DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof.

Manish Prakash

Conveyance of Water
After collection of water from intake it is transported or conveyed to the treatment plant or
reservoir or distribution thorough conduits. Water is carried from intake to treatment plant
through transmission mains. If the flow of water in a transmission main is maintained by
creating a pressure head by pumping, it is called a pumping main. On the other hand, if the
flow in a transmission main is maintained by gravitational potential available on account of
elevation difference, it is called gravity main. Similarly the conveyance of water from
reservoir to distribution network is done through distribution main.

Conduit
It is the device used to carry water. In the ancient times water was conveyed thorough open
channels or wooden log channels. Slowly the use of masonry chamber of rectangular and
circular cross-section was introduced and then these open channels were closed from to form
closed conduit. Basically conduits can be classified into:
A. Gravity conduit
These are the conduits in which water flows under the action of gravity and there is a free
water surface exposed to the atmosphere (Open channel flow). Eg. canals, aqueducts,
tunnels etc.
B. Pressured conduit
These are the conduits where water can flow under pressure.Eg pipes, pressure tunnels
etc.

Pipes
Pipes are the circular conduits through which the water may flow under pressure in water
supply. Pipes should be designed to resist the internal water pressure and external pressure
due to soil and other imposed loads.

Pipe Materials
Pipes may be made of the following materials:
i. Cast Iron (CI) pipes
It is made of cast iron and is extensively used for conveyance of water.
Advantages
High resistant to corrosion, long life span of about 100 years, easy to join, withstand high
pressure
Disadvantages
Brittle, very heavy so difficult to transport and expensive
Suitability
Suitable for distribution system

ii. Ductile Iron (DI) pipes

Ductile Iron (also known as Spheroidal graphite iron or Nodular Cast Iron) was invented
in 1949. DI retains the corrosion resistance of CI but has more than double the tensile
strength [CI- 180 MPa (min), DI - 420 MPa (min)].

46
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Advantages
It offers higher tensile strength than mild steel and retains the inherent corrosion resistance
of cast iron. It provides substantial benefits in terms of pressure bearing ability, impact
resistance and capacity to sustain external static/ dynamic loading.
Suitability
Suitable for use in water supply and pressure sewerage

iii. Wrought Iron (WI) pipes

It is made of wrought iron and is manufactured by rolling the flat plates of metal to proper
diameter and welding to the edge.
Advantages
Light in weight, easy in transport, handling, cutting, threading, joining, gives neat
appearance
Disadvantages
Costly, corrosive and less durable than CI pipes
Suitability
Suitable for inside plumbing in building but not used nowadays due to high cost.

iv. Steel pipes

Construction of steel pipes is similar to the WI pipes and can be joined by joined by
riveting or welding with life of 25-30 years.
Advantages
Strong, light weight, can withstand high pressure and cheaper than CI pipes
Disadvantages
It cannot withstand external load and when there is now water inside, liable to
corrosion,costly to maintain and costlier than CI pipes
Suitability
Occasionally used for main lines where pressure is high and diameter is more and not used
in distribution system

v. Galvanized Iron (GI) pipes

It is made of WI or mild steel which are galvanized by providing a protective coating of
zinc on inner and outer surface of pipe.
Advantages
Cheap, light, easy in handling and transport, easy in joining with screwed socket joints and
20 years of life
Disadvantages
Get corroded by acidic and alkaline water and liable to incrustation

vi. Cement Concrete pipes

It is made of cement concrete (precast or cast in site). PCC are up to 60 cm diameters and
used where pressure is less than 15 m of water and for diameter greater than 60 cm, RCC
should be used.

47
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Advantages
Can resist corrosion, maintenance cost is low, least thermal expansion and life span of
above 75 years.
Disadvantages
Liable to leak due to porosity, precast type is heavy to handle and transport, cannot resist
high water pressure, difficult to join and repair
Suitability
Generally used in such place where water does not flow under pressure

vii. Asbestos Cement (AC) pipes

It is made of mixture of cement and asbestos fibers, manufactured in 5 to 130 cm diameter,
resists internal pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2.
Advantages
It is not affected by salt water and corrosive water. It is smooth, light in weight
Disadvantages
It is affected by alkali and acid and also brittle in nature.
Suitability
Suitable for small size distribution pipes

viii. Plastic pipes

It is very common nowadays and heavily used in Nepal because it is corrosion resistant,
light in weight and economical. It is not used for transporting hot water. There are various
types of plastic pipes:
a) Low density polyethylene (LDPE) pipes
These pipes are flexible, found up to 63 mm outer diameter. This pipe requires support
closer due to flexibility. Used in long runs (point to point conveyance) and not suitable
for installation of internal water supply.
b) High density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes
These pipes are tough than LDPE. It can be manufactured up to 1600 mm. Outer
diameter of 25 to 90 mm is used in rural water supply in Nepal. It is cheaper in cost
than other, durable (life of 50 years), smooth, resists corrosion, light and easily jointed
and bent. Different diameter to resist 4, 6 and 10 kg/cm2 can be available. It is not
suitable for hot water supply. It is heavily used in rural water supply in Nepal.
c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes
These pipes can be jointed easily by using fittings and three times rigid than
polyethylene, strong in resisting pressure. It can resist inorganic acids, alkalis, salts and
organic chemicals. Used in external and internal cold water supply system, water mains,
rainwater pipe, waste pipe etc.

ix. Wooden pipes

It is made of wood by making channels or boring at centre and used in ancient times. It
isnot used in water supply nowadays.

48
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Fig. Wooden Pipes

x. Lead and Copper pipes
Copper pipe is made of copper and can resist corrosion even if water contains some acids.
It can be easily bent and do not sag in case of hot water supply. It is expensive so used
only in making gooseneck in house connection and for carrying hot water inside buildings.
Lead is soluble in water so lead pipe causes lead poisoning hence it is not used in water
supply nowadays.

