EMI – Electronagnetic Interference in industrial instalation and much

more...
Introduction
The existence of equipment in different technologies combined with the inadequacy of
installations facilitates the emission of electromagnetic energy, a fact that creates problems of
elecromagnetic compatibility (EMC). See Figures 1 a and 1b, below.

Figure 1 a – EMC sources

 

Figure 1b – Signal affected by EMI effects

 
 
See the electromagnetic spectrum on figure 2.
Figure 2 – Electromagnetic spectrum
 
 

Table 1 – Wavelength, frequency and energy for sellected areas of the electromagnetic
spectrum
 EMI is the energy that causes undesirable response to any equipment and can be generated by
sparking on motor brushes, power circuit switches, activation of inductive and resistive loads,
relay activation, switches, circuit breaks, fluorescent lamps, heaters, automotive ignitions,
atmosphere discharges and even electrostatic discharges between persons and equipment,
microwave sets, mobile communication equipment, etc. All of this can cause alterations and
overvoltage, undervoltage, peaks, transients, etc. That may impact a communiction network.
This is very common in the industries where EMI is very frequent in function of the larger use
of machines (welding machines, for exammple), motors (CCM) and nearby digital networks and
computers.
The biggest EMI problem is the sporadic situations that slowly degrade the equipment and
their components. Most different problems can be generated by EMI, like in electronic
equipment, with failure of communicton between devices of an equipment network and
computers, alarms generated without explanation, action on relays, without logic or command,
and burn down of components and electronic circuits. Power supply noises are very common
due to poor ground and shield, or even project error.
Topology and wiring distribution, types of cables, protection techniques are factors to be
considered to minimize the EMI effects. Remember that in high frequencies the cables behave
like a transmission system with crossed and confusing lines that reflect energy and spread it
from a circuit to another. Keep the connections in good conditions. Long-time innactive
connectores may develop resistance or become RF detectors.
A typical example of how EMI can affect the behavior of an electronic component is a capacitor
subject to a voltage peak higher than its specific nominal voltage. This may degrade the
diolectric, whose thickness is limited by the capacitor operation voltage and cause a gradient of
potential lower than the dialectric rigidity of the material and cause mal-functioning of or even
burn the capacitor. It may also alter the transitors polarization currents, conducing them to
saturation or cut, or even burn the components by joule effect, depending on the intensity.
Inadequate installations or the use of an equipment in non-recommended applications may
harm a system performance and, consequently, the process performance, besides representing
a source of danger and accidents. It is recommended, hence, the use only of trained and
qualified professionals on installation, operation and maintenance services.
Very often the reliability of a control system is put at risk due to its bad installations.
Commonly, users neglect their care, but more judicious analysis show problems on the
installations involving cables and their routes and packaging, shields and grounds.
It is extremely important that everyone involved be aware and, mostly, committed to act with
reliability, operational and personnal safety in a plant.
The control of noise in automation systems is vital, because it may become a serious problems
even for the best devices and hardware of data acquisition and action.
Any industrial environment contains electrical noise in sources, including AC power lines, radio
signals, machines and stations, etc.
Fortunately, simple devices and techniques, such as the use of adequate grounding methods,
shielding, twisted pair wires, media signal methods, differential filters and amplifiers may
control the noise on most measurements.
For example, frequency inverters contain commuting systems that may generate
electromagnetic interference (EMI). They have high power commuting amplifiers that generate
significant EMI on 10 MHz to 300 MHz frequencies. Certainly it  possible that this commuting
noise may generate intermitence in nearby equipment. While most manufacturers take due
care in their projects to minimize this effect, the complet immunity is not feasible. So, some
techniques involving layout, wiring, ground and shield contribute significantly to this purpose.
The reduction of EMI will minimize the initial costs and future working problems in any
system.
 
Figure 3 – Several coupling types generating noise in industrial installations
 
 
The signals may vary basically due to:

  Voltage fluctuation;
 Current harmonics;
 Conducted and radiated RF;
 Transitory (conduction or radiation);
 Electrostatic Fields;
 Magnetic Fields;
 Reflections;
 Crosstalk;
 Attenuations;
 Jitter (phase noise);;
 Etc.

The main interference souces – to be examined in detail are:

 Capacitive couplong (interaction of electrical fields betwenn conductors;

 Inductive couplong (followed by a magnetic field. The level of disturbance depends of the
current variations (di / dt) and the mutual coupling inductance;
 Conduction through common impedance (grounding): it occurs when the current of two
different areas pass through the same impedance. For example, the common ground way of two
systems.
A few important points to understand EMC principles
There are some basic and important concepts to compare to better understand the effects of
electromagnetic emission:

 Every AC signal at voltage or current level is real electromagnetic energy (Watts, Joules)
propagated as wave.
 Electromagnetic waves are made up of electric field (E) and magnetic field (H).
 When a conductor is exposed to an electromagnetic wave, its free electrons move around it in
response to this wave and generate current. This is called principle of reciprocity.
 The propagation of electromagnetic waves and associated fields are molded by the “accidental
antennas” formed by their two-way current paths and that of the dielectric materials around it.
The goal is project paths that minimize the accidental aerials, thus reducing emissions and
increasing immunity.
 The return currents automatically take paths that minimize the total energy.
 Everything presents impedance to the electromagnetic waves.

An electromagnetic wave is a combination of an electric field and a magnetic field, which

propagate on the same direction but in orthogonal plans. It is common knowledge that a
variation of the magnetic field induces an electrical field and vice-versa, in that the
electromagnetic wave of a magnetic field is generated by the magnetic field, which, on its part,
is generated by the electrical field and both are nurtured in a perfect arrangement (see figure
4).

Figure 4 – Electromagnetic wave

 
 

·        Furthermore, fields  and   are perpendicular to each other and also to the wave
propagation direction, at a displacement with velocity v. This allows to classify the
electromagnetic wave asatransversal wave. Figure 4 shows the arrangement of an
electromagnetic wave electrical and magnetic fields, the direction of its propagation.
 

Types of interference
There are two types of interference, internal and external, continuous or intermittent. Each
type has its own origin. The most common causes of continuous interference are:

 50/60Hz Power Supply

  ElectricalMotor (Especially Commuter)
 Sinaisde rá dio de alta energia
 High power radio signals
 Switching sources
 Microwaves

The constant noise causes are less difficult to identify than the problems with intermittent
noises.
The most common noise source is constant, the one caused by a 50/60Hz power source. Power
supply is the most common noise component because it is an oscillating voltage, has high
power and a huge aerial system.
Almost every system has filters for 50/60 Hz, which may prevent or minimize this kind of
noise.
Electrical motors very often create broadband noises that can propagate to any nearby
equipment. DC motors frequently have switching sources that generate high frequency noise
through the common ground. This broadband noise can be transmitted back through the
power supply lines or through a common ground.
Local radio, television stations, radars and amateur radio stations can cause radio frequency
noise.
These stations generate kW of energy and many times can be near industrial areas.
Commuted power supply is the most common source of noise. It is popular and a component of
electroelectronic equipment. It creates huge quantities of harmonic frequencies.
The causes for intermittent noises are difficult to identify.
An example is a lightning, which can tipically contain 20 to 40 kA and million Volts. In addition,
the lightning transmits broadband noise that covers the entire DC frequency spectrum. This,
combined with the high voltage current, makes it impossible to filter the noise. The best
method is protect the devices with shunts and suppressors.
Another common example in industrial ambients is  relay commuting, which generally
produces the relay commuting noise. This noise is created by the magnetic field when the relay
is commuted.
The noise generated by welding machines is similar to a high frequency and broadband
lightning noise. The difference is that it can be easily identified.
It is worth mentioning static noise (generated by static). It is very hard to be identified as a
noise source, because it is invisible and very intermittent. Although many times created by
Man, it can also originate from natural causes. Static noise is also similar to lightning noise with
all its attributes, though in a smaller proportion.
 

Electromagnetic disturbances
Any electromagnetic phenomenon can degrade a system performance. Let us see some items
related to these disturbances:

 Power supply voltage: during its distribution, it suffers a variety of disturbing effects. They
could be caused by power supply network sources or by their users, or still by loads within an
installation. Below are some typical of these disturbances:
o Interruptions
 o Power drops
o Surges and Transients
o Distortions in wave form
o Amplitude and frequency variations
o Voltage Fluctuations 
o DC in AC networks
o Electrical lines carrying signals

EMI causes and consequences

EMI consequences can be classified in different categories, depending on how critical they are.
Let us examine some EMI consequences:

 Failure of a critical safety item in machines and equipment

 Equipment irregular work
 A safety device may ignore a signal
 An operation may stop without apparent reason
 An equipment may have its intended function not executed in several situations, which runs
unnoticed until a more serious situation turns into an accident.

