CHAPTER I

LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION

INTRODUCTION

The study of optics is the study of a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Since light is an electromagnetic wave, its wave properties can be used to
explain various phenomena. The study of phenomena using the wave nature of
light is called physical optics or wave optics. The analysis of light phenomena
using rays is called geometrical optics or ray optics.

Objectives
After studying this unit, students will have the knowledge of
1. Nature of Light
2. Young's Interference Experiment
3. Thin Film Interference
4. Diffraction
5. Polarization
6. Illumination and
7. Light Sources
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1.1 Nature of Light

In the classical sense, light is an electromagnetic wave. Light waves are
characterized by electric and magnetic field figure (1.1).

Figure1.1 Light is an electro-

magnetic wave.
The electric field vector E and
the magnetic field vector B are
perpendicular to each other and
are perpendicular to the direction
of propagation.

The electric field vector E and the magnetic field vector B are perpendicular to
each other and are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Electromagnetic radiation spans a wide range of frequencies, figure
(1.2), but light is generally taken to mean electromagnetic waves in or near the
visible region.

Figure 1.2 The

electro-magnetic
spectrum.
The visible region
comprises wavelengths
between approximately
4000 and 7000 Aº (or
400 and 700 nm).

Similar to the acoustical frequency spectrum, different regions of the

electromagnetic (EM) spectrum are given different names figure (1.2). Notice
that the visible region is only a small part of the EM spectrum. Above and
below the visible region are the ultraviolet and infrared regions, respectively.
The radiation in these and other regions cannot be perceived by the human eye.
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In the visible region, light of different frequencies (or wavelength) is

perceived by the eye as different colors. Color is the physiological frequency
response of the eye. The frequency and wavelength of light are related by the
equation
f=c
where "c" in this case is the speed of light. In vacuum, the speed of light is
c = 3 x 108 ms-1 (or) 3 x 1010 cms-1.
All electromagnetic radiations travel at this speed in vacuum or in "free
space", which is approximately 186,000 mi s-1. The speed of light is different in
different media.
Light of a single frequency or wavelength is called monochromatic light.
Light having all the frequencies of the visible spectrum is called "white" light.
Sunlight is an example of white light.
Since light is an electromagnetic wave, wave properties can be used to
explain various phenomena. The study of phenomena using the wave nature of
light is called physical optics or wave optics.
The wave nature of light can be demonstrated by several experiments,
which are also used to measure the wavelength of light.

1.2 Interference
When two beams of light cross each other, the resultant amplitude and intensity
may be different from the sum of those contributed by the two beams acting
separately. This modification of intensity obtained by the superposition of two
or more beams of light is called interference.
If the resultant intensity is zero or in general less than the separate
intensities, we have destructive interference.
If the resultant intensity is greater, it is called constructive interference.
The first man successfully to demonstrate the interference of light was Thomas
Young.

Figure 1.3 Interference. (a) Constructive interference occurs when the waves
arrive at a point in phase. In the figure, the path difference of the waves from the point
sources is zero, PD = 3-3, and the waves are exactly in phase. (b) Destructive
interference occurs when the waves arrive at a point out of phase. In the figure, the
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path difference is PD = 4-3.5 = /2, and the phase difference is  rad. The
waves are completely out of phase, and total destructive interference occurs.

1.2.1 Young's Interference Experiment

The classic experiment that demonstrates interference of light was first

performed by Thomas Young in 1802. In the original experiment sunlight was
used as a source, but any light source such as a tungsten filament lamp or
an arc would be satisfactory. Light is passed through a pinhole "S" so as to
illuminate an aperture consisting of two pinholes or narrow slits "S 1" and "S2"
as shown in figure (1.4) and figure (1.5).

Figure 1.4 Young's experiment.