Fig. Water Connection

Pipe Joints
For ease in handling and transportation and placing in position, pipes are manufactured in
small length of 2-6 m. So the pipes should be joined together after placing in the position for
continuation. A device required to join the pipe is called pipe joint. Hence, proper joint
should be used as per condition, material of pipe, internal water pressure and condition of
support. Following types of joints are commonly used in water supply pipe lines:

i. Spigot and socket joint

This is used for CI pipes. At joining, spigot of one end of a pipe is slipped in socket or bell
end of other pipe and yarn or hemp is wrapped around spigot tightly up to 5 cm depth and
a gasket or joint runner is clamped in place of round joint to fit tightly. Now the molten
lead is poured into the V shape opening left on the top by clamped joint runner. Now the
space between hemp or yarn and clamp runner is filled with molten lead. Now the runner
is removed after hardening of lead and again tightened by chalking tool and hammer.
About 3.5 kg to 4 kg lead is required up to 150 mm diameter pipes and 40 to 45 kg for 120
cm diameter pipe per joint. The cost is high but makes perfect joint.

49
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

The push on flexible joint, also called push-on joint. In this case a rubber gasket is placed
in the socket end of the preceding pipe and the spigot end of the succeeding pipe is
inserted through the gasket into the socket. The gasket is thus compressed to
approximately 50 % of its normal thickness which thus makes the joint water tight. The
gasket has a hard ‘Heel’ and a soft ‘Bulb’. In Push-on joint the soft bulb of the rubber
gasket is compressed when the spigot is inserted into the socket. The ‘Heel’ locks the
position of the gasket and does not allow the gasket to get displaced when the spigot is
pushed in. The joint becomes tighter with the increase in internal pressure of water. The
rubber is confined in a place and cannot blow out.

Lead Caulked Joint Pushed on Flexible Joint

Mechanical Joint
Fig. Spigot and Socket Joint
ii. Flanged joint
It is used for temporary pipelines of CI, GI, WI and steel pipes because it is easy to
dismantle and reassemble. In this case, both pipes have flange at both ends or flange can
be screwed or welded. The flanges are brought together and one hard rubber washer is
placed between flanges then bolted for water tightened. These joints are not used at
vibration and deflection places. It is suitable for pumping station filter plant, laboratories
and boiler house.

50
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Fig. Flange Joint

iii. Expansion joint
It checks the settling due to thermal stress and so used in the place where pipes expands or
contracts due to change in temperature. In this joint, socket end is flanged with CI follower
ring which can be freely slide on the spigot end and an elastic rubber gasket is tightly
pressed between annular space of socket and spigot by means of bolt. When pipe expands
socket end moves forward in the space provided and moves backward if contracts. Elastic
rubber gasket keeps joint watertight.

Fig. Expansion Joint

iv. Collar joint
Collar joint is most commonly used for joining concrete and asbestos cement pipes. A
collar made of reinforced cement concrete is used for making this joint. For joining the
pipe with this joint, two ends of pipe is brought in one level and rubber gasket is placed
between steel rings or jute rope soaked in cement is kept on groove and collar is placed so
that some lap on both pipes is remained. Then 1:1 cement mortar is filled between the
space of collar and pipe.

Fig. Collar Joint

51
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

v. Screwed and socket joint

This joint is used for small diameter CI, WI and GI pipes for internal plumbing. Both pipe
ends have threads and socket is screwed to connect them. In order to make the joint water
tight, a few strands of jute or hemp and zinc white (safeda) are placed in the threads before
sockets are screwed.

Fig. Screwed and Socket Joint

vi. Mechanical joint

It is used in CI, steel or WI pipes when both end are plain or spigot. Dresser coupling
mechanical joint is used in water supply over bridges to bear vibration. There are two
types of mechanical joints: Dresser coupling and Victaulic coupling
a. Dresser coupling
This type of joint or coupling may be used for cast iron pipes, wrought iron pipes and steel
pipes with plain ends. The joint consists of a sleeve (or middle ring), two gasket rings (or
rubber packing rings) and tow follower rings connected by bolts. The sleeve and the
follower rings are made of steel or iron. The follower ring and the gasket ring are slipped
over the ends of each of the two pipes to be joined. The sleeve is then slipped over the
ends of one of the pipes and the end of the other pipe is inserted into the sleeve. The gasket
rings are then pushed and set under compression on either side of the sleeve by tightening
the bolts connecting the follower rings. The slipping of the joint or coupling on the pipe, as
result of expansion and contraction, can be prevented by placing a middle lug, cast on the
sleeve, between the ends of the pipes or the joint.
These joints are flexible, water tight, and durable, and no special skill or tools are required
in making the joint. Further these joints can withstand vibrations and are, therefore, useful
for pipes to be carried over bridges or below bridges in hangers.

Fig. Dresser Coupling

52
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

b. Victaulic coupling
This type of joint may also be used for CI pipes, WI pipes and steel pipes with plain ends.
It consists of a U-shaped rubber ring enclosed by a metal housing made in two halves,
each half engaging shoulders or grooves on the pipes. These are then bolted together so as
to form a ring around the pipe. The clearance between the keys of the housings and the
grooves allows for any expansion, contraction or deflection. Victaulic joints are mainly
used where the pipes may be subjected to frequent vibrations as in the case of pipes to be
carried over bridges or below bridges in hangers.

Fig. Victaulic Joint

vii. Flexible joint

This joint is used where settlement is likely because of its flexibility. In this type of joint
the socket end of the pipe is cast in a spherical shape and the spigot end of the pipe is plain
but has a bead at the end. A cast iron follower ring is introduced at the spigot end of the
pipe and it is held away from the pipe end. A rubber gasket and a retainer ring are
introduced at the spigot end of the pipe by stretching over the bead and these are held such
that the retainer ring touches the bead and the rubber gasket touches the retainer ring. A
split cast iron gland ring is then placed such that the rubber gasket is held enclosed on one
side by the retainer ring and on the other by the split cast iron gland ring. The outer surface
of the split cast iron gland ring is made to conform the inner surface of the socket end of
the pipe. The spigot end of the pipe with the retainer ring, rubber gasket and split cast iron
gland ring is then inserted into the socket end of the preceding pipe, and the cast iron
follower ring is moved and it is fixed to the socket by means of bolts. When pipeline gets
deflected due to settlement, the ball shaped portion moves inside the socket and the joint
maintains its water tightness coupled with the flexibility of the joint.

Fig. Flexible Joint

53
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

viii. AC pipe joint

It is used for small diameter AC pipes. In this joint, butt ends are put against each other
and two rubber rings will be slipped over the pipes and coupling is pushed. Rubber rings
makes leak proof.