Figure 5 – Real coupling situations

 
 

Capacitive Coupling
The capacitive coupling is represented by the interaction of electrical fields between
conductors. A conductor runs close to a disturbing noise source, captures this noise and relays
it to another part of the victim circuit. The capacitance effect between two bodies with
electrical loads, separated by a dielectric is called mutual capacitance effect.
If the noise results from an electrical field, the shield actuation is effective, as Q2 cannot exist
inside a closed and grounded enclosure.

Figure 6 – Q1 Load cannot create loads in a metal closed and grounded enclosure
 
An electrical field coupling is modelled as a capacitance between the two circuits (see figure 5).
Figura 7 shows the physical model.

Figure 7 – Equivalent capacitive coupling circuit

 

Figure 8 – Capacitive coupling physical representation

 
 
The equivalent capacitance, Cef, is directly proportional to the electric field actuation area and
inversely proportional to the distance between the two circuits.
Therefore, by increasing the separation or reducing the area, the Cef influence will be
minimized and, consequently, the capacitive coupling will affect less the signal. The capacitance
effect between the two bodies with electrical loads, separated by a dielectric is called mutual
capacitance effect.
The electrical field effect is proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the
distance.
The disturbance level depends on the voltage variations (dv/dt) and the coupling capacitance
value between the disturbing cable and the victim cable.
The coupling capacitance increases with: 

 The inverse of the frequency: The potential for capacitive coupling increases as the frequency
increases (the capacitive reactance, which can be considered as the capacitive coupling
resistance, decreases according to the frequency and can be seen in theXC = 1/2πfC) formula.
 The distance between the disturbing and the victim cables and the length of the cables running
in parallel
 The cables height in relation to the plan of reference (circuits with high input impedance are
more vulnerable)
 The victim cable insulation (cable insulation εr), mainly for strongly coupled cable pairs.

 Figures 9 and 10 show capacitive couplings examples.

Figure 9 – Capacitive coupling effect

 
Figure 10 – Example of capacitive coupling effect
 
 Figure 11 shows coupling and its voltage sources and common mode and differential currents
 

Figure 11 – Capacitive coupling - Differential mode and common mode

 Measures to reduce capacitive coupling effect

1. Limit  the length  of the cable running in parallel

2. Increase the distance between the disturbing cable and the victim cable
3. Ground one of the shield ends of both cables
4. Reduce the dv/dt of the disturbing signal by increasing the upward time

Whenever possible enclose the conductor or equipment with metallic material (Faraday
shield). The ideal is that it covers one hundred per cent of the protected part and that this
shielding do not act as a feedback or crosstalk element. Figure 12 shows the interference
between cables, whose capacitive coupling between cables induces voltage transients
(electrostatic pickups). In this situation the interference current is drained to the ground by the
shield, without affecting the signal levels.

Figure 12 – Interference between cables: the capacitive coupling between cables induces
voltage transient (electrostatic pickups)
 
Figure 13 – Cable interference: the capacitive coupling between cables induces voltage
transient (electrostatic pickups) that may reach high frequency rates
 

Figure 14 – Capacitive effect in shieldless cable

 

Figure 15 – Alterations in upward and downward times

 

Figure 16a  – EMI effect – Fake output transitions

 
Figure 16b – EMI effect on 4-20mA signal
 
 
On 4-20mA signals like in figure 16b, in some situations the noise is unnoticed, as it generally
will affect the signal average, for example, and open one more valve, which implies losing
process control efficiency or even in critical cases, such as fiscal measurements.
Figure 17 shows an example of protection against transients.

Figure 17 – Example of transient protection (best solution against Foucault current).

 
 
Electrostatic interferences can be reduced with:

1. Adequate ground and shield

2. Optical insulation
3. Use of grounded metal channels and boxes

The influence can be minimized with the adequate use of the shield, which will act as a
protection (Faraday cage). The shield must be placed between the capacitively coupled
conductors and connected to ground at a single point, beside the signal source (see figure 19).
Figure 18 shows an inadequate conditions, whose loop current circulates by the shield.

Figure 18 – Inadequate use of shield, grounded in more than one point.

 

Figure 19 – Adequate use of shield, grounded at a single point.

 
 

Inductive Coupling
The disturbing cable and the victim cable are accompanied by a magnetic field (see fiure20).
The disturbance level depends on the current variations (di/dt) and the mutual coupling
inductance.
 
Figure 20 – Inductive coupling – Physical representation and equivalent circuit
 
 

 The frequency: the inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency (XL = 2πfL)
 The proximity between the disturbing and the victim cables and the length of the cables running
in parallel
 The cables height in relation to the reference plan (in relation to the earth)
 The cable load impedance or disturbing circuit

Figure 21 – Inductive coupling between conductors

 
Figure 22 – Example of Inductive Coupling noise
 Measures to reduce inductive coupling effect between cables

1. Limit the cables length running in parallel

2. Increase the distance between the disturbing cable and the victim cable
3. Ground one of the shield ends on both cables
4. Reduce the dv/dt of the disturber increasing the signal upward time, whenever possible
(resistors connected in series or PTC resistors on the disturbing cable, ferrite rings on the
disturbers and/or victim cable)

Figure 23 – Cable-field inductive coupling

   Measures to reduce inductive coupling effect between cable and field

1. Limit the height h of the cable and the ground plan

2. Whenever possible place the cable near the metal surface
3. Use twisted pair cable
4. Use ferrites and EMI filters

Figure 24 – Inductive coupling between cable and ground loop

 
 

  Measures to reduce inductive coupling effect between cable and ground loop

1. Reduce the cable height h and the cable length

2. Whenever possible place the cable near the metal surface
3. Use twisted pair cable
4. In high frequencies ground the shield in two points (watch out!) and in low frequencies at a
single point.

Table 2 – Distance between digital communication cables and other types of cables to ensure
EMI protection
 

Figure 25 – Interference between cables: magnetic fields through inductive coupling between
cables induce current transients (electromagnetic pickups)
 
Electromagnetic Interference can reduced with:

1. Twisted cable
2. Optical Insulation
3. Use of metal grounded channels and boxes

To minimize the induction effect use the twisted pair cable that reduces the area (S) and
diminish the Vb induced voltage in function of field B, by balancing the effects (average of the
effects according to the distance):
The twisted pair cable is made up by wire pairs. The wires on one pair are coiled in spiral
whose cancelling effect reduces noise and keep the electrical properties of the means constant
through its entire extension. The reduction effect with the use of twisting has its efficiency in
function of the flow cancellation, called Rt (in dB):
Rt = -20 log{(1/( 2nl +1 ))*[1+2nlsen(/nλ)]} dB ,
Where n is the number of loops/m and l is the cable total length (see figures 25 to 31).
The cancellation effect reduces the crosstalk between the wire pairs and decreases the level of
electromagnetic/radiofrequency interference. The number of twists on the wires can vary to
reduce the electrical coupling and their construction provides a capacitive coupling between
the pair conductors and is more efficient in low frequencies (< 1 MHz). When it is not shielded,
it has the disadvantage of producing noise in common mode. For low frequencies, i.e., when the
cable length is smaller than 1/20 of the noise frequency wavelength,  the shielding will present
high noise susceptibility and in this case it should be grounded on both ends.
In the inductive caseVnoise = 2πBAcosα, where B is the field andα is the angle that the flow
cuts the vector area (A) or still in function of the mutual M inductance:

Figure 26 – Inductive coupling effect in parallel cables

 

Figure 27 – Minimization of inductive coupling effect in twisted cables

 
Figure 28 – Examples of induction noise
 

Figure 29 – Example of induction noise

 Figure 30 – Example of induction noise

Figure 31 – Example of Profibus cables near a power cable 
 
 Twisted pair cables are efficient as long as the induction in every tortion area be
approximately equal to the adjacent induction. Its use is efficient in differential mode, balanced
circuits, and has low efficiency in unbalanced circuits. In high frequency circuits with multi-
points grounded the efficiency is high as the return current tends to flow by the adjacent
return. However, in common-mode high frequencies the cable has little efficiency.
Capacitive and Inductive Coupling – Mutual Capacitance and Inductance in
function of the distance between disturbing conductor and victim conductor
Both couplings are directly affected by the distance between the source of noise conductor and
victim conductor. Next figure shows how they are affected depending of the distance between
conductors.