If a white screen is placed in the region beyond the slits, a pattern of
bright and dark interference bands (fringes) can be seen. The key to the
experiment is the use of a single pinhole 'S' to illuminate the aperture. This
provides the necessary mutual, coherence between the light coming from the
two slits 'S1' and 'S2'.
We shall now derive an equation for the intensity at any point 'P' on the
screen. The phase difference between the two waves arriving at P, having
transverse different distances S1P and S2P is given by
2
phase difference = x (path difference)

 2 (S2P – S1P) = k(d2 – d1)
= ------ ------------ (1.1)

It is assumed that the waves start out from 'S1' and 'S2' in the same phase.
Furthermore, the amplitudes are practically the same. The intensity at 'P'
was given by equation:
P = I  A2 = 4a2 cos2 (/2) ----------- (1.2)
where 'a' is the amplitude of the separate waves and 'A' that of their resultant.
In Young's experiment 'D' is very practically much larger than 'd' or 'x'. Hence,
 and ' are very small and   
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Figure 1.5 Path difference in Young

x x experiment.

D
D

Thus, the path difference d2 – d1 is d sin d sin'. For small angle ,

sin  equals tan  and so that sin  x/D.

Hence the path difference = d2 – d1  d sin = d

x --------- (1.3)
D
Equation (1.1) becomes  = 2π dx -------- (1.4)
λ D
Using equation (1.2) the intensity has maximum values equal to 4a 2
whenever  is an integral multiple of 2. This will occur when the path
difference is an integral multiple of . Therefore
x d = 0, , 2, 3, ... = m -------- (1.5)
D

x = m
D (Bright fringes)
d
-------- (1.6)
x = distance of a bright fringe from the center, PO.
The minimum value of intensity is zero, and this occurs when  = , 3, 5, ....
For these points

xD  λ , 3λ , 5λ ,....  m  1 λ
d 2 2 2 2

or x   m  1  λD (Dark fringes) --------- (1.7)
 2 d
x = distance of a dark fringe from the center, PO.
The whole number 'm', which characterizes a particular bright fringe, is
called the order of interference. Thus, the fringes with m = 0,1,2,3, ... are called
the zero, first, second, ...etc., order.
The distance on the screen between two successive fringes is obtained
λD
by changing 'm' by unity in equation (1.5) or (1.6). It is equal to d .
1 .2. 2 Thin Film Interference

Have you ever noticed the multicolored patterns on an oil or gasoline slick on a
wet pavement, or in soap bubbles, and wondered what caused them? These are
common examples of interference –thin film interference.
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Even though these films are transparent, there is some reflection at that
surface and interference occurs for light reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces. When the film thickness is such that the reflected waves are in phase,
constructive interference occurs and light is reflected from the film figure (1.6).
When the film thickness is such that the reflected waves are out of phase,
destructive interference occurs, and the light is transmitted (not destroyed).

coated lens

uncoated
lens

thin-film
coating
(a) (b)

¼ wavelength

Figure 1.6 Non reflective coatings of lenses. (a) Reflection from the interior
surface of a lens can give a poor focus or image on the camera film. (b) With a thin
film coating the reflections from the film surfaces interfere destructively, and there is
no reflection.

Thin films are used to make non-reflective glass lenses, such as those
used on cameras and binoculars. The film coating serves a double purpose. Not
only does it promote non-reflection from the front of the lens, but it also cuts
down on back reflection.

1.3 Diffraction

When a beam of light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out to a certain
extent into the region of the geometrical shadow. This effect is one of the
simplest examples of diffraction, i.e., the failure of the light to travel in straight
lines. This phenomenon can be satisfactorily explained only by assuming a
wave character of light. As shown in figure (1.7).
It is diffraction that gives the slits in Young's experiment the character
of point sources. This depends on the slit width and wavelength of the light. To
have appreciable diffraction, the slit width must be on the same order or less
than the wavelength figure (1.7). When the slit width is much smaller than the
wavelength, spherical waves spread out from the slit as though they were from
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a point source. Notice in the figure the bending or diffraction around the edge
of the slit. If the slit width is greater than the wavelength, little diffraction
occurs.

Figure 1.7 Diffraction.

Diffraction is the bending of waves
around the corner or edge of an
opaque object, e.g., the corners of a
slit. To have appreciable
diffraction, the slit width d must be
smaller than or on the same order
as the wavelength of the light. (a) If
the slit width is greater than the
wavelength,little diffraction occurs.
(b) The photo show these effects
for water waves.

