SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS

ASSIGNMENT:

Name: Anjani Gaur

Roll no. 18/65

Q. Discuss Durkheim’s application of his methodology in his study of suicide as a social fact.

A. Emile Durkheim was one of the founding fathers of sociology and was writing at the time
when society was undergoing major structural changes. His preoccupation was restoring of
social order and stability as he was deeply impacted by the social change that was taking
place. As a result, his work like suicide, division of labor, religion, primitive classification
aimed at understanding the social order and how it could be restored. His other
preoccupation was to create a distinctive subject matter of sociology. He delinked sociology
from psychology and philosophy by strongly advocating the use of empirical research which
he felt will make sociology grounded and closer to natural science. Durkheim wanted to
make this distinction specific so that sociology did not end up as an extension of philosophy.
Thus, he developed his methodological approach that was more scientific and open to
verification. He used his methodological approach in studying the distinctive subject matter
of sociology that is social facts.
Therefore, three aims of Durkheim were:
1)To establish social reality outside individual.
2)He wanted sociology independent of philosophy and therefore replaced speculative
thoughts with factual observation.
3)Give specific subject matter for sociology that is social facts.

Social Facts is “every way of acting fixed or not, capable of exercising on individual external
constraints or again every way of acting which is general throughout the social system that
exists in their own rights independent of its individual manifestation.”
Suicide refers to any case of death result of direct or indirect act, positive or negative act
accomplished by the victim itself and is conscious of the result. Suicide is a social
phenomenon and Durkheim rejects all psychological and individual facts. According to
Durkheim, suicide is a social fact.
Following are the features of social facts:

External :
Social Facts are external Social facts are external to individual and are not dependent on
their wins. Social facts endures while individuals die or is replaced by another. Social facts
are not creations of single individuals. A number of individual interact and out of this
interaction reality is created. This reality is social fact. It is external to individual because it is
produced outside individual consciousness. Individuals have no affect on this and cannot
alter it at their level. Social fact will continue even if individuals are not there.
Example- Suicide.
Suicide as a social fact will exist forever. Suicide rates are not concerned if a person is alive
or dead. There is a sense of consistency in the suicide rates of different regions across
different years. This consistency of suicide rate shows that suicide is external.
Coercive:
Social facts are constrains, imposed on individuals. Individuals experience it in a form of
legal and moral rules that he has to confirm. If an individual deviates from these rules,
he/she has to bear the punishments. There are some moral obligations to obey these rules.
In a society where the moral and legal framework has been broken down; in that society
people will feel restless and will be more prone to suicide, this situation is that of ‘anomie.’
Example- Suicide
People get drawn to suicidogenic current and this makes suicide coercive in nature.

General :
Social facts are general in nature as they are collective and are common to everyone.
Example- Suicide
Suicide as a social fact is general because it exist outside individual in large number of
people. The suicidogenic current, which defines the coercive nature of suicide, also
establishes the generality of suicide.
Rules of sociological method:

RULE 1: Rule for observation of social facts.

Social facts need to be treated as things.

Social facts are not material things but they share certain characteristics of things. According
to Durkheim a thing is an object of knowledge that is not naturally penetrable by the
understanding. It is all that which we cannot conceptualize adequately. It is all that which our
mind cannot comprehend without the process of observation and experimentation. Thing is
not an idea.
Social facts are things because individual cannot change it by their act of will. Social facts
cannot be modified at an individual level. Social facts take place outside the individual.
Thus when the sociologist undertakes to investigate any order of social facts he must strive
to consider them from a viewpoint where they present themselves in isolation from their
individual manifestations.
For example, for Durkheim suicide is a social fact and hence he sees suicide as things.
Durkheim studied suicide through a certain data, which are known as suicide rates. He
studied suicide as a data, specifically suicide rates and thus suicide is also observed as a
thing.

CRITICISM FOR RULE 1:

For Durkheim, social facts are things which resist modification, this reveals his conservative
approach. It also implies that the natural state of phenomenon is static, thereby, ignoring the
dynamic aspect of change. Social facts are also defined in terms of external characteristics
but Durkheim failed to define these characteristics.

RULE 2: Rule for distinguishing between Normal and Pathological.

