mic is the right one for the job. In fact, a “colored” microphone can be
more desirable in some applications where the source either has too much
emphasis in a frequency range or not enough. Many mics have a deliberate
emphasis at certain frequencies because that makes them useful for some
applications (vocals in a live situation, for example). In general, though,
problems in frequency response are mostly encountered with sounds
originating off-axis from the mic’s principal directional pattern.

NOISE
Noise in a microphone comes in two varieties: self-noise generated by the
mic itself (as in the case of condenser microphones) and handling noise.

Condenser microphones are most prone to self-noise because a preamplifier

must be used to amplify the very small signals that are produced by the
capsule. Indeed, the signal must be amplified by a factor of over a thousand,
and any electrical noise produced by the microphone will also be amplified,
making even slight amounts intolerable. Dynamic and ribbon microphones
are essentially noise free but subject to handling noise.

Handling noise is the unwanted pickup of mechanical vibra-tion through the

body of the microphone. Many microphones intended for handheld use
require very sophisticated shock mountings built inside the shell.
Polar Patterns (Directional Response)

The directional response of a microphone is the way in which the microphone

responds to sounds coming from different directions around the microphone.
The directional response is determined more by the casing surrounding the
microphone than by the type of transducer it uses.

The directional response of a microphone is recorded on a polar diagram.

This polar diagram shows the level of signal pick-up (sometimes shown in
decibels) from all angles and at different frequency ranges​. It should be
noted that all mics respond differently at different frequencies. For example,
a mic can be very directional at one frequency (usually higher frequencies)
but virtually omni-directional at another.

A microphone’s polar response pattern can determine its use-fulness in

different applications, particularly multi-microphone settings where proximity
of sound sources makes microphone leakage a problem.

There are four typical patterns commonly found in microphone design:

OMNIDIRECTIONAL

An omnidirectional microphone picks up sound

equally from all directions. The ideal
omnidirectional response is where equal
pickup occurs from all directions at all
frequencies.
FIGURE-8
Figure-8 (or bidirectional)
microphones pick up almost
equally in the front and back, but
nearly nothing on each side. It
should be noted that the
frequency response is usually a
little better (as in brighter) on the
front side of the microphone,
although the level will seem about
the same.

Because the sensitivity on the sides is so

low, figure-8s are often used when a high

degree of rejection is required.

CARDIOID

The cardioid microphone has strong pickup on the

axis (in the front) of the microphone, but reduced
pickup off-axis (to the side and to the back). This
provides a somewhat heart-shaped pattern,
hence the name “cardioid.”
HYPERCARDIOID MICROPHONES

By changing the number and size of the ports

(openings) on the case, it is possible to
increase the directionality of a microphone so
that there is even less sensitivity to sounds on
the back and sides.

PROXIMITY EFFECT

A peculiarity of the pressure gradient microphone is that it has a different

frequency response in the near and far fields. Cardioid and hypercardioid
microphones experience low frequency build-up the closer you get to the
mic, which is known as proximity effect. In many cases this can be used to
good effect, adding “warmth” and “fullness” to the source, but it can also
make the frequency response seem out of balance if it is not taken into
account.
# EQUALIZERS

Equalization,​ or ​EQ for short, means boosting or reducing (attenuating) the levels of
different frequencies in a signal.

The most basic type of equalization familiar to most people is the treble/bass control on
home audio equipment. The treble control adjusts high frequencies, the bass control
adjusts low frequencies. This is adequate for very rudimentary adjustments — it only
provides two controls for the entire frequency spectrum, so each control adjusts a fairly
wide range of frequencies.

Advanced equalization systems provide a fine level of frequency control. The key is to
be able to adjust a narrower range of frequencies without affecting neighbouring
frequencies.
Equalization is most commonly used to correct signals which sound unnatural. For
example, if a sound was recorded in a room which accentuates high frequencies, an
equalizer can reduce those frequencies to a more normal level. Equalization can also
be used for applications such as making sounds more intelligible and ​reducing
feedback​.