Figure 32 – Mutual capacitance and inductance in function of the distance between the
disturbing and the victim conductors
 
 Coupling Modes
Some points deserve attention to better understand the EMI effects. There are differential-
mode, common-mode and antenna-irradiated mode coupling concepts. They are applied to
emission and interference coupling.

 Differential mode

In most cases, the desired signal is produced in differential mode. In the figure below, we have
two equipment connected by on cable.
A radiated field can be coupled to this system and induce whatever interference in differential
mode between both wires on the cable. By the same token, the differential current will induce
its own radiated field. The ground plan does not play any role in this coupling.

 Common mode

The common-mode cable also transports common-mode currents on the same direction. These
currents many times does not have any relation with the signal currents. They can be induced
by an external field between the cable loop, the ground plan and the different impedances.
The parasite capacitances and inductances associated with each equipment wiring and cabinet
are components of the common-mode coupling circuit and play an important role in
determining the distribution of amplitude and spectrum of the common-mode currents. These
impedances are disperse and are not part of the equipment components and this is why their
effects are difficult to control. Most certainly there techniques to minimize them.

 
Figure 33 – Radiated coupling modes
 

 Antenna mode
The currents in this mode are transported in the same direction by the cable and the ground
reference plan.
They appear when the whole system (including the ground plan) is exposed to an external
field. Currents generates via irradiated mode become a serious problem to the susceptibility of
an irradiated field in independent systems when they are converted in currents of other modes
(i.e., the differential or common mode), making the impedances vary on the different paths.

Transitories
Transitories and peaks are other examples of continuously generated EMI. They may be caused
by electrostatic discharges (ES) or power switching. The figure below shows a transient typical
curve. Fast transitories can be coupled (mostly capacitively) in common-mode signal cables,
especially if the cable is nearby or is located beside an impulsive interference source.

 
Figure 34 – Transient waveform

Power supply voltage variations

The power supply voltage may present a number of disturbances. The short duration voltage
variation can affect definitely an equipment. They must be projected to minimize the effects on
the following conditions:

 Short duration voltage drops

 Interruptions (complete lack of energy for more than 3 seconds)
 Harmonics and unbalance (voltage differences between phases)
 Flicker (fast voltage variations)
 Transitories

 
Figure 35 – Example of signal degradation due to harmonic
 
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
In this case, the probable coupling paths are:

 Insulation capacitance
 Connection and connecting junctions
  Wiring inductance due to magnetic fields generated in the discharge

Use of shieldng in inductive coupling

Magnetic shielding can be applied both to noise sources or signal circuits to minimize coupling.
Shielding low-frequency magnetic fields is not as easy as shielding electrical fields. The efficacy
of magnetic shielding depends on the type of material and its permeability, its width and the
related frequencies.
Due to its high relative permeability, steel is more efficient than aluminum and copper in low
frequencies  (less than 100 kHz).
In higher frequencies, however, aluminum and copper can be used.
The loss of absorption with the use of copper and steel for two widths is shown on figure 36.

Figure 36 – Loss of absorption with the use of copper and steel

 
 The magnetic shielding in these metals is very efficient in low frequencies.
 Skin Effect
In terms of shielding, an important feature is its depth(d)
This is the distance in the interiorof the material where the current density is reduced to1/e
(0,37 or 8,7 dB), due to the peculiar skin effect. For eachddistance in the internal material
direction, the current density drops 8.6 dB (around 9 dB). The bigger is the wall width, the
bigger will be the attenuation of the current through it. This loss of absorption dependson the
number of dthrough the wall. The d depth is an expression of the electromagnetic property that
limits the AC current flow on a conductor surface, turning it smaller with the increase of
conductivity, frequency or permeability.
 
Figure 37 – Skin (depth) of copper, aluminum and steel
 
The previous figure shows the depth (skin, d) of copper, aluminum and steel. For example, the
aluminum depth at 30 MHz is 0,015 mm. This explains why fine conductors are effective in high
frequencies: the current flow only at the surface and most part of the material does not affect
the shielding properties. And still it is possible to reduce the current density from 18db in
material with twice as much width (i.e, with three depth d layers) and so on. The requirements
for an effective shielding are high conductivity for electric fields and high permeability for
magnetic fields.
The skin effect leads to the conclusion thatthe AC resistance of a given conductor increases the
the value of the current frequency that runs through this conductor.
In transient regime some points of interest deserve comment in that initially the current begins
to establish itself on the conductor surface and later spreads to the center to produce an
uniform current, noting that it initially has a high resistance and later, when it reaches the
constant current, the resistance declines. The peculiar  effect is more evident in high
frequencies and the distribution of the current density is done exponentially, from the surface,
material function and frequency.
Copper and aluminum have 5 times the conductivity of steel, being excellent to shield electrical
fields with their relative permeability of 1 (the same as air). Carbon steel has great relative
permeability around 300 at low frequencies, dropping to 1 with the increase of frequencies
above 100 kHz. Its high permeability gives it a reduced  ddepth and makes it better than
aluminum for protection in low frequencies. Different types of stainless steel have different
conductivity and permeability and, consequently, their  ddepths may vary considerably.
A good shield material must have high conductivity, high permeability and enough width to
reach the desired number of ddepth on the lowest frequency to be shielded. A width of one
millimeter of steel covered with pure light zinc (around 10 microns) provides excellent
protection for several applications.
 
Shield openings and efficacy

 b) Shield efficacy x frequency

 
Simple Hole Several Holes

Figure 38 – Efficacy of shielding

 
Figure 38 shows how the shielding efficacy (SE) deteriorates with the frequency and the
opening dimension. An opening of 100 mm will let pass around 20 dB more than a 10 mm
opening. Openings are needed for access control, ventilation and interface, besides
visualization. Discontinuity on the junctions between conductor elements also work as
openings.
SE = 20log(l/2d)), where l  is the wavelength and d is the largest opening dimension.
There is a number of variables that must be considered in relation to shielding efficacy:

 The shape, size, position and number of openings

 The relative positions and the distances between the noise source, the openings and the victim
 The shield geometry
 The frequency and impedance of the noise source

 The shield material and shape will define how much of the incident electromagnetic wave will
be reflected and absorbed, as well as how much will pass by the shield and reach the signal
conductor wires. Mind also that the loss by absorption is defined as the relation between the
shield width and its peculiar skin effect, which represents the wave depth of penetration
contained in the interior of the shield. The largest the loss by absorption in dB, the better will
the shield response.
A shielding efficiency, around 60 dB or more, provides very good level of protection. For a
shielding to be efficient it is also necessary to evaluate the previously listed factors. Totally
closed shields would be the ideal solution, as it would be much more efficient, but they are
impractical. Shields are much more complex than a mere closed envelope made of metallic
materials.
In the case of industrial installations, the shield, mainly on the junction boxes, is fundamental to
keep the continuity and always keep the loop area the smallest possible on the stripped
conductors. The shield connection at the ground point must be the smallest possible, as a
connection of 30 cm would leave the shield with no effect for noises around hundreds of KHz.
 