Fig. Ring-Tite Coupling or Simplex Joint

Various aspects of design of pipes

The design of a pipe for water supply includes both the hydraulic design and the structural
design.
i. Hydraulic design of a pipe
A. Continuity equation
𝜋𝑑2
Q=AXV=( )XV
4
Q = Q1 + Q2
Q1 = Q2
B. Bernoulli's equation
𝑃1 (𝑉1 )2 𝑃2 (𝑉2 )2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝑓
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Where,
Z = Potential or datum or potential head
𝑃
= Pressure head
𝛾
(𝑉)2
= Velocity head
2𝑔
ℎ𝑓 = Total head loss

54
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Fig. Bernoulli's Equation

Fig Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

Total head loss
1. Major losses
The major loss of energy or head, as water flows through a pipe, is caused by
friction. The loss of energy or head in pipes due to friction can be determined by
using either of the following formulae.
1) Darcy-Weisbach formula
fLV2
ℎ𝑓 =
2gd
fLQ2
ℎ𝑓 =
12.1d5
2) Manning's formula
2 1
1
V = 𝑛 𝑅3𝑆 2
𝜋𝑑2
𝐴 4 𝑑 ℎ𝑓
R=𝑃= = 4; S =
𝜋𝑑 𝐿
10.294𝑛2 L Q2
hf =
d16⁄3
3) Hazen-Williams formula
V = 0.849 CH R0.63 S0.54

55
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

10.68 L Q1.852
hf =
C1.852
H d4.87
Where, CH = Roughness coefficient depends upon pipe materials and condition of
pipe
Value of CH: New CI = 130, Old CI = 100, GI = 70, HDPE = 140
2. Minor losses
1) Loss of energy or head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
hL = 2𝑔
2) Loss of energy or head due to sudden contraction in a pipe
(𝑉)2
hL = 0.5 2𝑔
3) Loss of energy or head at the entrance to a pipe
(𝑉)2
hL = 0.5 2𝑔
4) Loss of energy or head at the exit from a pipe
(𝑉)2
hL = 2𝑔
5) Loss of energy or head due to gradual contraction or enlargement in a pipe
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
hL = 𝐾 2𝑔
6) Loss of energy or head in a bend provided in a pipe
(𝑉)2
hL = 𝐾 2𝑔
7) Loss of energy or head in various pipe fittings such as valves, coupling etc.
(𝑉)2
hL = 𝐾 2𝑔

ii. Structural design of a pipe

For carrying out the structural design of a pipe the various forces that may be exerted on a
pipe are required to be considered. The forces that may generally be exerted on a pipe are
as:
1) Internal pressure of water
Pipe carrying water is subjected to an internal water pressure which is usually termed
as static water pressure. The static water pressure at any section of a pipe, expressed
as pressure head, is equal to the vertical distance between the central line of the pipe
and the hydraulic grade line at that section of the pipe. For a pipe carrying water from
a reservoir the static water pressure is maximum when the water in the pipe is at rest,
in which case the static water pressure head at any section of the pipe is equal to the
vertical distance between the centre line of the pipe at that section and the water level
in the reservoir.
In addition to the static water pressure, the pipe may also be subjected to the pressure
due to water hammer
Water hammer in pipes
Gradual closure of valve
wLV
Ph =
gT

56
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Instantaneous closure of valve

V
Ph =
g 1 d 1
√ ( + (1− ))
w K tE 2m

Where
T = time taken to close the valve
V= mean velocity of flow in the pipe
w = specific weight of water
K = bulk modulus of elasticity of water
d 1
If elasticity of the pipe material is not considered, then the term [ (1 − )]may be
tE 2m
neglected
𝑤𝐾
P h = V√
𝑔
Further as another approximation if elasticity of the pipe material is considered but
Poisson's ratio is neglected
V
Ph =
g 1 d
√ ( + )
w K tE

The velocity of the pressure wave V0 is given

g
V0 =
√ 1 d
𝑤( + (1−
1
))
K tE 2m

𝑤
Ph = 𝑔 VV0
d 1
Again if elasticity of the pipe material is not considered, then the term [tE (1 − )]
2m
may be neglected
𝑔𝐾 𝐾 𝑤
V0 = √ 𝑤 = √ 𝜌 in which 𝜌 = = mass density of water
𝑔

Maximum internal water pressure, P = Ps + Ph

The internal water pressure develops circumferential tensile stress called hoop stress
in the pipe wall. The magnitude of the hoop stress so developed is
𝑃𝑑
σ= 2𝑡
𝑃𝑑
t = 2σ
𝑃𝑑
t= If f is the permissible tensile stress in pipe material
2f
1 𝑃𝑑
t = 𝜂 ( 2σ) If efficiency of joint is taken into account

2) Pressure due to external loads

Load due to weight of backfill
For pipes resting on undisturbed ground (i.e., there being no trench excavated and
covered with cohesion less soil fills, the external load likely to come per unit length of
pipe is given by
W = CpWsD2

57
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Where, W = load per unit length of the pipe

Ws = Specific weight of the fill material
D = external diameter of the pipe
𝐻
Cp = a coefficient whose value depends on the type of pipe and ratio 𝐷 , where H is the
depth of top of the pipe below the surface of the fill

For pipes buried in narrow trenches and thoroughly compacted fills with cohesion less
soil, the external load per unit length of pipe is given for different types of pipes as:
i. For flexible pipes (such as steel pipes)
W = CWsBD
ii. For rigid pipes (such as cement concrete, cast iron, vitrified clay pipes)
W = CWsB2
A trench is considered to be narrow when B ≤ 1.5D

Superimposed traffic load

Boussinesq's equation
3H3 P
Pi = in which
2πZ5
Pi = pressure developed at any point in the fill at a depth H below the surface due to
traffic load
P = load superimposed due to traffic load
Z = slant depth of the considered point from the load P
H = depth of the top of the pipe below the surface of the fill
Total compressive load per unit length of pipe from backfill and traffic = W + W'
W + W′
Compressive stress = where t is thickness of pipe in meter
2𝑡
Compressive stress as obtained by above expression should be less than allowable
compressive stress of pipe material.