There are several common types of equalization, described below.

Shelving EQ

In shelving equalization, all frequencies above or below a certain point are

boosted or attenuated the same amount. This creates a "shelf" in the frequency
spectrum.
Bell EQ

Bell equalization boosts or attenuates a range of frequencies centred around a certain

point. The specified point is affected the most, frequencies further from the point are
affected less.
Graphic EQ

A graphic EQ typically consists of a bank of slider controls used to boost or cut fixed
frequency bands. A well-designed graphic EQ creates an output frequency response
that corresponds as closely as possible to the curve displayed graphically by the sliders.
Designers of analog EQs must carefully choose the bandwidth of the filter and decide
how the bandwidth should vary with gain and how the filters are summed or cascaded.
In general, narrower bandwidth signifies a more precise EQ.
Parametric EQ

The parametric EQ is a mainstay of recording and live sound because it offers

continuous control over every parameter. A parametric equalizer offers continuous
control over the audio signal’s frequency content, which is divided into several bands of
frequencies (most commonly three to seven bands).

You will find parametric EQs in the following configurations:

● Fully Parametric.
 ​The 4- and 6-band EQs in the ​StudioLive™ Series III mixers​are good examples
of a fully parametric hardware EQs, offering control of the gain (boost/cut) for
each frequency band, the center frequency of the midrange bands, and the cutoff
frequency for the low and high bands. A fully parametric EQ offers continuous
control of the bandwidth, which determines the range of frequencies affected, or
control over the Q, which is the ratio of the center frequency to the bandwidth.
For most purposes, a Q control accomplishes the same thing as a bandwidth
control but the two are not identical. More on that in a minute.

● Semi-Parametric.

​On a
semi-parametric EQ, like the 3-band EQ available on the stereo channels of the
StudioLive AR-series mixers​, the gain and frequency are adjustable but the Q
and bandwidth are fixed at a preset value.
● Quasi-Parametric.

A variation on the semi-parametric is the quasi-parametric EQ, which

typically provides full frequency and gain adjustment but only two or
three Q settings. The EQ in the StudioLive 16.0.2USB digital mixer’s
Fat Channel is an example of a quasi-parametric EQ, offering a simple
choice of high or low Q settings for the mid band.
#SPEAKERS

The purpose of a loudspeaker is to convert an electrical signal into sound waves

providing the most faithful reproduction that is feasible for its design.

There is obviously a very wide range in the quality of loudspeakers. Cost size, and
many other factors contribute to the overall quality.

Often loudspeakers are taken for granted. They are either contained within a radio or
other audio player, or possibly within a loudspeaker system, possibly containing two or
more loudspeaker drive units.

There are a number of different loudspeaker drive unit technologies as described below.
These can then be contained within different types of enclosures. Each factor needs to
be taken into consideration when designing or selecting a loudspeaker system​.

Loudspeaker types & technologies

There are several different technologies and approaches used within loudspeakers. As
a result there are several different types of loudspeaker that can be used, and mention
of these will often be seen in the literature.
● Moving coil: The moving coil type of loudspeaker is the type that is most
commonly seen.
It consists of a
cone attached to
a coil that is held
within a magnetic
field. The moving
coil loudspeaker
s the type which
everyone thinks
about when
looking for a loudspeaker unit. It basically consists of a diaphragm, typically
attached to a coil through which the audio is passed.
● Horn: The horn loudspeaker type is often used for tweeters. Although it uses
the same electromagnetic effect as the moving coil loudspeaker, a diaphragm
held within a magnetic field that is varied in line with the audio. This causes
the

diaphragm to vibrate and these vibrations are then magnified by a horn.

Horn loudspeakers are used in many areas of auto technology, and although
they are used to good effect in some high quality applications, they tend to be
found more widely in public address and outside uses.