According to Durkheim there is a need to establish the distinction between normal and
pathological for any research to begin. According to him all social phenomenon, can assume
a different form for each particular case. Among these forms exist two kinds.

1)Normal
2)Pathological
The first are common to the whole species. They are to be found, if not in all, at least in
most individuals. If they are not replicated exactly in all the cases where they are
observed,'but vary from one person to another, their variations are confined within very
narrow limits. On the other hand, other forms exist which are exceptional. These are
encountered only in a minority of cases, but even when they occur, most frequently they do
not last the whole lifetime of an individual. They are exceptions in time as they are in space.
Those facts that appear in the most common forms we shall call normal, and the rest morbid
or pathological.
For Durkheim normal form is distributed in the entire range of species. These forms are
common if not to all but at least a majority of them. An individual can construct normal
through discovering the average of each of main feature of social phenomenon under
consideration and construct a type (average type) which possesses all these average
feature.
A social fact can be called ‘normal’ for a given social species in relation to its given phase of
its development. It must occur in average of that social type at the corresponding phase of
its evolution. This rule can be verified by showing that general character of phenomenon is
related to general conditions of collective life in social type under consideration. This
verification is essential, if social phenomenon under consideration belong to a social species
which has not yet completed the full course of its evolution.

According to Durkheim, there are exceptional variation found only in minority cases and do
not persist throughout the life of individual. These exceptions are both in time and space and
are known as ‘pathological.’ In biology pathology is equal to morbidity. If normalcy implies
standard of health; then pathology implies deviation from the standard of health i.e. sickness.
A social fact can be called pathological only in relation to a particular social species at a
given phase of its development. According to Durkheim, what is normal today can be
pathological in future.

Let us in fact apply the rules previously laid down. Suicide is not only observed in most
societies of a particular species, but in all societies of all types. According to Durkheim,
every society has a certain rate of suicide which is considered to be normal for a given
society at a given phase of development. What is normal is simply that suicide exists,
provided that for each social type it does not reach or go beyond a certain level. Suicide is
normal because it is completely impossible for any society entirely free of it to exist.
As societies pass from lower to higher types, the suicide rates tends to fall, which means
that, although still remaining a normal phenomenon, suicide tends to lose that character of
normality.Sudden increase or decrease in the suicide rates is considered pathological in a
society.

CRITICISM FOR RULE 2

Durkheim points out that modern society is characterized by egoistic and anomic forms of
suicide. However, he goes on to say that state of anomie is pathological. Therefore, there is
contradiction in his own theory.

RULE 3: CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL TYPES.

Durkheim called ‘Social morphology’ that part of sociology concerned with the constitution
and classification of social types. Durkheim spoke of the types as social species and defined
them in terms of their degrees of composition. Classification is based on the principle that
societies differ in degree of complexity. Durkheim calls the simplest-aggregate, “society of
one segment” “the horde.”

1. A hypothetical ‘horde’ which was the simplest of all human groupings.

2. The aggregation of these into “simple poly-segmental” societies consisting of clans within
tribes.

3. The aggregation of tribes themselves into confederations to form “poly-segmental

societies simply compounded.”

4. The aggregation of these unions of tribes to form larger societal forms like the city-states
which were “poly-segmental societies doubly compounded.”