3) Temperature stress
Change in length of pipe with temperature, ΔL = L𝛼T
Resulting longitudinal stress, f = E𝛼T
4) Force or thrust exerted on a bend or a reducer provided in a pipeline
𝜃
F = 2(pA + 𝜌QV)sin 2
For a 90° bend of uniform cross-section
F = 2(pA + 𝜌QV)
Frictional resistance on bottom of the thrust block and circumference of the pipe
Ff = µW
Lateral resistance of soil (i.e., passive earth pressure) against the thrust block
𝐻2 1+ sin φ 1+ sin φ
Fp =Ws 2 L[1− sin φ] + 2CHL√1− sin φ
Lateral resistance of soil when the thrust block is free to yield away from the soil
mass i.e., active earth pressure on the portion of the projected pipe

58
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

ℎ2 1− sin φ 1− sin φ
Fa =Ws 2 L[1+ sin φ] - 2ChL√1+ sin φ
Total resistance Fr= Ff + Fp + Fa
𝐹𝑟
Factor of safety = which should be greater than 2
𝐹
5) Flexural stress

Flow through single and multiple pipe system

1. Flow through long pipes
Consider a long pipeline of diameter d and length L carrying water from a reservoir A to
another reservoir B. Let HA and HB be the constant heights of the water surfaces in the
reservoirs A and B respectively above the centre of the pipe. Further let ZA and ZB be the
heights of the centres of the pipe ends connected to the reservoirs A and B respectively.
Now if V is the mean velocity of flow through the pipe then the head loss due to friction
flV2
hf = 2gd
V2
and head loss at the entrance of pipe = 0.5 2g
V2
and head loss at the exit of pipe = 2g

Fig. Flow through a Long Pipe

Applying Bernoulli's equation between points (1) and (2) at the water surfaces in the
reservoirs A and B respectively, we obtain
V2 flV2 V2
HA + ZA = HB + ZB + 0.5 + 2gd + 2g
2g
V2 fl
(HA + ZA) – (HB + ZB) = (1.5 + d)
2g
But, (HA + ZA) – (HB + ZB) = H
Where H is the difference in the water surfaces in the reservoirs A and B. thus
V2 fl
H = 2g (1.5 + d)
Above equation indicates that the difference in the water surfaces in the two reservoirs at
the two ends of the pipe is equal to the sum of the various head losses. From this equation
the unknown velocity of flow of water in the pipe may be computed.

59
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

If the pipe is long ( say, more than 1000 times the diameter) the loss of head due to
friction will be very large as compared with the minor losses which may then be
neglected, thereby simplifying the expression as
flV2 2gHd
H = 2gd ; or V = √ fL

2. Flow through pipes in series or compound pipe

If a pipeline connecting two reservoirs is made up of several pipes of different diameters
d1, d2, d3 etc. and lengths L1, L2, L3 etc. all connected in series, then the difference in
water surface levels is equal to the sum of the head losses in all the sections. The
discharge through each pipe will be same.
𝑉12 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32 𝑉2
H = 0.5 + + 0.5 + + + + 2g3
2g 2𝑔𝑑1 2g 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑3
𝜋𝑑12 𝜋𝑑22 𝜋𝑑32
Also, Q = V1 = V2 = V3
4 4 4
However, if the minor losses are neglected as compared with the loss of head due to
friction in each pipe, then
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32
H= + +
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔𝑑3

Fig. Flow through Pipes in Series or a Compound Pipe

3. Equivalent pipe
Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and length is to
be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, which is known as equivalent pipe. The
uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is known as the equivalent diameter of the
compound pipe. The size of the equivalent pipe may be determined as follows.
If L1, L2, L3 etc. are the lengths and d1, d2, d3 etc. are the diameters respectively of the
different pipes of a compound pipeline, then the total head loss in the compound pipe,
neglecting the minor losses is
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32
hL= + + + ………………
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔𝑑3
Again by continuity
Q = a1V1 = a2V2 = a3V3 = ……………….
𝜋𝑑12 𝜋𝑑22 𝜋𝑑32
Q= 4
V1 = 4
V2 = 4
V3 = ………….
Assuming f1 = f2 = f3 = ………….. = f

60
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

fQ2 L1 L2 L3
hL= 2g(𝜋⁄𝑑)2 [ + + +⋯]
d51 d52 d53
If d is the diameter and L is the length of the equivalent pipe then it would carry the same
discharge Q if the head loss in the equivalent pipe is same as that in the compound pipe.
The loss of head in the equivalent pipe, neglecting the minor losses is
flV2 fQ2 L
hL= 2gd = 2g(𝜋⁄𝑑)2
d5
Thus equating the two head losses, we get
L L L2 L3
= [d15 + d52
+ d53
+⋯]
d5 1
Above equation in known as Dupuit's equation.

4. Flow through pipes in parallel

When a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join together
downstream and continue as a main line, the pipes are said to be in parallel. The necessity
of laying the pipes in parallel arises due to the following reasons:
a. In order to increase the discharge passing through an existing main, additional pipes
are laid in parallel to the earlier one.
b. Sometimes a single pipe of required large diameter may not be available in that case
two or more pipes of smaller diameter may be laid in parallel to carry the required
discharge.
c. Two or more pipes laid in parallel are preferred because when one pipe is under
repairs, water can be supplied through the other pipes.
The discharge in the main line is equal to the sum of the discharge in each of the parallel
pipes.
Q = Q1 + Q2

Fig. Pipes in Parallel

The flow of water in pipes (1) and (2) takes place under the difference of head between
the sections A and B and hence the loss of head between the sections A and B will be the
same whether the water flows through pipe (1) or pipe (2). Thus if d1, d2 and L1, L2 are
the diameters and the lengths of the pipes (1) and (2) respectively; then velocity of flow
V1 and V2 in the two pipes must be such as to give
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22
hL= =
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2

61
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

assuming same value of 'f' for each parallel pipe.

The head loss 'hL' may also be expressed in a general form as
hL = rQn where r depends on length, diameter and roughness of the pipe and thus
exponent n is equal to 1.852 if Hazen-Williams formula is used and it is equal to 2 if
Darcy-Weisbach and Manning's formulae are used.

5. Flow through pipes interconnecting number of reservoirs- Branched pipes

Besides pipes in parallel, another example of a multiple pipe system which is often used
in water supply scheme, is that of a number of reservoirs interconnected by means of a
number of pipes namely main and branches which meet at a junction. There basic
equations may be used in order to solve these problems are continuity equation,
Bernoulli's equation and Darcy-Weisbach, or Hazen Williams or Manning's equation.