1.4 Polarization

The transverse nature of light can be demonstrated by polarization. Recall that

the electric and magnetic components of EM waves are mutually perpendicular
and that these vectors are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
In most cases, the electric and magnetic vectors of the waves in a light
beam are completely random in their plane of oscillation. The light is then said
to be un-polarized. This condition is represented by the random orientation of
vectors, as shown in figure (1.8). By convention, only the electric field vectors
are used to illustrate the orientation of the field vectors.
If for some reason there is a partial preferential orientation of the field
vectors, the light is said to be partially polarized. Similarly, when the field
vectors all lie in a plane, the light is said to be plane polarized or linearly
polarized. For example, radio (electromagnetic) waves are generated by
accelerating electric charges in an antenna. The electric field of the wave is
preferentially oriented parallel to the antenna, and the waves are plane
polarized. The radio waves are best received when the receiver antenna is
parallel to or aligned with the polarized waves. On the other hand, longitudinal
waves such as sound waves, cannot be polarized.
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The polarization of light can be effected by several means:

(1) selective absorption by crystals, (2) reflection, and (3) scattering.

vertical horizontal
(a) unpolarized (b) partially polarized (c)plane(linearly)polarized

Figure 1.8 Polarization. The polarization of light is represented by the electric

field vectors of a wave. (a) Unpolarized (vectors random). (b) Partially polarized
(preferential orientation). (c) Plane polarized (vectors in plane).

(1) Selective Absorption

Certain crystals have the ability to selectively absorb field vector components
with certain orientations, and light passing through such crystals is polarized.
Around 1930 Edwin Land, an American scientist, found a way to align tiny
needle-shaped crystals in sheets of transparent celluloid, thereby production a
thin, polarizing material now known commercially as Polaroid.
Improved Polaroid films have been developed using polymer materials.
During the manufacturing process, the film is stretched so as to align the long
chain molecules of the polymer. With proper treatment, the outer (valence)
molecular electrons can move along the oriented chains. As a result, the
molecules readily absorb light with E vectors parallel to the oriented chains and
transmit light perpendicular to the chains. The direction perpendicular to the
oriented chain molecules is commonly called the transmission axis or
polarization direction. Hence, when unpolarized light falls on a polarizing
sheet, the sheet acts as a polarizer and polarized light is transmitted figure (1.9).
The human eye cannot distinguish between polarized and un-polarized
light. Hence, we need an analyzer to detect polarized light, which can be
another sheet of polarizing film. When the analyzer has the same orientation as
the polarizer, light is transmitted. But, when rotated 90º, or when the polarizing
sheets are "crossed", the analyzer absorbs the polarized light, an ideally, no
light is transmitted figure (1.9).
You can demonstrate this yourself with a couple pairs of polarizing
sunglasses. Try it next time you are at the drug store or somewhere where they
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sell polarizing sunglasses (if you don't personally have two pairs of polarizing
sunglasses).

Figure 1.9 Polarized light. Light is polarized by Polaroid film, but since the eye
cannot detect polarized light, an analyzer is needed. (a) Light is transmitted when the
planes of polarization of the polarizer and the analyzer are in the same direction.
(b) When the planes of polarization are at right angles (crossed polaroids), little or
ideally, no light is transmitted.

(2) Reflection
Light is also partially polarized by reflection. The direction of polarization is
parallel to the reflection surface, and the degree of polarization depends on the
material and the angle at which the light strikes the surface. This is why we use
polarization sunglasses.
Light reflected from roads, water, and other surfaces gives a large
intensity and glare. By properly aligning the polarizing lenses of the glasses
(transmission axis vertically), some of the partially polarized reflected light is
absorbed, which reduced the glare.
(3) Scattering
In the scattering process, when light strikes a suspension of particles, such as
the molecules of the air, electrons are set into vibration by the light, and light
waves are reradiated. The oscillating electrons do not radiate in the direction of
their oscillation, so the scattered light is partially polarized.