Figure 39 – Behavior of an incident wave on the shield

  
The SE is normally limited by:

 Openings and junctions

 Removable covers
 Holes for control and display
 Holes for ventilation
 Holes for connectors

Openings and junctions mitigation:

 Minimize the size and number of openings and junctions

 Use junctions and seals to seal metal-metal interface
 Interface free of paint and debris
 Adequate coupling surface area
 Avoid galvanic corrosion

 Metallic channel protection

Next let´s examine the use of metallic channels to minimize Foucault currents.
The spacing between channels facilitates the disturbance generated by the magnetic field.
Furthermore, this discontinuity may ease the difference of potential between each channel
segment, and in the case of a current surge, generated by atmosphere discharge or short
circuit, for example, the lack of continuity will not allow the current to circulate through the
aluminum channel, therefore without protecting the Profibus cable.
The ideal would be uniting each segment to the biggest possible contact area, which will
provide better protection against electromagnetic induction and have between each segment a
conductor on the channel sides with the smallest possible length, to ensure an alternative path
to the currents, in case of occurring an increase of resistance on the junctions between the
segments.
With the adequate mounting of the aluminum channel, the field, when penetrating in the
channel aluminum board, produces a variable magnetic flow in function of the time [f =
a.sen(w.t)] and originates an induced  f.e.m. [ E = - df/dt = a.w.cos(w.t)].
On high frequencies, the f.e.m. induced on the aluminum board will be higher, originating a
bigger magnetic field, which almost nullifies the magnetic field generated by the power cable.
This cancellation effect is smaller at low frequencies. At high frequencies the cancellation is
more efficient.
This is the effect of metallic boards and meshes when facing electromagnetic waves; they
generate their own fields and minimize or even nullify the field through them and work as true
shields to electromagnetic waves. They work as a Faraday cage.
Make sure the boards and coupling rings are made of the same material than the cable
channels and boxes. Protect the connecting points against corrosion after mounting, with zinc
paint or varnish, for example.
Although the cables are shielded, the shielding against magnetic fields is not as efficient as
against electrical fields. In low frequencies, the twisted pair cables absorb most of the
electromagnetic interference effects, while in high frequencies these effects are absorbed by
the cable shield. Whenever possible, connect the cable boxes to the equipotential line system.

Figure 40 – Transient protection with metallic channels

 
 
Some observation relative to shielding:

 The cable shielding is used to eliminate capacitive coupling interference due to electric fields.
 The shielding only is efficient when establishes a low impedance path for the ground.
 A floating shielding does not protect against interferences.
 The shielding mesh must be connected to the circuit reference potential (ground) being
shielded.
 Grounding the shield on more than one point may be problematic.
 Minimize the length of the reference-shield connection, as it works as a coil.

Figure 41 – The length of the reference-shielding connection must be minimized as it works

as a coil.

 Electrical fields are much easier to shield than magnetic fields, and the use of shielding on one or
more points works against electrical fields.
 The use o non-magnetic metals around conductors does not shield against magnetic fields.
 The key for magnetic shielding is to reduce the loop area, by using a twisted pair or the current
return through the shield.
 To prevent conductor radiation, a shield grounded on both sides is generally utilized above the
cut frequency, though under some precaution.
 Only a limited quantity of magnetic noise can be shielded due to the ground loop that is formed.
 Any shield through which a noise current flows must not be part of the signalpath.
 Use a shielded twisted pair or a triaxial cable in low frequencies.
 The efficacy of the twisted cable shield increases with the number of loops per cm.

Coupling by common or conductive impedance

It is the couplig by electric power transference through physical contact with a conducting
means, in contrast with inductive and capacitive coupling. It may be via a wire, resistor, or a
common terminal, transmission line, contact with the housing, grounding, etc.
The conductive coupling goes beyond the frequency spectrum and include DC. The interference
occurs between the signal lines and the ground. The noise is caused by the existing resistance
common to the signal and the return.
 
Figure 42 – Common ground and impedance
 

Figure 43 – Common ground and impedance

 
Figure 44 – Ground in series resulting in conductive coupling
 The ground connection in series is very common because it is simple and economical.
However, this is the ground that provides a dirty ground, due to the common impedance
between the circuits. When several circuits share a ground wire, the currents on a circuit (that
flow through the finite impedance of the common base line) may cause variations in the ground
potential of the other circuits. If the currents are big enough, the ground potential variations
may cause serious disturbances in the operation of all the circuits connected to the signal
common ground.
 

Figure 45 – Common impedance

 Measures to reduce the effect of conductive coupling between cables
Separate the ground power supplies and returns;
This type of coupled noise exists because the conductor have finite impedance. The effect can
be elliminated or minimized by breaking the ground loops (if any) and enabling return to the
ground. See Figure 46.
 

Figure 46 – Adequate ground and connections avoid conductive coupling

Minimize common paths, especially high current, commuted currents and transient signals;

 On common paths always use the smallest resistance (for high currents) and the lowest
impedance (for high di/dts);
 Use low impedance plans for DC sources and theirs returns. It is common to use a bypass
capacitor between the source, keeping the high frequencies in theirs circuits.

 
Techniques to reduce conducted EMI effects
When the EMI manifests itself in relation to the conduction path, the following technical
artifices can be used to:

 Reduce the EMI current and introduce high impedance elements in series;
 Conduct the EMI current to the ground, introducing low impedance elements in parallel;
 Block the EMI current, opening way with galvanic insulation elements;
 Neutralize the EMI current, using mutual inductance.

Some solutions based on galvanic insulation are effective for low and medium frequencies
(below MHz). Solutions based on high frequency filters are effective in frequencies above MHz.
See figure 47.

Figure 47 – Techniques to reduce EMI effects

 
 
Project and layout objectives in automation plants
One of the main goals in projects is to keep all common signal return points at the same
potential. With high frequency in the case of inverters (up to 300MHz) harmonics are
generated by the commuting amplifiers and in these frequencies the ground system looks more
like an inductor and capacitor series than a low resistance path. The use of mesh and twists
instead of wires (short wires are better for high frequencies) for connection at the grounding
points are more effective in this case. See figure 51.
Another important goal is to minimize the magnetic coupling between circuits. This is generally
obtained by minimum cable separation and cable segregated routing. The radio-frequency
coupling is minimized by adequate shielding and grounding techniques. The transients
(surges) are minimized with line filters and power suppressors on the colis and other inductive
loads.
 The grounding concept
A non-technical dictionary defines ground as a point in contact with earth, a common return in
an electric circuit and an arbitrary point of zero voltage potential.
To ground or connect some part of an electric system or circuit to earth ensures personal
safety and, generally improves the circuit work.
Grounding principles:

 All conductors have finite impedance that increases with the frequency;
 Two ground points separated physically are not in the same potential unless no other current
flows between them;
 In high frequencies there is no single-point grounding;
 Unfortunately, a safe and robust ambient in terms of grounding, hardly happens simultaneously.

 Ground wire
Every circuit must have a protective conductor through all its extension.
 Sensitive Electrical Equipment Grounding
The grounding systems must execute several simultaneous functions: how to provide personal
and equipment safety. In short, below is a list of basic grounding systems functions:
a) Provide personal safety to users;
b) Provide a low impedance return path (low inductance) to earth, and the automatic
shutdown by the protection devices in a fast and safe way, when adequately designed;
c) Provide control to the voltages developed on the soil when phase-earth short circuit returns
through the ground wire to a nearby or distant source;
d) Stabilize the voltage during electrical system transitories caused by ground faults;
e)Drain static loads accumulated on equipment structures, supports and housings in general;
f) Provide a system for the electronic equipment operate satisfactorily both on high and low
frequencies;
g) Provide a stable voltage reference to signals and circuits;
h) Minimize EMI (Electromagnetic Emission) effects.
The neutral conductor is normally insulated and Power supply system used is the TN-S (T:
point directly grounded, N: masses connected directly to the power supply point grounded, S:
distinct conductors for neutral and for protection).
The neutral conductor basically conducts the system return current.
The protection conductor basically conducts the mass current to earth. All of housing must be
connected to the protection conductor.
The equipotential conductor must work basically as a potential reference for the electronic
circuit.

Figure 48 – TN-S system

To meet the above functions, three fundamental features are highlighted:

 Conduction capability
 Low resistance value
 Configuration of electrode to enable controlling the potential gradient.
 Regardless of having protective or functional finality, grounding must be single on each
installation point. There are situation where the grounds can be separated, though under due
precautions.
 Concerning the installation of the grounding system components, some criteria should be
observed:
 grounding resistance value should not change considerably throughout time;
 components must resist to thermal, thermomechanical and electromechanical conditions;
 components must be robust or have adequate mechanical protection to meet the external
influence conditions;
 damage to electrodes and other metallic parts by electrolysis effect must be prevented .

Equipotentialize
Definition: To place everything at the same potential.
In practice: Equipotentialize is to minimize the difference of potential to reduce accidents.
Each edification must receive a main equipotentializacion, and the installation located on the
same edification must be connected to the main equipotentialization, hence to the same and
only ground electrode. See figures 49 and 50.
Functional equipotentialization equalizes grounding  and ensures good signal circuits work and
electromagnetic compatibility.
 