Fig. Three Interconnected Reservoirs - Branched Pipes

𝑝𝑑
If ( ) is the pressure head at the junction D, then applying Bernoulli's equation between
𝑤
the reservoir A and the junction D, we get
𝑝𝑑
Z1 = ( + 𝑍𝑑 ) + ℎ𝑓1
𝑤
Applying Bernoulli's equation between the junction D and the reservoir B, we get
𝑝𝑑
( + 𝑍𝑑 ) = Z2 + ℎ𝑓2
𝑤
Applying Bernoulli's equation between the junction D and the reservoir C, we get
𝑝𝑑
( + 𝑍𝑑 ) = Z3 + ℎ𝑓3
𝑤
In above equations the value of ℎ𝑓1 , ℎ𝑓2 and ℎ𝑓3 are given by different formulae.
Further applying continuity equation, we get
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
𝜋𝑑12 𝜋𝑑22 𝜋𝑑32
V1 = V2 + V3
4 4 4
𝑝
The above noted four equations involve four unknowns viz., Q1, Q2, Q3 and ( 𝑑 )which
𝑤
may be calculated by solving these four equations.

62
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

In deriving the above equations it has been considered that the water is flowing from the
junction D to both the reservoirs B and C. This will happen only if piezometric head at
𝑝 𝑝
the junction D,[( 𝑤𝑑 ) + 𝑍𝑑 ] is greater than Z2 and Z3. However, if [( 𝑤𝑑) + 𝑍𝑑 ]< Z2 then
the water instead of flowing from the junction D to the reservoir B, it will flow from the
reservoir B towards the junction D. In that case both the reservoirs A and B will be
supplying water to the reservoir C and the corresponding equations will then be as noted
below:
𝑝𝑑
Z1 = ( + 𝑍𝑑 ) + ℎ𝑓1
𝑤
𝑝𝑑
Z2 = ( + 𝑍𝑑 ) + ℎ𝑓2
𝑤
𝑝𝑑
( + 𝑍𝑑 ) = Z3 + ℎ𝑓3
𝑤
Q1 + Q2 = Q3
𝑝
On the other hand if [( 𝑤𝑑) + 𝑍𝑑 ]< Z3, then the water will flow from the reservoir C
towards the junction D. In that case both the reservoirs A and C will be supplying water to
the reservoir B and the equations may then be modified accordingly.

Numerical 1 In a water supply scheme to be designed for serving a population of 5 lakhs, the
storage reservoir is situated 6 km away from the city and the loss of head from the source to
city is 15 m. Calculate the size of supply main by using (i) Hazen-Williams formula taking
CH = 130; (ii) Darcy-Weisbach formula taking f = 0.012; and (iii) Manning's formula taking n
= 0.011; assuming a maximum daily demand of 210 litres per head per day and half of the
daily supply to be pumped in 8 hours.
Solution:
Maximum demand = 210 litres per head per day
Population = 500000
Maximum water demand per day = 500000 X 210 litres/day = 105 X 106 l/day = 105 Mld
Since half of the daily supply is to be pumped in 8 hours maximum flow rate for which the
105 X 106
supply main is to be designed = = 1.823 cumec
2 X 103 X 8 X 60 X60
Thus in this case,
Q = 1.823 cumec; L = 6 km; hf= 15 m and pipe diameter d is determined by using different
formula as indicated below:
(i) Using Hazen-Williams formula
10.68 L Q1.852
hf =
C1.852
H d4.87
10.68 X 6000 X 1.8231.852
15 =
1301.852 X d4.87
d = 1.098 m = 1098 mm
Thus use pipes of diameter 1100 mm, which is the nearest standard size of the
available pipes.
(ii) Using Darcy-Weisbach formula
fLQ2
hf =
12.1d5

63
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

0.012 X 6000 X 1.8232

15 =
12.1 X d5
d = 1.057 m = 1057 mm
Thus use pipes of diameter 1100 mm, which is the nearest standard size of the
available pipes.
(iii) Using Manning's formula
10.294𝑛2 L Q2
hf =
d16⁄3
10.294 X 0.0112 X 6000 X 1.8232
15 =
d 16⁄3
d = 1.099 m = 1099 mm
Thus use pipes of diameter 1100 mm, which is the nearest standard size of the available
pipes.

Numerical 2 Water has to be supplied to a town with 1.5 lakhs population at the rate of 200
litres per capita per day from a river 2 km away. The difference in elevation between the
lowest water level in the sump well and service reservoir is 40 m. Determine the size of the
main and the power of the pump required. Assume suitable data where required.
Solution:
Average quantity of water required = 200 X 150000 l/d = 30 X 106 l/d = 30 Mld
Assuming the maximum demand to be 1.8 times the average demand, we have
Maximum demand = 1.8 X 30 = 54 Mld = 0.625 cumec
Further assuming that the pumps are working for 12 hours a day to supply full day's demand,
24
Maximum discharge required = 0.625 X = 1.25 cumec
12
Assuming the velocity of flow through the pipe to be 1.5 m/s, we have
Area of the pipe required is,
Q 1.25
A= = = 0.833 m2
v 1.5
Diameter of the pipe required is
1
0.833 2
d=( 𝜋 ) = 1.03 m = 1030 mm
4
Thus use pipes of diameter 1050 mm, which is the nearest standard size of the available
pipes,
𝜋
Actual area provided = X 1.052 = 0.8659 m2
4
Q 1.25
Actual velocity of flow, v = = = 1.444 m/s
A 0.8659
Head loss can be calculated by using Hazen-Williams formula.
V = 0.849 CH R0.63 S0.54
𝑑 1.05
Here CH = 120 and R = =
4 4
1.05 0.63
1.444 = 0.849 X 120 X ( ) 𝑋 S 0.54
4
S = 0.001797
hf
S= = 0.001797
L

64
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Head loss from the river to the service reservoir in a length of 2 km

hf = 0.001797 X 2000 =3.59 m
The head difference between the lowest water level in the sump well and the service reservoir
is given as 40 m.
Total lift or head required for the pump, H = 40 + 3.59 = 43.59 m
γQH
Power of the pump required, P =
η
Assuming the efficiency of the pump as 60 %,
9810 X 1.25 X 43.59
P= = 890871 W = 890.871 kW
0.6
Thus provide a pump of power 900 kW, which is the nearest standard size of the available
pumps.

