Faculty of Science and Technology

MASTER’S THESIS

Study program/ Specialization: Spring semester, 2011

Petroleum technology Open

Reservoir technology

…………………………………………
Writer: Vytautas Usaitis
(Writer’s signature)

Faculty supervisor: Dimitrios Georgios Hatzignatiou

External supervisor(s): Arne Stavland

Thesis title: Laboratory Evaluation of Sodium Silicate for Zonal Isolation

Credits (ECTS): 30

Keywords:

Water production

Production zone isolation Pages: 96

Sodium silicate + Enclosure: 105

Crosslinkers (HCl and glyoxal)

Salinity and temperature effects Stavanger,30 June 2011

Gelation time

Gel strength
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dimitrios

Hatzignatiou. This thesis would not have been done without his continuous guidance and the
never-ending support.

I would like to use the opportunity to thank my technical supervisor Arne Stavland for his
help with the experimental work. His advices and suggestions significantly contributed to the
outcome of the experimental part of this thesis.

I thank Jostein Kolnes for his kind help with the practical issues in the laboratories at the
university.

The most special thanks go to my dear Indre Rozenaite. Words cannot describe her moral
support and patience throughout the writing of thesis. Thank you for believing in me.

I
 Abstract
A common problem for maturing oil fields is excessive water production. Ultimate oil recovery
could be increased considerably by implementing an appropriate water production management.
Solutions for managing excess water production may include the use of smart-well completions,
downhole water separation and disposal, as well as mechanical and chemical means of delaying,
reducing or shutting off excess water production. As such, an in-depth placement of blocking
agent can reduce water influx in the borehole and contribute to lower water cut and, thus, extend
the lifetime of an oil production well.

Low impact on the environment revitalized sodium silicate systems in the oil industry for zonal
isolation. This thesis focuses on the laboratory evaluation of sodium silicate as zonal isolation
chemical for water control applications. Sodium silicate solution forms gel when pH is reduced
below 11. For pH control, two different crosslinkers (HCl and glyoxal) were used in this work.
Gelation time and strength of the formed gel play an important role in designing successful water
shutoff treatment in a field trial. Gelation time is defined as the time required for the gel to
become rigid. Gelation codes are introduced to distinguish the macroscopic changes of the gel.

This thesis also discusses the parameters affecting gelation time for gels formed by crosslinking
sodium silicate with glyoxal. These parameters are: sodium silicate and glyoxal concentrations,
temperature, salinity and presence of divalent ions in the makeup water. It is shown that gelation
time is reduced for increased sodium silicate and glyoxal concentrations. NaCl and CaCl 2 act as
catalysts and decrease gelation time. A more rapid gelation was observed at higher temperatures.

AcoustoSizer from Colloidal Dynamics was tested to determine particle size distribution for
sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl. Results showed that the AcoustoSizer underestimates
particle diameter for polymerizing particles and, therefore, further testing was abandoned.

Finally, gel strength is studied and expressed as the applied pressure drop required to compromise
the gel’s integrity in a testing tube. Sodium silicate gels’ strength, formed using various
crosslinker (HCl and glyoxal) concentrations, is tested at different temperatures.

Pressure tests have shown that stronger gels could be created using higher glyoxal concentrations.
An increase in sodium silicate or HCl concentrations only slightly increases gel strength.

II
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... I

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... II

Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... III

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... VI

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... VIII

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... - 1 -

2 Literature Survey ........................................................................................................... - 3 -

2.1 Water production sources .................................................................................................... - 3 -

2.2 Handling of water production .............................................................................................. - 6 -

2.3 Impact of produced water on environment and treatment costs .......................................... - 7 -

2.4 Water control solutions ....................................................................................................... - 7 -

2.4.1 Completion designs and well placement ..................................................................... - 8 -

2.4.2 Downhole separation ................................................................................................... - 9 -

2.4.3 Chemical water shut-off ............................................................................................ - 10 -