The horn loudspeaker consists of a transducer, which is often a moving coil

transducer, and this is connected to a horn. This can be thought of as a
matching element very similar to a waveguide horn antenna, and this enables
much higher levels of efficiency to be obtained. This could be noticed on old
 gramophones that used a horn to enable the sound to reach usable levels.
Without the horn, the gramophone sound was almost inaudible.
● Electrostatic: The electrostatic loudspeaker type uses a totally different
principle to that of the moving coil
and horn loudspeaker types.
Instead the electrostatic
loudspeaker is one in which sound
is generated by utilising the force
exerted on a membrane
suspended in an electrostatic field.
These are various other
technologies that can all be used to
create loudspeakers.

Loudspeaker systems
Loudspeaker systems vary enormously. Some only have a single drive unit or
loudspeaker unit, but often these single speaker systems have limited response at the
low and high frequency ends of the frequency spectrum.

As a result many systems consist of two or even three different loudspeaker drive units,
each targeted at covering a different frequency range.

It can be seen from the

diagram above of a typical
hi-fi loudspeaker system, that
there are several elements to
the overall system.
Loudspeaker drive units

The loudspeaker units themselves are of paramount importance as they convert the
electrical currents into sound waves. Hi-Fi loudspeakers may have one or more
loudspeakers of the different types mentioned below. For free standing systems two and
sometimes there speakers with different ranges are used.

● Crossover unit: If multiple speakers are used, then it helps to have the
required frequencies routed to the relevant speakers. Traditionally crossover
units tended to consist of inductors and capacitors and many still do today.
Modern amplifiers sometimes have different outputs for low end and top end
speakers, so in this case the crossover unit is effectively contained within the
amplifier.
● Cabinet: There are many different types of loudspeaker cabinet. Often an
infinite baffle system is used, that consists of a closed box. This needs to be
as rigid and airtight as possible to ensure that the only vibrations come from
the loudspeakers themselves. Accordingly these boxes are made from very
rigid wood or other material.
● Internal sound absorbed material: To prevent resonances being set up
inside the loudspeaker cabinet, sound absorbed material is used within the
infinite baffle systems.

Loudspeaker frequency ranges

When looking into speakers and their technology, reference will be seen to a number of
different types of loudspeaker for different frequency ranges. Often some hi-fi speaker
systems are made up from a number of different speakers to enable them to cover the
complete audio frequency range as it is not possible for a single speaker to cover the
whole range.

● Subwoofer: The sub-woofer loudspeaker is intended to reproduce the very

low frequencies, especially giving a sense of ‘feel’ to the sound. Typically a
sub-woofer loudspeaker would reproduce frequencies in the region of 20Hz or
so up to just over 100Hz. Subwoofers are present in systems where extending
the bass response to very low frequencies is needed.
 ● Woofer: The woofer is the loudspeaker that is used in many loudspeaker
systems to provide the reproduction of low frequencies. Often its range will
extend down to around 30Hz or so and possibly up to 500 Hz or may be even
1 kHz.
● Mid range / squawker: As the name of this type of loudspeaker implies, it is
intended to reproduce the mid range sounds A mid range loudspeaker might
typically be used to cover frequencies between about 200 or 300 Hz and 5
kHz to 7 kHz or thereabouts.
● High frequency loudspeaker / tweeter: The high frequency loudspeaker is
often called a tweeter in view of the fact that it reproduces the high
frequencies, often above 2 to 5 kHz.

The frequency ranges for the different loudspeakers are only approximate, because
different loudspeakers have different frequency ranges and different loudspeaker
systems are designed in different ways with speakers covering slightly different ranges.

Loudspeaker enclosures

Most loudspeakers are mounted in an enclosure or cabinet. This not only protects the
loudspeaker from damage, but it also enhances the performance of the sound.

Some hi-fidelity systems can cost significant amounts. A huge amount of design can be
invested in the loudspeaker cabinet.

Several different types of cabinet and mounting system are used: baffle including the
infinite baffle, doublet, infinite baffle, reflex, column, transmission line and more.

Each of these different types of loudspeaker enclosure has its own advantages and
disadvantages and can be used to its best effect in different situations.