Numerical 3The lowest level of an impounding reservoir situated in hills and being used as a
source of water supply for a town, 170 m higher than the level of the service reservoir and the
distance between them is 60 km. The storage reservoir and the service reservoir were initially
connected by a single pipeline designed to carry a maximum daily demand of 25 million
litres per day. Later it was found necessary to increase the supply to 36 million litres per day.
It was therefore decided to lay another pipe of the same diameter alongside the first one in a
certain required length and cross-connected. Calculate the diameter and the length of the
second pipeline required to be laid. Use Hazen-William's formula with CH = 120.
Solution:
Initial discharge = 25 Mld = 0.2894 cumec
It is assumed that the total head of 170 m available between the storage reservoir and the
service reservoir is dissipated in overcoming the frictional resistance offered to the flow by
the pipe.
Using Hazen-Williams formula,
V = 0.849 CH R0.63 S0.54
If d is diameter of the pipe
Q 0.2894 d hf 170
V= = πd2
;R= and S = =
A 4 L 60 X 1000
4
Thus by substitution
0.2894 d 0.63 170 0.54
πd2
= 0.849 X 120 X ( ) X( )
4 60 X 1000
4
d = 0.5481 m ≈ 0.55 m
Diameter of the pipes used = 0.55 m
Subsequently the discharge is increased to a value
36 X 106
= = 0.4167 cumec
103 X 24 X 60 X 60
Now let a pipe of length equal to l km be added and laid alongside existing pipe of total
length 60 km.
Thus for (60 – l) km length of the initially laid pipe the discharge will be equal to the total
discharge 0.4167 cumec, and then half of the total discharge i.e. 0.2084 cumec will be carried

65
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

by each of the two pipes viz. the remaining length l of the initially laid pipe and the newly
laid pipe of length l, as both the pipes are of the same diameter.
Equating the total head loss in the pipe system to the available head, we get
170 = Head loss in length (60-l) km with 0.4167 cumec
+ Head loss in length l km with 0.2084 cumec
10.68 X (60−𝑙) X 1000 𝑋 0.41671.852 10.68 X 𝑙 X 1000 X 0.2084 1.852
170 = +
1201.852 X 0.554.87 1201.852 X 0.554.87
l = 40.02 km ≈40 km
Hence an additional pipe of same diameter viz. 0.55 m is required to be provided in a length
of about 40 km.

Numerical 4 A water supply system consisting of reservoir with lift pump, elevated storage
tank, piping and withdrawal point is as shown. (i) Based on the following data sketch the
hydraulic grade line for the system.
ZA = 0 m, PA = 550 kPa; ZB = 9.1 m, PB = 200 kPa; ZC = 12.2 m, PC = 30 m (water level in
tank)
(ii) For these conditions computed the flow available at point B from both the supply pump
and elevated storage. Use C = 100 and pipe sizes as shown in the figure. Hydraulic values are
given below.
Table of Hydraulic Values for C = 100
d (mm) hL (m/1000) Q (l/s) v (m/s)
300 17.8 133 1.7
250 14.1 117 1.5
200 20.0 48 1.6
150 30.0 30 1.7
100 40.0 13 1.5
Solution:
550 X 1000
Pump discharge pressure head at A = = 56.07 m
9810
200 X 1000
Residual pressure head at B = = 20.39 m
9810

Thus applying Bernoulli's equation between points A and B, we get

56.07 = 20.39 + 9.1 + hf1 where hf1 is the head loss between points A and B
hf1 = 26.58 m

66
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

and head loss hf per 1000 m length of pipe is obtained as

h f1 26.58
hf = = = 17.72 m
1.5 1.5
which is close to the value of hf for the pipe of diameter 300 mm as given in the table, and
hence the flow available from the supply reservoir to point B is obtained from the table as
133 l/s.
Similarly applying Bernoulli's equation between points C and B, we get
30 + 12.2 = 20.39 + 9.1 + hf2 where hf2 is the head loss between points C and B
hf2 =12.71 m
and head loss hf per 1000 m length of pipe is obtained as
h f2 12.71
hf = = = 14.12 m
0.9 0.9
which is close to the value of hf for the pipe of 250 m diameter as given in the table, and
hence the flow available from the elevated storage tank to point B is obtained from the table
as 117 l/s.
The total flow available at point B from both the supply pump and elevated storage tank =
133 + 117 = 250 l/s
The hydraulic grade line is as shown:

Numerical 5For supplying water to a colony, it is intended to store water in a large tank,
whose water surface elevation is presently 85.37 m RL. This tank is being supplied by a
pipeline from a junction J, the friction loss in metres of water in this pipe being 0.6Q1.95
where Q is the discharge in m3/s. Junction J receives water under pressure and without
leakage from (i) a large reservoir whose water surface elevation is constant at 100.00 m RL
through a pipe characterized by hf = 0.35Q2 and (ii) a second large reservoir with its constant
water level at 96.00 m RL through a pipe characterized by hf = 0.46Q1.85. Neglecting losses
other than due to pipe friction, determine the incoming flow into the tank in the colony.
Solution:
Let Q1 and Q2 be the discharges carried by the pipes connecting the reservoirs (1) and (2)
with the junction J.
Thus the discharge carried by the pipe connecting the junction J with the reservoir K is equal
to Q1 and Q2.