1.5 Illumination

Proper lighting or illumination is important in the home, classrooms, factory, or

any working area where visual observation is used. Photometry deals with the
measurement of light in the visible region. This is the wavelength region
approximately between 4000 A  and 7000 A  .
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1.5.1 Light Sources

Natural light source is the Sun. However, many kinds of artificial light sources
have been developed. One of the most commonly used light sources is
described in the following paragraph.

Fluorescent Lamps
A fluorescent lamp is basically a gas discharge tube. It contains mercury vapor
and an inert gas, such as argon, under low pressure. In operation, some of the
mercury atoms are ionized, and the ionized gas gives rise to a current discharge
in the tube figure(1.10).
In the process, the mercury atoms are excited and they emit light,
primarily in the ultraviolet region. The glass tube is coated with a phosphor
material, such as calcium tungsten. When the ultraviolet radiation strikes the
phosphor, it fluoresces and emits visible light.

Figure1.10 The fluorescent lamp. (a) Mercury atoms are ionized and excited.
They emit light in the ultraviolet region. When the ultraviolet light strikes the
phosphor on the tube, it emits visible light. (b) Energy spectrum. Notice that most of
the radiation is in the visible region.

Fluorescence is the process of absorption of light at one wavelength and

the emission of light at another wavelength. The type of light emitted depends
on the type of phosphor coatings used. With the proper selection of phosphor
coatings, the majority of the light from fluorescent lamps is emitted in the
visible region. Because of the fluorescent conversion and lower operating
temperatures, fluorescent lamps are considerably more efficient than
incandescent lamps.
Certain types of fluorescent lamps have phosphor coating that emit in
the near ultraviolet region. This type of lamp produces very little visible
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radiation and is called a "black light". They are intended for use in activating
fluorescent and phosphorescent materials in advertising and other displays. *
Other gas discharge tubes are used for special types of lighting. For
example, a neon discharge tube emits red light and these tubes are commonly
used in neon signs. The color depends on the type of gas used.
* Phosphorescence is the process in which electrons remain in excited states for
relatively long times before de-excitation and the emission of light.
As a result, a phosphorescent material can "glow in the dark" for some time
after being exposed to light and excited.

1.5.2 Luminous Flux

Illumination involves the irradiation of a surface with visible light. This in turn
depends on the amount of light energy travelling from a source or sources to
the surface. To express this, we refer to luminous flux, which is the time rate of
flow of visible light energy. Being a measure of energy per time, luminous flux
has the units of joule per second, or watt. Luminous flux is therefore a measure
of light power.
The human eye is not equally sensitive to all colors. Some colors evoke
a greater brightness response than others. The response of the human eye to
various wavelength colors is illustrated by a spectral efficiency curve, which
depicts the wavelength of maximum visual sensitivity, about 5550 A  or
yellow-green color (Table 1.1), which is assigned a value of 1.0 or 100 percent.

Figure 1.11 Spectral efficiency curve.

The curve gives the response of the average
eye to equal amount of energy at various
wavelengths relative to yellow-green light at
5550 A taken as 100 percent.

The relative efficiencies of other visible wavelengths are expressed as

decimal fractions or percentages of this value. Thus, according to the efficiency
curve, given a yellow-green light source and a blue light source (4700 A  )
emitting equal light fluxes, the yellow-green source would appear
approximately five times as bright as the blue source. ( For  = 4700 A  ,
er = 0.20, where er is the relative efficiency figure (1.11).
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In order to associate and standardize the visual sensitivity of various

wavelengths to the light power in watts, the special luminous flux unit of the
lumen (lm) is defined.
One lumen is equivalent to 1/680 watt of light with a wavelength of 5550
.
A Hence, the lumen unit relates the luminous flux to the visual brightness
perceived by the eye. If the lights in the previous example were combined, the
eye would perceive a brightness of 1.2 lumen, and the specific light power
would be 2/680 = 1/340 watt.
Since illumination is concerned with visual response, the lumen is the
preferred practical photometric unit of luminous flux. Moreover, most common
light sources such as electric light bulb, emit visible light composed of many
wavelengths. A 100-watt light bulb emits a total flux of about 1700 lumen.