2.4.4 Gelling systems ......................................................................................................... - 11 -

2.4.5 Disproportional permeability reduction..................................................................... - 13 -

2.4.6 Strategies of attacking water production ................................................................... - 14 -

3 Theoretical Background ............................................................................................... - 18 -

3.1 Chemistry of sodium silicate ............................................................................................. - 18 -

3.2 Gel formation .................................................................................................................... - 19 -

3.3 Gelling agents .................................................................................................................... - 22 -

3.3.1 Hydrochloric acid ...................................................................................................... - 24 -

III
 3.3.2 Glyoxal ...................................................................................................................... - 24 -

3.3.3 Esters ......................................................................................................................... - 25 -

3.4 Gel codes ........................................................................................................................... - 27 -

3.5 Silicate gel kinetics ............................................................................................................ - 28 -

3.6 Gel syneresis...................................................................................................................... - 31 -

3.7 Gel strength ....................................................................................................................... - 33 -

4 Laboratory Equipment and Experimental Procedures ................................................. - 34 -

4.1 Sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl ............................................................................... - 34 -

4.1.1 Bulk gelation time ..................................................................................................... - 35 -

4.1.2 AcoustoSizer tests ..................................................................................................... - 36 -

4.2 Sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal .......................................................................... - 39 -

4.2.1 Glyoxal concentration effect of on gelation time ...................................................... - 39 -

4.2.2 Salinity and divalent ion effect on gelation time ....................................................... - 40 -

4.2.3 PH time dependency .................................................................................................. - 43 -

4.2.4 Temperature effect on gelation time .......................................................................... - 44 -

4.2.5 Effect of silicate concentration on gelation time ....................................................... - 45 -

4.3 Gel strength ....................................................................................................................... - 46 -

5 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................ - 47 -

5.1 Sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl ............................................................................... - 47 -

5.1.1 Bulk gelation time ..................................................................................................... - 47 -

5.1.1 AcoustoSizer tests ..................................................................................................... - 49 -

5.2 Sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal .......................................................................... - 54 -

5.2.1 Glyoxal concentration effect on gelation time .......................................................... - 54 -

5.2.2 Salinity and divalent ion effect on gelation time ....................................................... - 55 -

IV
 5.2.3 PH time dependency .................................................................................................. - 64 -

5.2.4 Temperature effect on gelation time .......................................................................... - 66 -

5.2.5 Silicate concentration effect on gelation time ........................................................... - 67 -

5.3 Gel strength ....................................................................................................................... - 71 -

5.3.1 Sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl ....................................................................... - 72 -

5.3.2 Sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal .................................................................. - 75 -

6 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................ - 80 -

References ........................................................................................................................... - 82 -

Appendix A ......................................................................................................................... - 87 -

Appendix B ......................................................................................................................... - 91 -

V
 List of Figures
Figure 1: Sources for water production during primary recovery1 ....................................... - 4 -

Figure 2: Sources for water production during secondary recovery1 .................................... - 5 -

Figure 3: Sources for water production caused by mechanical failures1 .............................. - 5 -

Figure 4: The concept of downhole separation1 .................................................................... - 9 -

Figure 5: The concept of gel treatment1 .............................................................................. - 10 -

Figure 6: Relative permeabilities before, and after gel formation18 .................................... - 14 -

Figure 7: Schematically illustration of polymerization of silica21 ...................................... - 19 -

Figure 8: Simplified silicate polymerization22 .................................................................... - 20 -

Figure 9: Structure of glyoxal24 ........................................................................................... - 24 -

Figure 10: General structure of an ester26 ........................................................................... - 25 -

Figure 11: General formula of ester hydrolysis .................................................................. - 26 -

Figure 12: Progress of syneresis in porous medium ........................................................... - 32 -

Figure 13: Representation of the testing tube for pressure extrusion test ........................... - 33 -