Equipotentialization Conductor

 Principal – must have a minimum half protective conductor section of the bigger section and a
minimum:
o 6mm2 (Copper);
o 16mm2(Aluminum);
o 50mm2(Steel)

Figure 49 - Equipotentialization
 

Figure 50 – Ground and Potential Line in Installations

 
 Figure 51 –Equipotentializing Material 
Considerations about equipotentials
Note figure 52, where there is a generating source of high tension and high frequency noises
and a measuring system 25 m far from the control room, and, depending on the signal
conditioning, there may be up tot 2.3kV on the measurement terminals. As long as shield,
ground and equalization conditions improve, the ideal situation for measurement is reached.

Figure 52 – Example of how important are grounding and equipotentialization and their
influence on signal
 
 
In distributed systems, like in industrial process control, whose areas are separated physically
and powered by multiple sources, the rule is to have a ground system in each location and the
EMI control techniques applied in each signal direction path, as shown on figure 50.
 

Implications of poor grounding

Inadequate or even bad grounding may impair more than just equipment safety. The main
effects of inadequate grounding are electrical shocks to users by contact, slow (or intermittent)
response from the protection systems (fuses, circuit breakers, etc.).
But also other operational problems may be caused by deficient grounding:

 Communication failures.
 Drifts or deviations, measurement errors.
 Excessive EMI generation.
  Abnormal heating on the power stages (inverters, converters, etc.) and motorization.
 Constantly stuck computers.
 Burn of electronic components without apparent reason, even in new and reliable equipment.
 Intermittence.
 Etc.

The grounding system must be unique and meet the following finalities:

 Electromagnetic interference control, both internal (capacitive, inductive and common

impedance coupling) and external to the system (ambient);
 Operational safety, with the equipment housing connected to the protection ground and,
therefore, any signal grounded or referenced directly or indirectly to the housing or to the
panel, is automatically referenced to the power distribution ground;
 Protection against lightning, where the descending conductors of the System of Protection
against Atmospheric Discharges (SPDA) must be connected to the metallic structures to avoid
sparking, and ground electrode systems interconnected with the power ground, metal piping,
etc., while the circuit ground stay connected to the lightning-rod ground, via structure or
electrode system.

The consequence is that the equipment with metallic housings stay exposed to noise on the
ground circuits (power and lightning).
To meet safety requirements, lightning protection and EMI, the ground system should be a
zero-impedance plan, whose combination of different current levels would be free from
interference. In other words, this is an ideal condition, which, however, is not confirmed in
practice.
 Types of Ground
In terms of process industry, some types of ground can be identified:
 “Dirty ground”: Those present on installations typically involving 127VAC, 220VAC,
480VAC associated to high commuting level, such as CCMs, lighting, power distribution,
EMI generating sources etc.
 It is common that AC primary power supply present peaks, surges, spikes that degrade
the AC ground.
 “Clean ground”: Those present on typically 24VDc DC systems and circuits, powering
PLCs, controllers and having aquisition and data control signals, as well as digital
networks.
 “Structural ground”: Those applied via structure that force the signal to 0V. They
tipically work as Faraday cage in protection against lighting.
Note: “chassis” or “housing” ground is used as electric shock protection. This type of ground is
not a “zero resistance” ground and its ground potential may vary. However, the circuits are
almost always connected to the earth to prevent shock risks.
 

Single-point ground
This system may be seen on figure 53, where the striking feature is a single ground point
distributed to the entire installation.
 Figure 53 – Single-point ground
This configuration is most adequate for low-frequency spectrum and also meets perfectly well
the needs of high frequency electronic systems installed in small areas.
Furthermore, this system must be insulated not to work as return path for signal currents,
which should circulate through signal conductors with balanced pairs, for example.
This parallel grounding eliminates the problem of common impedance, although being
detrimental to a big pile of cabling. In addition, the impedance on each wire can be too high and
the ground lines can become sources of noise to the system. This king of situation can be
minimized by choosing the right conductor type (AWG 14). Cables of larger gauges help reduce
the ground resistance, as long as the flexible wire reduces the ground impedance.
 

Multipoint ground
For high frequencies, the multipoint system is the most adequate, as shown on figure 54,
inclusive by simplifying the installation.

Figure 54 – Multipoint grounding

 
 
Figure 55 – Grounding in Practice
 
 
Multipoint ground systems that use balanced circuits do not show noise problems. In this case,
the noise is filtered and its field is kept between the cable and ground plan.

Figure 56 – Inadequate multipoint grounding

 
Figure 57 – Adequate single-point ground
 

Figure 58 – Degradation on   single-point grounding with interconnections and parasitic

capacitances.
Figure 57 shows an adequate ground whose individual currents are conducted to a single
grounding point.
Serial connection to ground is very common because it is simple and economical. However, this
grounding provides a dirty ground, due to the common impedance between the circuits. When
several circuits share a ground wire, the currents on a circuit  (flowing through the common
finite impedance of the base line) can cause variations on the ground potential of the other
circuits. If the currents are large enough, the ground potential variations can cause serious
disturbances in the operations of all the circuits connected to the common signal ground.
Figure 59 – Inadequate, weather-exposed ground, oxidation and increase of impedance on the
ground contact put the system at risk.
Modern electronic systems rarely have only one ground. To mitigate the interference, like the
common-mode impedance coupling, etc., distinct aspects on each sub-system by structural
reasons, protection areas and foundations of primary and secondary power are desirable, in
addition to the economical and logistic aspects involved. Finally, these individual points on
each sub-system are connected to the single ground system, where there is the total potential
reference of the system. See figure 60.
 

Figure 60 – Grounding Hierarchy

 
 
Grounding loops
A grounding loop occurs when there is more than one grounding path, generating undesirable
currents between these points.
These paths form the equivalent to an antenna loop that captures interference currents with
high efficacy.
Hence, the voltage reference gets unstable and the noise appears on the signals.

Figure 61 – Ground loop

Figure 62 – PROFIBUS-DP and grounding loops

 
 Grounding at equipment level: Practice
In practice, there is a “mixed system” separating similar circuits and segregating them
according to noise level:

 “signals ground” for  more sensitive circuits;

 “noise ground” for commands (relays), high power circuits (CCMs, for example);
 “equipment ground” for racks, panels, etc.
Figure 63 – Grounding at equipment level in practice
    
The signals may vary basically due to:

 Voltage fluctuation
 Current harmonics
 Conducted and radiated RF
 Conduction or radiation transitories
 Electrostatic Fields
 Magnetic Fields
 Reflections
 Crosstalk;
 Attenuations
 Jitter (phase noise)
 Etc.

 Field Equipment Grounding

The great majority of field equipment manufacturers, such as pressure, temperature
transmitters, positioners, converters, etc, recommends local grounding for their products. It is
common that their housings have one or more ground terminals.
When installed, the equipment housing is in contact with the structural part or piping and,
consequently, grounded. If the housing is isolated from any structure point, local grounding is
recommended with the shortest possible connection with AWG 12 wire. In this case, be careful
in relation to the difference of potential between the grounded point and the panel where the
controller (PLC) is installed.
Some makers recommend that the equipment floats, i.e., be isolated from the structure and not
be grounded, thus avoiding current loops.
In relation to the classified areas, it is recommended to consult local regulations.
For micro-processed, digital communication equipment, some producers incorporate or enable
surge or transient protectors. They provide protection against peak currents and a low
impedance path to the grounding point.
 