These were not outlined in Durkheim’s rule. He found it necessary to specify and employ two
rather different kinds of classification. The one above was a large framework for descriptive,
comparative and analytical study which was seen before in Spencer, Hobhouse and others.
But in addition to it Durkheim found it necessary to construct a ‘marked typology’—consisting
of two extreme polarized models, in order to interpret the most significant pattern of change.
So his treatise of the Division of Labour in Society is a large scale theory of social change.
For which Durkheim constructed a clear and twofold typology of a mechanical type of
solidarity in the simplest-societies and an organic type of solidarity possessing a complex
differentiation.
Suicide as a social fact has been classified into four types:
Altruistic suicide​ describes when individuals kill themselves in order to benefit other
people.
Altruism is social behavior that means doing good for the sake of others. Altruistic suicide
was a concept first identified by Emile Durkheim and is when a person commits suicide in
order to benefit others. Altruistic suicide is sometimes viewed as a courageous act such as
self-sacrifice during times of war.
He give three types of altruistic suicide-
Obligatory suicide
Society specifies one to commit suicide without any coercive means. This type of suicide is
performed out of duty. The weight of society is brought to bear on individual to lead him to
destroy himself. This sacrifice is imposed by society for social ends. For example, a soldier.
Optional
The choice remains with individual to commit the suicide for a reason or a belief for
committing.
Mythic
Individual kills himself purely for the joy of sacrifice, because, even with no particular reason,
renunciation in itself is considered praiseworthy. Individuals commit suicide for the joy of
renouncing one’s own life.
Anomic Suicide i​ s the type of suicide is due to certain breakdown of social equilibrium,
such as, suicide after bankruptcy or after winning a lottery. In other words, anomic suicide
takes place in a situation which has cropped up suddenly.
Durkheim talks about two types of anomie:
Economic
There are two type of anomic suicide under economy:
Sudden boom in economy (economic prosperity)
Sudden fall in economy (recession)
The first type is characterized by immense competition and unlimited aims where people are
never satisfied. This is a characteristic feature of modern industrial society where unlimited
wants are triggered by excessive individuation, technology and market. It is a situation where
there is no regulation when it comes to competition or desire.
During the economic slum, the recession period, people find themselves in inferior situation.
The means to achieve the standard of living gets restricted. As a result, people become
pessimist and are drawn to the anomic suicidogenic current.
Conjugal
Conjugal anomie focuses on undermining matrimonial regulations. Modern society is
characterized by high suicide rates which has a significance when seen in relation to
breakdown of material regulation.
Fatalistic Suicide ​is when people are kept under tight regulation such as in Korea. Where
there is extreme rule in order or high expectations set upon a person or peoples in which
lead them to a sense of no self or individuality.
Egoistic Suicide​ is the breakdown of social bond and excessive individualism in a
heterogeneous society. In heterogeneous society, there's a natural feature of weakening of
social bonds due to increase in diversity which leads to development of egoism. This is a
feature of large scale modern society. Here, individual ego, dominates over social ego.
Durkheim gives certain shields against such egoistic suicidogenic current:
Religion - Durkheim explains that protestants are more vulnerable to egoistic suicide
because of the basic values the religion professes. This value includes liberty, rationality,
renouncement of prejudices over logic. On the other hand, Catholic and Judaism as religions
give minimum scope of individual judgement. In these religions, individuals are highly
influenced by the society and religion leading to high social bonds. As a result, Durkheim
statistically show that suicide rates are higher among countries which are dominated among
protestants than Catholics or Jews.
Marriage & family - Both of them act as a wound to protect individual being drawn to the
sucido-genic current. This is more true for male rather than female as the later are excluded
from social life.
Community - A tight knit community leads to increasing in social bond, hence reducing the
egoistic suicide rates.
National or political crisis - social bonds between people will increase when there is a
political on national crisis and thereby will reduce the egoistic suicide rates.
Egoistic suicide is characterized by melancholy, apathy, skepticism and when individual is
disillusionment.
There are different types of suicidogenic current (altruistic, anomic, egoistic, fatalistic). All
are present in society but one current can dominate over the other current according to
different situations in a given society.

CRITICISM OF RULE 3
Durkheim has only given one-sided explanation of suicide making it sociological and thereby
negating the psychological aspect of suicide.