Figure 14: AcoustoSizer from Colloidal Dynamics ............................................................ - 36 -

Figure 15: Setup of pressure extrusion tests........................................................................ - 46 -

Figure 16: Gelation time (gel code 1) versus HCl concentration ........................................ - 48 -

Figure 17: Particle size distribution at different times ........................................................ - 50 -

Figure 18: Average particle size development .................................................................... - 51 -

VI
Figure 19: Particle size distribution at different times when water is replaced by a 750 ppm
Xanthan solution ................................................................................................................. - 52 -

Figure 20: Average particle size development when water is replaced by a 750 ppm Xanthan
solution ................................................................................................................................ - 52 -

Figure 21: Gelation time versus glyoxal concentration ...................................................... - 54 -

Figure 22: Gelation time versus NaCl concentration .......................................................... - 56 -

Figure 23: Gelation time versus CaCl2 concentration ......................................................... - 58 -

Figure 24: Gelation time versus NaCl and CaCl2 concentrations, 25°C ............................. - 60 -

Figure 25: Gelation time versus NaCl and CaCl2 concentration, 60°C .............................. - 60 -

Figure 26: Gelation time (hrs) versus NaCl and CaCl2 concentrations............................... - 62 -

Figure 27: PH versus time ................................................................................................... - 65 -

Figure 28: Gelation time versus the inverse absolute temperature ..................................... - 67 -

Figure 29: Gelation time versus silicate concentration, 60°C ............................................. - 68 -

Figure 30: Gelation time versus silicate concentration, 25°C ............................................. - 69 -

Figure 31: Gel shrinkage when cooled down ...................................................................... - 73 -

VII
 List of Tables
Table 1: Excessive water production sources and suggested treatments11.......................... - 16 -

Table 2: Stability of silicate species in solution when the pH is reduced ........................... - 21 -

Table 3: Gelling agents for sodium silicate ......................................................................... - 23 -

Table 4: Classification of gel codes based on macroscopic gel structure observations ...... - 27 -

Table 5: Compositions of bulk gelation samples ................................................................ - 35 -

Table 6: Summary of the AcoustoSizer tests ...................................................................... - 38 -

Table 7: Compositions of glyoxal samples ......................................................................... - 39 -

Table 8: Compositions of NaCl samples ............................................................................. - 41 -

Table 9: Compositions of CaCl2 samples ............................................................................ - 42 -

Table 10: Compositions of NaCl-CaCl2 samples ................................................................ - 43 -

Table 11: Compositions of pH samples .............................................................................. - 44 -

Table 12: Compositions of temperature samples ................................................................ - 45 -

Table 13: Compositions of silicate samples ........................................................................ - 45 -

Table 14: Gelation times for HCl bulk gel test ................................................................... - 48 -

Table 15: Input parameters and respective values selected for the AcoustoSizer tests ...... - 49 -

Table 16: Gelation times for glyoxal samples ..................................................................... - 54 -

Table 17: Gelation times for NaCl samples ........................................................................ - 56 -

Table 18: Gelation times for CaCl2 samples ....................................................................... - 57 -

VIII
Table 19: Gelation times for NaCl-CaCl2 samples ............................................................. - 59 -

Table 20: Measured and calculated gelation times for all salinity samples ........................ - 63 -

Table 21: The pH values for the pH samples ...................................................................... - 64 -

Table 22: Gelation times for pH samples ............................................................................ - 64 -

Table 23: Gelation times for temperature samples .............................................................. - 66 -

Table 24: Gelation times for silicate samples ..................................................................... - 68 -

Table 25: Constants derived for the general equation ......................................................... - 70 -

Table 26: Pressure drop values............................................................................................ - 71 -

Table 27: Pressure extrusion results for silicate/HCl systems ............................................ - 72 -

Table 28: Pressure extrusion results for silicate/HCl systems with Xanthan ...................... - 74 -

Table 29: Pressure extrusion results for glyoxal samples ................................................... - 75 -

Table 30: Pressure extrusion results for low glyoxal concentrations .................................. - 76 -

Table 31: Pressure extrusion results for salinity test ........................................................... - 77 -

Table 32: Pressure extrusion test results for silicate concentration test .............................. - 78 -

IX
1 Introduction

A common problem for maturing oil fields is excessive water production. This often leads to
rapid reduction in productivity and a big increase in costs. As a result of high water
production, some wells might have to be shut prematurely.