General tipos involving control panels, CCMs and instrumentation

 Use RFI filter and always connect it the closest possible to the noise source, between the filter
and the drive.
 Never mix input and output cables.
 All the motors activated by inverters must be powered preferably with shielded cables
grounded on both ends. This is recommended by all inverter manufacturers. Remember that the
commutation frequencies vary from 1k to 35KHz, normally 30KHz, which greatly influences the
FF and the Profibus-PA.
 Whenever possible use an insulating transformer to power the automation system.
 Use repeaters on galvanically insulated CCMs, thus avoiding grounding differentials.
 To comply with EMI protection requirements all external cables must be shielded, except
network powering cables. The shield circuit must be continuous, without interruption.
 Make sure that cables on different zones are routed in separate ducts. Inside the panel, create
distinct zones even with separating plates previously used as shield.
 Make sure that the cables cross each other at square angles to minimize couplings.
 Use cables with the lowest possible values of impedance transference.
 On control cables install a100 nF to 220 nF small capacitor between the shield and the ground to
prevent AC return circuit to ground. This capacitor will work as interference suppressor. But
always refer to the inverter manuals.
 Choose toroid inverters or add toroids  (common-mode choke) on the inverter output.
 Use 4-paths insulated and shielded cable between the inverter and the motor and between the
power supply system and the inverter.
 Always ground the motor housing. Ground it on the panel, where the inverter is installed or on
the inverter.
  Line reactors are a simple and inexpensive way or increasing the insulated load impedance
source (as a variable frequency command, in the inverters case).
 The reactors are connected in series to the harmonic generating load and when increasing the
source impedance, the magnitude of the distorted harmonic can be reduced to the load in which
the reactor is activated. Consult the inverter manual and check the recommendations.
 The ideal is to embed the input inductor and RFI/EMC filter to work as an additional protection
for the equipment and a harmonic filter for the electric network where it is connected.
 The main function of the RFI input filter is to reduce the radio-frequencies emissions conducted
to the main distribution lines and to the ground wires. The RFI input filter is connected between
the AC input power supply line and the inverter input terminals.
 Reflected waves: if the used cable impedance does not match that of the motor, there will be
reflections. Remember that the cable between inverter and motor presents impedance to the
inverter output pulse (the so-called surge impedance). In these cases reactors are also
recommended.
 Special cables: another important detail that helps minimize the effects of electro-magnetic
noises generated in installations with AC inverters and motors is the use of special cables that
avoid the corona effect of discharges that can deteriorate the insulation dielectric rigidity and
allow the presence of stationary waves and the transference of noises to the ground web.
Another construction feature of some cables is double shield, which is more efficient as EMI
protection.
 In terms of digital networks, keep it away from the inverter, where signals reach the motors and
install repeaters to isolate de areas.
 Check for the need to ……. (?)the common-mode inverter capacitors on the DC bus.
 The cable gauge specifications and other recommendations are generally based in 75ºC. Do not
reduce the wire gauge when using higher temperature wire. The minimum and maximum
gauges depend on the inverter nominal current and the terminal blocks physical limitations.
 The ground connectors must be classified according to the inverter maximum current capacity.
  For inverter AC variable frequency applications that must comply with EMC standards, use the
same type of shielded cable specified for AC motors between the inverterand the transformer
 Keep the motor cable lengths within the limits established by the inverter user manual. Many
problems may occur, including on the cable load current and the wavelength voltage effort.
Discreet I/O as on startup and shutdown can be connected to the inverter with several cables.
The cable shield is recommended, as it helps reduce crossed coupling noise on power supply
cables. Standard individual conductors compliant to general temperature, gauge and applicable
codes specs are acceptable, provided they are distant from high voltage cables, to minimize
noise coupling. However, multi-conductor cables could be less expensive.
 Pay attention to cables insulation, normally those higher than 300V.
 For multiple motor applications, chech carefully the installation. Generally, most installations do
not show problems, although load currents on high peak cables may cause over-currents on the
inverter or failures on ground.
 If there are TE and PE terminals, ground them separately at the closest panel point using
twisted pair mesh. If using a panel PE ground wire, it must be connected onthe same panel side
as the channel/armor connections. This will keep the common-mode noise away from the PLC
backplane.   

 Cable shielding:
o Motor and input cables
o Motor and input cable shield must be connected on both ends to provide continuous
path for common-mode noise current.
o Control and signal cables
o The control cable shield must be connected at a single end only. The other end must be
cut and isolated.
o The cable shield between two cabinets must be connected to the signal-source cabinet.
o The cable shield between a cabinet and an external device must be connected on the
cabinet end, unles otherwise specified by the external device maker.
o  Never connect the shield on the common side of a logic circuit, as it will bring the noise
to the logic circuit. Connect the shield directly to the rack shield.

 When directing the wiring to the inverter, separate the high voltage wires and the conductors of
the I/O motor and signal conductors motor. To keep them apart, direct them through a separate
channel or use box dividers.
 Do not direct more than 3 sets of motor conductors (3 inverters) through the same duct. Keep
the duct filling limits compliant to the applicable electricity codes. Do not pass motor conductors
or power supply or communication cables through the same duct. If possible, avoid directing
large lengths of input power supply wires and motor conductors by the same duct.
 As to boxes (trays), arrange carefully the geometry of multiple cable sets. Keep the conductors
on each group in the same package. Arrange the conductors in a way that minimizes the induced
current between the sets and keep them balanced. This is critical in inverters with nominal
power of 200 HP (150 kW), in addition to keeping the power supply and control cables separate.
When arranging the cable boxes for large inverters, check if the tray or duct containing the
signal cabling is at 30cm or more apart from the one containing the motor or power supply
 wiring. The electro-magnetic fields of the motor or power supply currents may induce currents
on the signal cables. The dividers also provide excellent separation.
  Make the connections ends for the inverter power supply, motor and terminal blocks control.
 On low frequencies, CC levels up to 1 MHz, the cable shield can be grounded at a single cable end
and provide good response in relation to electromagnetic interference. On high frequencies, the
recommendation is to shield the cable at both ends. In these cases, it is very important that the
ground potential differences on both grounding connection points be the minimum possible.
The voltage difference between both ends must be a maximum of 1 V (rms) to minimize the
ground loop effects. Also important is to consider that high frequencies carry parasite coupling
capacitance that tends to complete the loop when the shield is grounded on a single cable end.

Shielding on classified areas

Always verify the NBR 5418 standard for shielding and the connection with the equipotential
system of intrinsically safe systems.
An intrinsically safe circuit must float or be connected to the equipotential system associated
with the classified area only on a single point.
The insulation level required (except on one point) must be projected to support 500 V on the
insulation test in compliance with 6.4.12 of IEC 60079-11.
If this requirement is not met, the circuit should be considered as grounded at that point. More
than one ground connection is allowed on the circuit, provided that the circuit is divided in
sub-circuits galvanically insulated and each one is grounded at a single point.
Shields must be connected to ground or to the structure, compliant to ABNT NBR IEC 60079-
14.
Whenever possible, connect the cable boxes to the equipotential line system.
The shields must be grounded on a single point on the potential equalization conductor. If
necessary, for functional reasons, small  ceramic type  capacitors (below 1 nF and for 1500V)
are allowed to be installed as other grounding points, as long as the total capacitances do not
exceed 10 nF.
Never install a previously installed device without an intrinsically safe system, as the
protection zener may be burned and will not work properly on intrinsically safe areas.
Grounding and shielding cautions and recommendations for PROFIBUS-PA and Foundation
fieldbus bus
When considering the use of shielding and grounding on field buses, take into account:

 The electromagnetic compatibiliy (EMC).

 Protection against explosion.
 Protection of persons.

Compliant with the IEC 61158-2 spec, to ground means to be permanently connected to earth
through a sufficiently low impedance and sufficient conduction capacity to prevent any voltage
that might result in equipment or personal damages. Voltage lines with 0 Volt must be
connected to the ground and galavanically insulated from the fieldbus bus. The purpose of
grounding the shield is to avoid high frequency noises.
Preferably, the shield must be grounded on two points, at the beginning and the end of the bus,
as long as there is no potential difference between these two points, allowing the existence of
loop current paths. In practice, when this difference exists, it is recommended grounding the
shield at a single point, i.e., or the power supply or the intrinsic safety barrier. The continuity of
the cable shield must be ensured on more than 90% of the total cable length.
The shield must completely cover the electric circuits through connectors, couplings, splices
and distribution and junction boxes.
Never use the shield as signal conductor. Always check the shield continuity until the last field
equipment segment and analyze the connection and finishing, as the latter must not be
grounded on the equipment housing.
On classified areas, if it is not feasible the potential equalization between the safe area and the
hazardous area, the shield must be connected directly to the ground (Equipotential Bonding
System) only on the dangerous area side. On the safe area, the shield must be connected
through a capacitive coupling (preferably a dielectric solid ceramic capacitor), C<= 10nF,
insulation voltage >= 1.5kV).
 