67
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

By applying Bernoulli's equation between the reservoirs (1) and K, we get

100.00 = 0.35𝑄12 + 0.6(Q1 + Q 2 )1.95 + 85.37………………(i)
Similarly by applying Bernoulli's equation between the reservoirs (2) and K, we get
96.00 = 0.46𝑄21.85 + 0.6(Q1 + Q 2 )1.95 + 85.37……………...(ii)
By subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we get
4.00 = 0.35𝑄12 - 0.46𝑄21.85 …………………………………...(iii)
Q1 = √11.43 + 1.31𝑄21.85
Introducing equation (iii) in equation (i), we get
100.00 = 0.35(11.43 + 1.31𝑄21.85 ) + 0.6[√11.43 + 1.31𝑄21.85 + Q 2 ]1.95 + 85.37
Solving by trial and error,
Q2 = 0.797 cumec
And introducing this value of Q2 in equation (iii),
Q1 = 3.506 cumec
The incoming flow into the tank in the colony is
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 0.797 + 3.506 = 4.303 cumec

Numerical 7A 0.5 m diameter and 100 m long pipeline carrying 0.5 m3/s discharge is fitted
with a valve at downstream end. Calculate the rise of pressure caused within the pipe due to
the valve closure in (i) 1 second; (ii) instantaneously. Take sonic velocity as 1430 m/s.
Solution:
(i) In this case the rise of pressure or water hammer pressure is given by
wLV
Ph =
gT
w = 9810 N/m3; L = 100 m; T = 1 s
𝑄 𝑄
v=𝐴= 𝜋𝑑2
4
Q = 0.5 m3/s; d = 0.5 m
0.5
V= 𝜋 𝑋 0.52
= 2.55 m/s
4
Thus by substitution
9810 X 100 X 2.55
Ph = = 2.55 X 105 N/m2 = 255 kN/m2
9.81 X 1
(ii) In this case the rise of pressure or water hammer pressure is given by
w
Ph = VV0
g
V0 = 1430 m/s
Thus by substitution, we get
9810 X 2.55 X 1430
Ph = = 3.65 X 106 N/m2 = 3650kN/m2
9.81

Numerical 8 A steel penstock 600 mm in diameter has a shell thickness of 12 mm. The
1
modulus of elasticity of the pipe shell material is 2.1 X 105 N/mm2 with Poisson's ration of
4
3 2
and the volume modulus of elasticity of water is 2.1 X 10 N/mm . The pipe is designed to

68
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

discharge water at a mean velocity of 2.1 m/s. Determine the water hammer pressure rise
caused by sudden closure of the valve at the downstream end. (i) neglecting the elasticity of
the pipe material (ii) considering the elasticity of the pipe material but neglecting the
Poisson's ratio and (iii) considering the elasticity of the pipe material including the Poisson's
ratio.
Solution:
(i) In this case water hammer pressure is given as
𝑤𝐾
Ph = V√
𝑔

9810 X 2.1 X 103 X 106

Ph = 2.1 √ = 3.043 X 106 N/m2
9.81
(ii) In this case water hammer pressure is given as
V
Ph =
g 1 d
√ ( + )
w K tE
2.1
Ph = 9.81 1 0.6
= 2.485 X 106 N/m2
√ ( + )
9810 2.1 X 103 X 106 12 X 10−3 X 2.1 X 105 X 106

(iii)In this case water hammer pressure is given as

V
Ph =
g 1 d 1
√ ( + (1− ))
w K tE 2m

2.1
Ph = 9.81 1 0.6 1
= 2.538 X 106 N/m2
√ ( + (1− ))
9810 2.1 X 103 X 106 12 X 10−3 X 2.1 X 105 X 106 2X4

Numerical 9 Water is being brought from an impounding reservoir to a city be means of a 1

m diameter steel pipe across an undulating ground. The water level in the reservoir is 425 m
and the lowest level of the pipe in its L-section is 305 m. Determine the thickness of the pipe
required with respect to the maximum pressure, if the allowance for water hammer is made
for 8.5 kg(f)/cm2 over static head. The steel pipe is riveted with efficiency of joint as 72 %.
The allowable working stress in steel may be taken as 1250 kg/cm2.
Solution:
𝑃
Static pressure head of water, ( 𝑤𝑠 ) = (425 – 305) = 120 m of water
Ps = 120 X 1000 = 12 X 104kg(f)/cm2 = 12 kg(f)/m2
Water hammer pressure is given as
Ph = 8.5 kg(f)/cm2
Total internal pressure, P = 12 + 8.5 = 20.5 kg(f)/cm2
The minimum thickness required for the steel pipe is given by
Pd 20.5 X 1
t= = = 0.0114 m = 11.40 mm
2fη 2 X 1250 X 0.72
Add 2.6 mm to make allowance for corrosion.
Thickness required = 11.40 + 2.60 = 14 mm
Thus use 14 mm thick steel pipes.

69
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

Numerical 10Water is supplied to a town through a CI gravity main 0.6 m diameter and 25
km long across an undulating ground from the head works to the service reservoir in the
town. The water level at the head works is at RL 500 m and the maximum water level in the
service reservoir is at RL 380 m. The lowest ground level in the L-section of the main is at
RL 290 m at a point 15 km from the off-take at the head works. It is desired to increase the
supply to the town by 35 %. For what distance a duplicate pipe of the same size should be
laid to increase the supply.
What is the minimum thickness required for the pipe? The water hammer pressure may be
neglected as alternative arrangements have been made for dissipating the same.
Solution:
The difference of head between the source and the service reservoir = 500 – 380 = 120 m
The pipe is designed as a gravity main which means that the entire available head is lost in
overcoming losses, and neglecting the minor losses, the available head is lost in overcoming
frictional resistance.
Using Hazen-Williams formula,
V = 0.849 CH R0.63 S0.54
For CI pipes, CH = 120
d 0.6
R=4= = 0.15 m
4
hf 120
S= = 25 𝑋 1000 = 0.0048
L
Thus by introducing these values, we get
V = 0.849 X 120 0.150.63 X 0.00480.54 = 1.725 m/s
π X 0.62
Discharge, Q = AV = X 1.725 = 0.488 cumec
4
New discharge, Q1 = 1.35Q = 1.35 X 0.488 = 0.659 cumec
Let the duplicate pipe be laid for a length of l km.
Using Hazen-Williams formula
10.68 L Q1.852
hf =
C1.852
H d4.87
Thus equating the available head to the head loss in the pipe system with duplicate pipe, we
get
10.68 X (25−𝑙) X 1000 𝑋 0.6591.852 10.68 X 𝑙 X 1000 X (0.659/2)1.852
120 = +
1201.852 X 0.64.87 1201.852 X 0.64.87
l = 14.75 km
Hence the duplicate pipe should be laid for a length of 14.75 km.
The minimum thickness required for the pipe is given as
Pd
t=
2f
The maximum static head = 500 – 290 = 210 m of water
P = 210 X 1000 =21 X 104 kg/m2 = 21 kg/cm2
The allowable tensile stress in cast iron, f = 770 kg/cm2
Pd 21 X 0.6
t= = = 0.0082 m =8.2 mm
2f 2 X 770
Thus minimum thickness required for the pipe is 8.2 mm.