When oil or gas is produced to the surface, some water is produced and brought to surface in
mixture with hydrocarbons. The produced water contains low concentrations of heavy metals,
organic acids, radioactive materials and a fraction of chemicals added during the production
process.

In order to maximize the total oil recovery and minimize production costs, water production
has to be controlled. It is essential to identify where the produced water comes from, and what
is the cause of the excessive water production.

Methods for water production reduction can be grouped into two main categories: mechanical
and chemical. Mechanical solutions are effective near the wellbore, whereas chemical
solutions work usually deeper in formation.

A zone or a layer, which is not producing enough hydrocarbons to achieve economic viability,
is preferably shut off. It can be done by a mechanical isolation, cement squeeze, solids
injection or by injecting preformed or gelant gel systems. There are two main groups of gel
systems: polymers crosslinked with chromium or organic crosslinker and sodium silicate
crosslinked with an acid or another chemical capable of reducing the pH of silicate solution.
In this thesis, the focus is placed on sodium silicate systems.

Aqueous sodium silicate solution is crosslinked with an acid or other gelling agent to form a
rigid gel. When the gel is formed in reservoir conditions it has to be strong enough to
withstand pressure gradients and it should keep its rheological properties over a long period of
time to ensure that the zone stays completely shut.

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Objectives of this thesis are to test glyoxal as a gelling agent, which factors affect gelation
time and derive a general equation for the gelation time calculations. Moreover, to evaluate
gel strength by carrying out pressure extrusion tests with different crosslinkers (HCl and
glyoxal). In addition, to measure the particle size and their distribution during the
polymerization process of sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl.

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2 Literature Survey

A thorough review of available books and scientific papers is presented in this section.
Problems caused by excessive water production and a growing demand for the best solution,
is the motivation behind this thesis. Firstly, the importance of water production problems is
reviewed. Secondly, a short overview of possible solutions to handle excessive water
production is presented. And lastly, a closer look to gelling systems is presented; where and
how they should be used, what factors influence their effectiveness and how the total
profitability of an oil field can be increased by an implementation of them

2.1 Water production sources

When oil or gas is produced, water is brought to the surface in a mixture with hydrocarbons.
The produced water contains low concentrations of heavy metals, organic acids, radioactive
materials and a fraction of chemicals added during production process. Physical properties
and the chemical composition will vary depending on reservoir which is producing.

It is convenient to differentiate between produced water problems which occur during the
primary and the secondary oil recovery. During the primary oil recovery, some of typical
problems are a natural fracture to aquifer, coning or cusping effects caused by pressure drop
at the wellbore. These problems are illustrated in figure 1. The upper left panel of figure 1
shows a moving oil-water contact. When oil is produced from the oil zone, volume of
produced oil is replaced by water from the underlying aquifer. When water reaches
perforations, the well will start producing more water. The upper left panel shows coning
effect for a vertical well and cusping for a horizontal well. Coning and cusping effects are
inevitable, but can be delayed by lower production rates. The lower panels illustrate faults and
fractures from water layer for vertical and horizontal wells. These fractures can be natural, or
caused by drilling fluid, or high pressure gradients appeared during the production process.