Figure 64 – Shield + Ground Ideal Combination

 
 Safe Area Potentially Explosive Area

Figure 65 – Capacitive Grounding

 
 
The IEC 61158-2 standard recommends complete insulation. This method is used mainly in the
US and the UK. In this case, the shield is isolated from all grounds, except on the negative souce
ground point or the intrinsic safety barrier on the safe side. The shield must be continuous
since the beginning of the segment, passing by the junction and distribution boxes and reach
the equipment. This method has the disadvantage that it does not protect totally the high
frequency signals and can generate communication intermittence, depending on the cable
topology and length. In these cases, the use of metallic channels is recommended.
Another complementary way would be to ground the equipment junction boxes and housings
on a ground equipotential line on the non-safe side. These grounds are separated from the safe
side ones.
Multiple-ground condition is also common, providing more effective protection on conditions
of high frequency and electromagnetic noises. This method is adopted in Germany and some
European countries. The shield is grounded on the source negative ground point or on the safe
side intrinsic safety barrier and, additionally,on the ground of the junction boxes and the
equipment housing. These are also grounded on the non-safe side. Another complementry
condition would be grounding the ground wires in equipotential lines set, bonding the non-safe
to the safe side.
For more details, always consult the local safety regulations, Use the IEC 60079-14 standard as
a reference on classified areas applications.
Figures 66 and 67 show the shield on adequate and inadequate grounding conditions.

Figure 66 – Inadequate fieldbus shield grounding on more than one point.

 
Figure 67– Adequate fieldbus shield grounding on a single point.

Shielding
Grounding and shielding are mandatory requirements to guarantee the integrity of a plant
data. In practice is fairly common to encounter intermittent work and crude measurement
errors due to poor installations.
Noise effects can be minimized with adequate project techniques, installations, grounding and
shielding, cable distribution. Improper grounding can be the source of undesirable and
dangerous potentials that can jeopardize an equipment effective operation or a system
performance.
The shield must be connected to the reference potential it protects (see figure 68)

Figure 68 – Shield connected to the signal reference potential it is protecting

 With multiple segments, keep them connected to ensure the same reference potential,
according to figure 69.

Figure 69 - Multiple segments connected to the reference potential it protects.

 
 

Shielding x grounding effect on a single point

In this case the current will not circulate through the shield and does not cancel magnetic
fields.
The conductor length projected beyond the shield must be minimized to ensure good shield
connection to the ground.

Figure 70 – Shielding x grounding effect on a single point

Shielding x grounding effect on two points

A current distribution occurs in function of the frequencies, as the current tends to follow the
path with the least impedance.
Up to a few kHz, the inductive reactance is negligible and the current will circulate through the
path with the least resistance.
Above kHz, the inductive reactance predominates and the current will circulate through the
path with the least inductance.
The path with the least impedance is that whose return course is near to the departure course,
as it presents the largest distributed capacitance and the least distributed inductance.
The conductor length projected beyond the shield must be minimized to ensure good shield
connection to the ground.

Figure 71 – Shielding x grounding effect on two points

 
 
It is worth mentioning in this case:
  There is no protection against ground loops.
 Possible significant damage to active equipment when the ground potential between the
extremes exceeds 1 V (rms).
 The electrical grounding resistance must be the lowest possible on both segment ends to
minimize ground loops, mainly on low frequencies.

As previously seen, cable shielding is used to eliminate capacitive coupling interference due to
electrical fields.
 

Conclusion
This article showed several details on inductive/conductive capacitive coupling effects, as well
as details on grounding.
Every automation project must take into account standards that ensure adequate level signals,
in addition to the safety required for the application. Bear in mind that adequate, standard
installations are the basis for success of a digital technology project.
Mitigation of EMC questions:

 Reduce interference levels generated by EMI sources disturbing points

 Increase the victim susceptibility (immunity)
 Reduce the efficacy of coupling paths and the following combination:

  Disturbing  (EMI) source   Coupling path   Victim

  Alteration of signals routing   Increase the separation   Alteration of signals routing
  Add local filters   Shielding   Add local filters
  Select the operation   Reduce the number of   Select the operation
frequency interconnections frequency
  Frequency dithering   Filter interconnections  
  Reduce the signal level    
Table 3 – Measures to mitigate EMC
 
Figure 72 – How to minimize EMI effects
Preventive maintenance should be executed annually, by checking the quality of each
connection in relation to robustness, reliability and low impedance, making sure that there is
no contamination or corrosion. In addition, digital technology plants such as Profibus and
Foundation fieldbus, should only have network certification service provided by trained
professionals, to ensure conformity with standards in addition to    advantages like:

 increased network performance and reliability;

 reduction of comissioning, startup and shutdown time;
 preventive and predictive actions on possible installations and communication signals failures;
 increase of operational safety with the suggested improvements;
 improvement of operational performance and reduction of global operation and maintenance
costs, among others.
 How shielding can help minimize noises

Introduction
The coexistence of equipment of different technologies and the inadequacy of the installations
favors the emission of electro-magnetic energy and often causes problems of electro-magnetic
compatibility.
EMI is the energy that causes undesirable response to any equipment and may be generated by
sparking on the motor brushes, tension circuits switching, activation of inductive and resistive
loads, activation of switches, circuit breakers, fluorescent bulbs, heaters, automotive ignitions,
atmospheric discharges and even the electrostatic discharge between persons and equipment,
microwaves devices, mobile communication equipment etc. All this may provoke alterations
with the resulting overload, sub-voltage, peaks, voltage transients etc., which may cause high
impact on a communication network. This is very common in industries and factories, where
EMI is fairly frequent in function of the larger use of machines such as welding instruments,
motors (MCCs) and in digital networks and computers in the vicinity of these areas.
The biggest problem caused by EMI is the occasional situations that slowly degrade the
equipment and its components. Many different problems may be generated by EMI on
electronic equipment as communication failures between devices of the same equipment
network and/or computers, alarms produced without explanation, action on relays that do not
follow logic, without being commanded, in addition to the burning of electronic components
and circuits etc. It is very common the occurrence of noises in power source lines due to bad
grounding and shielding or even error in the project.
The topology and the distribution of the wiring, types of cables, protection techniques are
factors that must be considered to minimize the EMI effects. Keep in mind that in high
frequencies the cables work as a transmission system with crossed and confused lines, reflect
and scatter energy from one circuit to another. Keep the connections in good conditions.
Inactive connectors may develop resistance or become RF detectors.
A typical example of how the EMI may affect the work of an electronic component is a capacitor
exposed to a voltage peak higher than its specified nominal voltage. This may deteriorate the
dielectric, whose width is limited by the capacitor operation voltage, which may produce a
gradient of potential inferior to the dielectric rigidity of the material, causing malfunctioning
and even the capacitor burning. Or, still, the transistor polarization currents may be altered
and cause their saturation or cut, or burn its components by the joule effect, depending on the
intensity. 
 
In measurements:

 Do not be neglectful, imprudent, irresponsibly inexpert or incompetent on technical problems.

 Remember that each plant and system has its own safety details. Get well informed about them
before starting work.
 Whenever possible refer to the physical regulations, as well as the safety practices for each area.
 Act safely on measurements, avoiding contact between terminals and wiring, as high voltage
may cause electric shock.
 In order to minimize the risk of potential problems related to safety, comply with the safety
standards and those of the local classified areas regulating the equipment installation and
operation. These standards vary according to the area and are being constantly updated. The
 user is responsible to determine which rules to follow in his applications and guarantee that
each device is installed in compliance with them.
 The inadequate installation or use of equipment in non-recommended applications may damage
the system performance and consequently the process, as well as be a source of danger and
accidents. Therefore, only use trained and qualified professionals on installation, operation and
maintenance jobs.

Quite often the reliability of a control system is jeopardized by its poor installations.
Commonly, users tolerate them but a close look reveals problems involving cables, their
courses and packing, shielding and grounding.
It is extremely important that every person involved is aware and conscious and moreover
committed with the plant operational reliability and personal safety. This article provides
information and tips on grounding but in case of doubt the local regulations always prevail.
The control of noises in automation systems is vital, as it may become a serious problem even
with the best devices and hardware to collect data and work.
Any industrial environment has electric noises in sources, including AC power lines, radio
signals, machines and stations etc.
Fortunately, simple devices and techniques as the use of adequate grounding methods,
shielding, twisted wires, the average signal method, filters and differential amplifiers may
control noise on most measurements.
Frequency inverters have commuting systems that may generate electromagnetic interference
(EMI). Their amplifiers may emit a significant EMI on 10 MHz to 300 MHz frequencies. Most
probably this commuting noise may produce intermittence in nearby equipment. While most
manufacturers take due precaution on their projects to minimize this effect, the complete
immunity is not attainable. So, some layout, wiring, grounding and shielding techniques offer a
significant contribution to this optimization.
The EMI reduction will minimize initial and future operation costs and problems on any
system.
This article shows how noises can be minimized by shielding. Let’s deal about capacitive
coupling.
 