Table 1.1 Approximate Wavelength-Color Responses

Color Wavelength ( A
 )

Red 6100 – 7000

Orange 5900 – 6100
Yellow 5500 – 5900
Green 5000 – 5500
Blue 4500 – 5000
Violet 4000 – 4500

1.5.3 Illuminance
A surface is said to be illuminated when it is irradiated with visible light. The
illuminance 'E' (also called illumination) of a given surface is defined as the
flux falling on it divided by the area of the surface,
F
(illuminance) E ------------- (1.8)
A
For several sources, the total illuminance is given by the sum of the
individual source illuminations.
The unit of illuminance in the British system is the lumen per ft2 or foot-
candle (fc), 1 fc = 1 lm ft-2.
The SI unit of illuminance is the lux (lx), and 1lx = 1 lm m-2.
A hectolux (hlx) is 100 lx.
Illumination can be conveniently expressed in terms of the intensity (I)
of a source and the distance from the source.
F I I
E  2 or E --------------(1.9)
A r r2
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where r is the distance from the source or the radius of a sphere with area A.
The luminous intensity in a particular direction is commonly called the
candlepower of the source. The accepted SI unit of this intensity is the candela
(cd).
Notice from the equation that 1 fc is equal to 1 cd ft -2, and 1 lx is equal
to 1 cd m-2. *
Hence, the illumination falls off as I/r 2 from the source. Recall the
similar "inverse square" relationship for the intensity of sound. For a constant
source intensity I, we may write
2
E 2 r12  r1 
   ------------- (1.10)
E1 r22  r2 
Equation (1.9) assumes the incident light to be normal to the surface.
However, if the light strikes the surface at an angle of incidence '' in figure
(1.12), which is often the case, the illumination is given by
I cos 
E ------------ (1.11)
r2
*The luminous intensity is defined in terms of the solid angle , where
I = F/. For a spherical surface,  = A/r2.

Figure 1.12 Illumination. The illuminance

is given by E = I/r2 when the incident light is
normal to the surface. When the incident light
is an angle  relative to a normal to the
surface, then
E = I cos/r2.

Example (1.1) A monochromatic light

source is used in Young's double-slit experiment where the distance between
the slits is 0.5 mm and the screen is a distance of 1.5 m from the slits. The
center of the second-order bright fringe is located 3.0 mm from the center of
the central maximum on the screen. What is wavelength of the light?
Solution: d = 0.5 mm, D = 1.5 m = 1.5  103 mm
m = 2, x = 3.0 mm,  = ?
D
x  mλ (bright fringe)
d
xd

mD
0.5  
 
 0.5    mm
2  10
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= 0.5  10-6 m = 5000 A 

Example (1.2) A machine casting with a flat surface area of 0.50 ft 2 is
illuminated by two light sources, as illustrated in figure (1.13), with I 1 = 3400
cd and I2 = 1000 cd. (a) What is the total illumination of the surface? (b) If
source S2 is turned off and the casting is elevated 3.0 ft, what is the
illumination?

Solution: (a) The illumination from each source is;

I1 3400cd
from S1: E1 = 2 =
(6.0ft) 2
= 94 cd ft-2 = 94 fc
r1
I 2 cos60º (1000 cd) (0.50)
from S2: E2 =   56 fc
r22 (3.0 ft) 2
Hence, Et = E1 + E2 = 94 fc + 56 fc = 150 fc

Figure 1.13
(b) Since E1 = 94 fc at r1 = 6.0 ft, then at a distance of r2 = 3.0 ft, by equation

2 2
E 2  r1   6.0 ft 
       4
E 1  r2   3.0 ft 
or E2 = 4 E1 = 4 (94 fc) = 376 fc