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 Figure 1: Sources for water production during primary recovery1

Water production problems, which might occur during secondary oil production, are
illustrated in figure 2. The upper left panel shows how a fracture or a fault can connect an
injector to a producer and thus, increase water cut significantly. Again, these fractures might
be natural, or caused by high pressure drops between the injector and the producer. In water
flood, when the displacing fluid has a larger density than the formation fluid, gravity
segregation will take place. It can be a cause for an early water breakthrough, as illustrated in
upper right panel in figure 2. The lower panels show layers with different permeabilities.
Layers with the highest permeabilities are produced first and, after the injected water breaks
through, they will mostly produce water and will contribute to higher water cut for the well.

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 Figure 2: Sources for water production during secondary recovery1

Figure 3 presents additional failures which occur close to the borehole due to bad cementing
job or mechanical failure of casing or packers. Even if water volumes flowing into the
annulus are not as high as for secondary recovery problems, such problems can be more
difficult to detect and apply the necessary treatment.

Figure 3: Sources for water production caused by mechanical failures1

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2.2 Handling of water production

When produced water reaches the surface it has to be separated and then treated. Separation is
a time-consuming and costly operation and the separators can be quite large and require
sufficient space on the rig. In addition, chemicals are used in the separation process and for
large produced water volumes; their cost can be significant. After the oil is separated from the
produced water, there are several ways to treat the separated water2:

 Discharge. Produced water can be discharged directly to the ocean for offshore
production. Depending on regulations and laws of the location of the field, the
produced water has to be treated to a certain level of purity. For example, oil
concentration cannot be higher than 9 mg/l according to the Norwegian regulations.
OSPAR has set 30 mg/l as a maximum level3.
 Underground injection. After the produced water has been separated from the oil and
gas, it can be re-injected in the reservoir for pressure control or secondary recovery in
EOR processes. In case there is no beneficial effect on re-injection in the reservoir, the
produced water can be injected into the formation for disposal purposes only. The
formation has to be non-leaking and the produced water needs to be treated so it is
chemically compatible with the receiving formations.
 Evaporation. Not widely used, but applicable for rather small amounts of produced
water. Water is placed in a pond with large surface area and left for evaporation.
Geographical position here is essential and hot, dry regions are naturally preferred.
 Offsite water treatment. When onsite water treatment facilities are unavailable, the
produced water can be transported to an offsite facility.
 Beneficial reuse. The produced water may be reused for agricultural and industrial
purposes, such as crop irrigation, livestock watering, etc.

Even though around 95% of produced water is re-injected2, which is beneficial for EOR
processes, reduction in produced volume means huge savings. Therefore, it is crucial to
minimize water production downhole by reducing production rates, diverting water
production, or shutting-off water producing zones.

-6-
2.3 Impact of produced water on environment and treatment costs

The biggest part of the pollution in the oil industry is connected to produced water4. Total
volumes of are quite difficult to compute, but it has been estimated, that in 1999 a total of
about 77 billion bbl water has been produced worldwide, which is some 3 times higher than
the total oil production the same year5.

It has been projected, that the total size of the market opportunity for the final stage produced
water treatment systems will be around $4.3 billion for years 2010-2014. For the same period
market opportunity for topside produced water re-injection systems can reach $9.8 billion6.
These numbers prove once again that huge savings can be achieved by reducing water
production.

2.4 Water control solutions

When the source of the water production is identified, appropriate actions of attacking the
problem should be taken. Water production can be slowed down by a reducing of production
rates, water can be diverted, or the layers with high water cut can be completely shut off.
production Prate reduction and diversion of water flow in the formation is only a way to delay
water production, water shut-off is a permanent treatment to completely or partially block
flow of unwanted fluids. Water shut-off can be classified in two different types: mechanical
and chemical7.

Each problem type has solution options that range from relatively simple and inexpensive
mechanical and chemical solutions, to the more complex and cost-demanding completion and
work-over solutions. In case of multiple produced water sources, a combination of several
solutions may be applied. The following sections present some solutions to control water
production.