70
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

However, if an allowance of 1.8 mm is made for corrosion, the pipes of thickness (8.2 + 1.8)
= 10 mm may be used.

Numerical 11 A pipe 1 m in diameter is buried in a trench 1.4 m wide which is backfilled

with dry sand. The top of the pipe is 2.7 m below the surface of the fill. The pipe passes at
right angles under a one lane road which carries vehicles whose loading (including impact)
consists of two concentrated loads of 900 kg each located 1.8 m apart traverse to the
roadway. Find the maximum vertical force exerted on a unit length of the pipe, if
(a) the pipe is made of steel
(b) the pipe is made of cast iron
For calculating the external diameter of the pipe the thickness of the pipe may be neglected.
Also calculate the stress produced in (a) the steel pipe if its thickness is 10 mm; (b) the cast
iron pipe if its thickness is 20 mm.
Solution:
First of all the force caused by the backfill may be computed as:
In the present case,
D ⋍ d =1 m; B = 1.4 m; Ws =1600 kg/m3 (for dry sand); H = 2.7 m
(a) for steel pipe which is flexible, the load per unit length of the pipe is given by
W = CWsBD
𝐻 2.7
For 𝐵 = 1.4 = 1.93; the value of C is obtained as
1.45−0.84
C = 0.84 + X 0.93 = 1.4073
1
Thus by substitution,
W = 1.4073 X 1600 X 1.4 X 1 = 3152.35 kg/m
(b) For cast iron pipe which is rigid, the load per unit length of the pipe is given by
W = CWsB2
W = 1.4073 X 1600 X 1.42 = 4413.29 kg/m

Next the superimposed traffic load may be computed as:

3H3 P
Pi =
2πZ5
Where Pt is the pressure developed at any point in the fill at a depth H below the surface of
the fill due to traffic load;
Z = Slant depth from one of the wheel loads to a point on the pipe midway between the wheel
loads
space between the wheels 2
Z = √( ) + H2
2

1.8 2
Z = √( 2 ) + 2.72 = 2.846 m
Thus the pressure developed due to single wheel load s obtained as
3 X 2.73 𝑋 900
Pi = = 45.30 kg/m2
2π X 2.8465
The total traffic load per meter length of the pipe is obtained as
W' = Pi X No. of wheels X Projected area of the pipe

71
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

W' = 45.30 X 2 X (1 X 1) [as projected area = pipe dia. X 1 m length of pipe]

W' = 90.60 kg/m
Total external force due to backfill and superimposed traffic load per meter length of the pipe
is obtained as,
For case (a): W + W' = 3152.35 + 90.60 = 3242.95 ⋍ 3243 kg/m
For case (b): W + W' = 4413.29 + 90.60 = 4503.89 ⋍ 4504 kg/m
The stress produced in the pipe wall is given by
W+ W′
f=
2t
(a) For the steel pipe, t = 10 mm = 0.01 m
3243
f= = 162150 kg/m2 = 16.215 kg/cm2
2 X 0.01
(b) For the cast iron pipe, t = 20 mm = 0.02 m
4504
f= = 112600 kg/m2 = 11.26 kg/cm2
2 X 0.02

Numerical 12 Design a thrust block for 900 mm diameter main conveying water at a pressure
of 11 kg/cm2, at a location where the deviation angle is 45° in a horizontal plane. Assume
velocity of flow as 2 m/s. Take unit weight of concrete = 2400 kg/m3; unit weight of soil =
1800 kg/m3 and angle of internal friction φ= 30°.
Assume minimum cover of earth as 600 mm and cohesion is zero for sandy soil.
Solution:
Thrust exerted on the pipe is given by
𝜃
F = 2(pA + 𝜌QV)sin 2
𝜋 900 2
P = 11 kg/cm2; A = X ( ) = 6362 cm2; V = 2 m/s
4 10
6362
Q=AXV= 𝑋 2 = 1.2724 m3/s; θ = 45°
104
𝑤
𝜌= 𝑔 , in which w = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2
Thus by substitution, we get
1000 45°
F = 2(11 X 6362 + X 1.2724 X 2)Sin = 55168 kg
9.81 2
Trying a thrust block of size 3.2 m X 3.2 m X 3.2 m
(i) Frictional resistance of block
Weight of thrust block, Wb = 3.2 X 3.2 X 3.2 X 2400 = 78643 kg
𝜋
Weight of water in the pipe, Ww = 4 X 0.92 X 3.2 X 1000 = 2036 kg
Weight of soil cover, Ws = 0.9 X 3.2 X 0.6 X 1800 = 3110 kg
Total weight, W = 78643 + 2036 + 3110 = 83789 kg
Ff = µW = 0.3 X 83789 = 25137 kg

(ii) Passive earth pressure of soil

𝐻2 1+ sin φ 1+ sin φ
Fp =Ws 2 L[1− sin φ] + 2CHL√1− sin φ
Ws = 1800 kg/m3; H = 3.2 m; L = 3.2 m; φ = 30° and C = 0
Thus by substitution, we get

72
DCE-KU Water supply and Sanitation (CIEG 313) Asst. Prof. Manish Prakash

3.22 1+ sin 30°

Fp =1800 X X 3.2 X [ ] + 0 = 88474 kg
2 1− sin 30°
(iii)Active earth pressure of soil
ℎ2 1− sin φ 1− sin φ
Fa =Ws 2 L[1+ sin φ] - 2ChL√1+ sin φ
Ws = 1800 kg/m3; h = 0.9 m; L = 3.2 m; φ = 30° and C = 0
Thus by substitution, we get
0.92 1− sin 30°
Fa =1800 X X 3.2 X [1+ sin 30°] - 0 = 778 kg
2
which is relatively small
Total resistance, Fr = 25137 + 88474 + 778 = 114389 kg
114389
Factor of safety = = 2.07 which is O.K.
55168
Reinforcement
The minimum reinforcement should be @ 5 kg/m2 of the surface area with spacing of bars
not exceeding 500 mm. Hence provide 10 mm bars at 200 mm c/c as shown in figure, which
is more than 5 kg/m2.

73