RULE 4: RULE FOR EXPLANATION OF SOCIAL FACTS

When the explanation of a social phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek separately the
efficient cause which produces it and the function it fulfills. There are two approaches which
may be used in the explanation of social facts. The causal and the functional. The causal is
concerned with explaining “why” the social phenomena exist. The functional involves
establishing the co-relation between the fact under consideration and the general needs of
the social organism, and what this correspondence consists.
In finding out the causal relationship between social facts, Durkheim laid the foundation for
the functional method. He stressed that social facts are to be studied in terms of their
usefulness in meeting human desires. The task of sociology is to know the cause as well as
the function of social facts. Thus sociology must inquire into the functions of social
institutions and other social phenomena that contribute to the maintenance of social whole.
The causes which give rise to a given social fact must be identified separately from whatever
social functions it may fulfill. Normally, one would try to establish causes before specifying
functions. This is because knowledge of the causes which bring a phenomenon into being
can, under certain circumstances, allow us to derive some insight into its possible functions.
Cause and function although have a separate character but this does not prevent a
reciprocal relation between the two. One can start either way. For example, Crime offends
collective sentiment in a society, while the function of punishment is to maintain these
sentiments at the same degree of intensity. If offences against them were not punished, the
strength of the sentiments necessary for social unity would not be preserved.
In causal explanation:—the determining cause of a social fact should be sought among the
social facts preceding it and not among the states of the individual consciousness. According
to Durkheim any attempt to explain social facts directly in terms of individual characteristics
or in terms of psychology would make the explanation false. In functional explanation the
function of a social fact ought- always to be sought in its relation to some social end.
According to Durkheim, three kinds of explanation needs to be avoided:
•One should not explain social fact in terms of purpose.
•One should not explain a social fact so as to confuse the cause and effect. Segregation of
cause and effect is mandatory.
•One should not explain social facts in terms of individuals, i.e. cause of social facts should
not be found in individual.
Social facts has to have certain purpose and should be explained in terms of usefulness and
wellness. Functional explanation of social facts includes historical account and functional
account. Durkheim explains the cause of social facts in terms of antecedent facts, hence it is
historical account. As social facts contribute towards maintenance of social order hence is
function account.
While suicide is an individual act, Durkheim argues that the suicide RATE is a social fact -
something that is external to any individual. It is a product of the social structure of any
given society. Durkheim figured that by examining the different types of suicide, he could
identify key elements of social organization.

The two key dimensions for understanding suicide are the extent of social INTEGRATION
and REGULATION.
Integration is the extent of social relations binding a person or a group to others, such that
they are exposed to the moral demands of the group
Regulation is defined as the normative or moral demands placed on the individual that come
with membership in a group.

CRITICISM OF RULE 4
Durkheim failed to give a proper guideline in identifying the main cause of a social fact to
occur. His explanation is sometimes tautological.

RULE 5: RULE OF TESTING OF SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLAINATION TO ESTABLISH

SOCIOLOGICAL PROOF.
For the testing of sociological explanations the only alternative according to Durkheim is
indirect experiment: the comparative method. Social facts, as described and defined by
Durkheim could not be artificially manipulated, or even produced, to accord with anything like
controlled experimental conditions. It was only possible to bring them together in the way
that they have spontaneously been produced and compare and contrast them in some
carefully controlled way, within the framework of some carefully constructed procedure.

Durkheim’s rules for establishing proofs are:

1. Crucial experiment is the method of testing theories.

2. The comparative method is the only alternative to experiment which sociology possesses.
3. The most stringent formulation of the comparative method is to base it upon the method of
“concomitant variations.”
4. To establish constant concomitance is itself to establish laws—to establish demonstrable
“regularities of connection.”
5. The causal relations underlying this concomitance can then be investigated further—by
deducing inference, more refined hypotheses and further comparisons.
6. For a-full explanation of such a concomitance, and for a full test of such an explanation,
the social facts in question should be studied in all social species.
In Durkheim’s view to ensure objective approach to social reality, Durkheim says “consider
social facts as things”.For example, a certain rate of suicide is considered as normal under
the law of suicide. It states that every society has a general rate of suicide and these suicide
rates are considered to be normal.

CRITICISM OF RULE 5
Durkheim argues by rule of elimination, which is problematic. He discards all possible
interpretations of reality except the one given by him. This has a loophole as he may not
have eliminated each and every possible explanation. He also talks about the rules to grasp
the object or objective reality of social facts but social facts also have qualitative attributes
that cannot be grasped through the rules.

Émile Durkheim was one of the founding figures of social science and the creator of
sociology as an academic discipline. Among his influential doctrines is that social
phenomena and institutions (”social facts”) constitute an independent reality that cannot be
reduced to the psychological or biological properties of individuals and their interactions.
Conclusion :
Social facts are those social forces in our environment that influence us but we cannot
change or control. Social facts are external, coercive and general. We have also discussed
the Rules of Sociological Method to understand Social facts. There are 5 rules of
sociological method which establishes sociology as objective and independent of all
philosophy. We have also discussed suicide as a social facts linking it with rules of
sociological method.