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 2.4.1 Completion designs and well placement

In order to extend the lifetime of a well, unwanted fluid production has to be minimized and
more importantly, avoided in the early stages of the production. Instead of treating water
production after a breakthrough downhole, a well can placed in a very well calculated way to
ensure maximum recovery.

Placing a well horizontally, instead of vertically, will have a positive effect on coning
problems. Pressure drop over a much larger perforated area will be lower, so coning from
underlying aquifer or overlying gas zone will be delayed. Advanced drilling techniques allow
controlling drilling trajectory with extreme accuracy, so attic placement of the borehole is
feasible using azimuthal resistivity tool, and with integration of Inflow Control Devices
(ICDs) coning is not only delayed, but any water that might flow into the wellbore can be
choked back.8

Implementation of smart wells is another good option for water control. They have valves and
sensors that can be controlled independently. These options give an opportunity to select
which reservoir fluids to produce and select zones which should be shut-off for production.
The downside of smart wells is their cost. Net present value is not necessarily increased when
a smart well solution is chosen. This is because of high additional investments9.

If a water influx to the annulus is caused by casing failure, or other type of mechanical failure.
Mechanical solutions can be applied to keep water production from entering the wellbore.
Metal or plastic patches can be used to isolate the inside of the casing. For a successful
operation, the depth of the source must be known. These patches cannot, on the other hand, be
used for longer intervals of damaged casing.

-8-
 2.4.2 Downhole separation

If the produced fluid has a higher water cut than the economical limit for that particular field,
production of such fluid should be stopped. To reduce lifting and disposal costs, produced
water can be separated downhole. When water is separated from the produced fluid, the
hydrostatic head in the wellbore is reduced and the lifetime of a well is, as a result, increased.
In addition, downhole separation leads to significant reduction of surface facilities for
produced water treatment. These installations are often used in wells of little value, with a low
oil production and a high water cut10.

A downhole separation system, usually, consists of a hydrocyclone and an electrical

submersible pump (ESP). The fluid is drawn in the pump where the velocity is increased
before it enters the hydrocyclone. At high fluid velocities, gravity separates fluids with
different densities (water-oil or water-gas) and water can be reinjected back into the
formation. Huge savings in both capital and operational costs come from smaller and more
compact surface facility. In addition, when the produced water is separated and reinjected
downhole, there is a reduced demand for injection wells10. An illustration of downhole
separation is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: The concept of downhole separation1

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 2.4.3 Chemical water shut-off

Mechanical methods for water shut-off have been implied for many years and are still
applicable for some particular problems discussed earlier. Chemical methods, on the other
hand, have become more used and more successful in the last decade11.

Mechanical treatments cannot always ensure that water is completely kept away since they are
efficient for near-wellbore problems solving. For a deeper and more efficient blockage of
water flow chemicals methods can be used. Figure 5 illustrates the principle of gel system
treatment.

Figure 5: The concept of gel treatment1

Two different cases are presented in figure 5. In the first case, in the left panel, a coiled tubing
dual injection is shown. The placement of the treatment fluid is critical, so the packers must
be set at the right depth. The protective fluid keeps the oil zone free from gelant. When the gel
is formed and it is able to withstand formation pressure gradients, the production can resume
and watered-out zone will be shut-off permanently. In this particular situation there is a
communication between oil and water layers, so coning effect might cause a water
breakthrough later. The breakthrough can be delayed by reducing the production rate or an
increase of the treatment zone.

On the right panel in figure 5, a simple chemical shut-off operation is shown. There is no
communication between the layers, so the gelant can be pumped straight into the watered-out

- 10 -
zone. To assure that there is no gelant flowing in the oil zone, a packer inside the casing is
necessary. Gel will completely shut-off the watered-out zone and water production will be
stopped from that zone. A later breakthrough might occur only if the gel is not strong enough,
or if the placement was not sufficient.