 
 

Capacitive Coupling 
If the noise is caused by an electric field, the shield is efficient, as there will be no Q2 inside the
closed and grounded enclosure.
 
Figure 1 – The Q1 Load does not create loads in a closed and grounded metal enclosure.
 
 
An electric field coupling is modeled as a capacitance between two circuits (see figure 2).
Figure 3 shows the physical model.
 

Figure 2 – Circuit equivalent to the capacitive coupling

 
 
Figure 3 – Capacitive coupling physical representation 
 
 
The equivalent capacitance, Cef, is directly proportional to the electric field area of action and
inversely proportional to the distance between the two circuits. Therefore, by widening the
separation or narrowing the area, the CEF influence will be minimized and the capacitive
coupling will not affect the signal too much. This is the effect of the capacitance between two
bodies with electric loads separated by one dielectric, which is called mutual capacitance effect.
The capacitive coupling level is proportional to the noise signal frequency and amplitude.
The electric field effect is proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the
distance.
The disturbance level depends on the voltage variations (dv/dt) and the value of the coupling
capacitance between the “disturbing cable” and the “victim cable.”
The coupling capacitance increases with:

 The frequency inverse: The capacitive coupling potential increases as the frequency increases
(the capacitive reactance, considered as capacitance coupling resistance decreases according to
the frequency and may be seen in the XC = 1/2πfC) formula.
 The distance between the disturbing and victim cables and the length of the cables that run in
parallel.
 The cable height in relation to plan of reference (in relation to the ground).
 The input impedance of the victim circuit (circuits of high input impedance are most
vulnerable).
 The insulation of the victim cable (εr of the cable insulation), mainly in strongly coupled pair of
cables. 

 
The influence may be reduced by the adequate use of the shield, which will work as a shielding
(Faraday cage). The shielding must be placed between the capacitive coupled conductors and
connected to ground only at one point, beside the signal source. See figure 5. Figure 4 shows an
inadequate condition whose loop current circulates by the shield.
 

Figure 4 – Inadequate use of the shield, grounded at more than one point. 
 
 

Figure 5 – Inadequate use of shielding, grounded at only one point.

 
 

Measures to reduce the capacitive coupling effect

 Limit the length of the cable running in parallel
 Increase the distance between the disturbing cable and the victim cable.
 Ground one of the extremities of the Shields on both cables
 Reduce the dv/dt of the disturbing signal, by increasing the signal raising time, whenever
possible (lower the signal frequency)
 Whenever possible protect the conductor or equipment with metal material (Faraday
shielding). The ideal is to cover one hundred per cent of the part to be protected and to ground
this shielding so that the parasite capacitance between the conductor and the shield does not
 work as another power supply or crosstalk element. Figure 6 shows the interference between
cables, whose capacitive coupling between cables induces voltage transients (electrostatic
pickups). In this situation the interference current is drained to ground through the shield,
without affecting the signal levels.

 
 

Figure 6 – Interference between cables: the capacitive coupling induces voltage transients
(electrostatic pickups)
 
 
Figure 7 shows an example of protection against transients.
 
 

 Figure 7 – Example of protection against transients (Best solution against Foucault Current)
 
 
 How to reduce electrostatic interference:

 Adequate grounding and shielding              

 Optical insulation              
 By using grounded metal ducts and boxes

 
Figure 8 shows the coupling capacitance between two conductors separated by a D distance.
 
 

Figure 8 - Capacitive coupling between conductors at a D distance

 
 

Shielding
Grounding and shielding are mandatory to guarantee the integrity of a plant data. In practice, it
is very common finding intermittent work and gross errors in measurements due to bad
installations.
Noise effects can be reduced with adequate project, installation, cable distribution, grounding
and shielding techniques. Inadequate grounding can be the source of undesired and dangerous
potentials that may impair the effective operation of the equipment or the system itself.
The shield must be connected to the signal of the reference potential it is protecting (see figure
9).
 
Figure 9 – Shielding connected to the reference potential of the signal it is protecting
 
 
When having multiple segments, keep them connected to guarantee the same reference
potential, as shown on figure 10.
 

Figure 10 – Multiple-segment  shielding connected to the reference potential of the signal it is

protecting
 
 

Shielding vs Grounding at a Single Point

In this case the current will not circulate by the loop and will not cancel the electric fields.
The length of the conductor extending out of the shield must be reduced to guarantee good
shield connection to the ground.
 
Figure 11 - Shielding vs grounding effect at a single-point
 
 
 

Shielding vs. Grounding Effect at Two Points

The currents are distributed in function of their frequencies, because they follow the path with
least impedance.
Up to a few kHz: the inductive reactance is negligible and the current will flow by the path with
least resistance.
Above kHz: the inductive reactance predominates and the current will circulate by the path
with least inductance. 
The path with least impedance is the one whose return course is near the departing course, as
it presents the largest distributed capacitance and the least distributed inductance.
The length of the conductor extending out of the shield must be reduced to guarantee good
shield connection to the ground.
 

Figure 12 – Shielding vs. grounding effect at two points

 
 
It is worth mentioning:

 There is no protection against ground loops.

 Possibility of significant damages to the active equipment when the ground potential difference
between both ends exceeds 1 V (rms).
 The grounding electrical resistance must be the lowest possible on both ends of the segment to
minimize the ground loops, mainly in low frequencies.

 
Cable shielding is used to eliminate capacitive coupling interferences caused by electric fields.
The shielding only is efficient when it establishes a low impedance path to the ground.
A floating shield does not protect against interferences.
The shield loop must be connected to the reference potential (ground) of the circuit that is
being shielded.
Ground the shielding at more than one point may be problematic.
Minimize the length of the shielding-reference connection, as it works as a coil.
 

Figura 13 – The shielding-reference length must be reduced as it works as a coil.

 
 
Electrical fields are much easier to shield than magnetic fields, and the use of shielding at one
or more points works against electrical fields.
The use of non-magnetic metals around the conductors does not shield against magnetic fields.
The key to magnetic shielding is to reduce the loop area.  Use a twisted pair or the return of the
current through the shielding.
To prevent the radiation on a conductor, a grounded shielding on both sides is normally used
above the cut frequency, although a few precautions should be taken.
Only a limited quantity of magnetic noise can be shielded because of the ground loop that is
formed.
Any shielding that conducts a noise current must not be part of the signal path.
Use a shielded twisted cable or a tri-axial cable on low frequencies.
The effectiveness of the twisted cable shielding increases with the number of turns.
 
 

Conclusion
next articles we will see details on inductive coupling. Every automation project must take into
consideration the standards that guarantee adequate signal levels, in addition to the safety
required by the application. Recommended is to annually carry out preventive maintenance
actions and check each grounding system connection that must guarantee the quality of each
connection in relation to robustness, reliability and low impedance. Make sure there is no
contamination and corrosion.
This article does not replace NBR 5410, NBR 5418, and IEC 61158 and IEC 61784 standards nor
PROFIBUS profiles and technical guides. In case of discrepancies or doubts, the IEC 61158 and IEC
61784 standards, and the profiles, technical guides and manufacturer manuals prevail. Whenever
possible, refer to EN50170 for physical regulations as well as for safety practices on each area.
 
 

Bibliographic References
 Technical articles  - César Cassiolato
 www.system302.com.br
 www.smar.com.br
 http://www.smar.com/brasil2/artigostecnicos/
 http://www.electrical-installation.org/wiki/Coupling_mechanisms_and_counter-measures
 National Application Notes 25: Field Wiring and Noise Considerations for Analog Signals - Syed
Jaffar Shah
 Grounding, Shielding, Noises and Installation Tips - César Cassiolato
 The use of Metal Ducts Minimizing the Foucaualt Currents in PROFIBUS installations -
César Cassiolato
 Noises and Interferences in PROFIBUS Installations - César Cassiolato
 http://www.smar.com/brasil2/artigostecnicos/newsletter/dicas_blindagem.html
 Pesquisas na internet (Todas as ilustraçõ es, marcas e produtos usados aqui pertencem aos seus
respectivos proprietá rios, assim como qualquer outra forma de propriedade intelectual).