Summary
Important Terms
light – electromagnetic waves, generally taken to be
in or near the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
physical (wave) optics – the study of phenomena using the wave nature
of light.
dispersion – the separation of light into component
wavelengths (colors) due to the speed of light
being slightly different for different
wavelengths in transparent media.
interference - the modification of intensity obtained by the
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superposition of two or more beams of light is

called interference.
(a) Constructive interference occurs when the waves arrive at a point in phase.
(b) Destructive interference occurs when the waves arrive at a point out of
phase.
Young's Interference Experiment- Young observed the superposition of two
sets of light waves through the close double slits derived from same source.
The pattern on the screen consisted of alternate bright and dark fringes, parallel
to the slits.
Thin-film interference - When monochromatic light is incident upon a
thin film, interference takes place between
the light from the top and reflected from the
bottom surfaces.
diffraction – the bending of waves around the corner or
edge of an opaque object.
polarization – preferential orientation of the field vectors of
electromagnetic waves.
luminous flux – the time rate of flow of visible light energy or
light power.
illuminance (illumination) – the luminous flux falling on a surface divided
by the area of the surface.
Important Formulas
Electromagnetic wave characteristics f=c

Young's experiment x = m
D (Bright fringes)
d
x   m  1  λD (Dark fringes)
 2 d

F I Icos 
illuminance E  2 
A r r2
2
E 2 r12  r1 
For a constant source intensity I,   
E 1 r22  r2 

Questions and Problems

1. Complete the following:
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(a)Light waves are characterized -------------.

(b)Light having all the frequencies of the visible spectrum ------------.
(c)The study of phenomena using the wave nature of light is called --------.
(d)The time rate of flow or visible light energy or light power is called-----.
(e)The separation of light into its component wavelength(color) is called---.

2. Are the following statements True or False?

(a)Above and below the visible region are ultraviolet and infrared regions,
respectively.
(b)Color is the physiological frequency response of the eye.
(c)The analysis of light phenomena using rays is called geometrical optics.
(d)A measure of the power or time rate of flow of light energy is
illuminance.
(e)The SI unit of illuminance is the lux (lx).

3. Multiple choice
(a)Which of the following is not based on interference?
(i) Young's experiment (ii) diffraction (iii) fluoresence (iv) all of the
preceding
(b)A measure of the power or time rate of flow of light energy is ---------.
(i) illumination (ii) luminous flux (iii) illuminance (iv) intensity level
(c)When two beams of light cross each other, modification of intensity
obtained by the superposition of two beams of light is called ---------.
(i) interference (ii) diffraction (iii) polarization

4. What is the order of magnitude of the frequency and wavelength of visible

light?

5. What are the conditions on the phase difference and path difference for the
constructive and destructive interference of two waves?

6. What is the principle of Young's experiment?

7. Why is a 1/4 film called non-reflective when on a lens, yet a 1/4 soap film
is reflective for the same wavelength?

8. What is diffraction?

9. In a polarizing sheet, how is transmission axis or polarization axis related to

the orientation of the molecular chains?
 17

10. In what region is the majority of the light emitted from an incandescent
bulb?

11. What is fluorescence?

12. Is the lumen a true physical unit? Explain.

13. What is the light flux per area and what are its units?

14. What is the range of the wavelength of visible light? Which end of the
spectrum has the longer wavelength?

15. Give the order of magnitude of the frequency of visible light?

16. Is the speed of light the same in all media? Explain.

17. Ultraviolet light has a wavelength of 300 nm and infrared light has a
wavelength of 800 nm. What are the light frequencies?

18. Write down the names of electromagnetic waves you have known.

19. Which of the following are EM waves and which are mechanical waves?
sound waves, radio waves, light waves, water waves.

20. What are the conditions for (a) total constructive interference and (b) total
destructive interference?

21. Young's double-slit experiment is performed with monochromatic light,

with a distance between the slits of 0.01 mm and with the screen a distance
of 1.2 m from the slits. If the center of the second order bright fringe is
located 1.5 mm from the center of the central maximum on the screen,
what is the wavelength of the light and what is its color?

22. When orange light  = 600 nm is used for Young's experiment, the first
order bright fringe is observed 2.5 mm from the center of the central
maximum on a screen 1.0 m from the slits. What is the slip width used in
this experiment?

23. If light having two component wavelengths of 400 nm and 700 nm is used
in the experimental setup in Problem 21, how far apart are the first-order
fringes of each component?