2.4.4 Gelling systems

Gelling systems are divided into two main groups according to the chemical which is
polymerized during the process. These groups are polymer and silicate gels. Polymer gels are
created by crosslinking a polymer with a gelling agent, such as chromium or an organic
crosslinker. Silicate gels are made by an addition of acid or another gelling agent to an
aqueous solution of sodium silicate.

Polymer gels are differentiated to preformed gels and gelants. The term ―preformed gel‖
refers to any gel state that does not flow into or through porous medium. Such gels are formed
in advance on surface and have high viscosities. Gelants, however, have lower viscosity and
can penetrate the formation rock. Gelant systems are created by injecting the chemicals before
the gelation leads to an increase of viscosity12. Silicate gel systems are considered to be
gelants.

Silicate gels for petroleum applications have been introduced as early as 192213. Despite the
fact that silicate gels have been discovered much earlier, polymer systems have been one of
the most extensively applied in the last two decades7. They have been applied in many field
cases and have shown great pay-off values with relatively low investments. However, they
certainly have limitations. Key issues with polyacrylamide systems are14:

 Environmental and safety issues over crosslinker chromium

 Limited penetration depth
 Polymer shear degradation
 Polymer absorption on reservoir rock
 Polymer precipitation under harsh reservoir conditions.

- 11 -
Krumrine and Boyce’s paper presents a controversial fact that silicate use was inequitably
neglected in favor of polymer treatments in commercial applications15. Now, however, silicate
systems are being revitalized. It is so, mostly because of the low impact on the environment
and their cost, but also chemical processes are better understood and desired properties of the
gel can be created.

The main disadvantages of silicate systems are16:

 Gel is rigid and prone to fracture

 Gel shows syneresis and reduction in blocking efficiency

 Precipitation of water insoluble salts in contact with formation water

 The gelation time is hard to control.

Silicate gel systems have number of advantages over polymer systems in situations where
polymers are limited to shear degradation and syneresis, or are inadequate to shut-off major
thief zones. The main advantages can be summarized as follows16:

 Low, water-like viscosity

 Short to moderate pumping times before gel is rigid

 Flexible chemical mechanism

 Excellent thermal stability

 Easy gel breaking in case of fail placement

 Simple and cost-effective surface technology.

In addition to all of the above, sodium silicate is considered to be a ―green‖ chemical which
means that it does not have any negative effect on the environment. Conveniently, silicate
gels can be crosslinked with ―green‖ gelling agents. This is very important in the industry
which is focused on the environment now more than ever before.

- 12 -
New gel aggregates were recently introduced17. Such gels are created by the synthesis of
microspheres. A system can consist of a simple monomer or polymer, crosslinked with a
metal or organic crosslinker. Polymer or monomer is crosslinked, and then the mixture is
slowly sprayed to heated oil while stirring. Later, oil is separated from the mixture.
Microspheres accumulate at the bottom. Similar process is taking place when the mixture is
injected in the formation. The microspheres block pores and, thus, can be used as a blocking
agent. Such microspheres have several characteristics which make them ideal for field use.
They have high tolerance for formation salts, they have high injectivity. Their elasticity
allows deeper placement of the gelant and increased oil sweep.

2.4.5 Disproportional permeability reduction

When a zone or a layer is producing water and some oil, it is not desirable to shut-off the
whole zone and leave the unproduced oil behind. Gelling systems can be used to reduce the
relative water permeability while the oil relative permeability is kept close to constant. This
process is called disproportional permeability reduction (DPR). Sufficient results can be
achieved by using an emulsion of oil and water with gelling agents dissolved in the water
phase. In the reservoir, gravity causes separation of emulsion into oil and water phase. Water
phase forms a gel while oil is in continuous phase and is mobile in the formation. This creates
segregated flow at pore levels which is the base a DPR model construction. This phenomenon
has been observed earlier but was not fully understood. There are still a lot of different
opinions on which factors have the biggest influence on efficiency of this concept, but the
most recent papers show that segregated pathways are most likely to be true18,19,20.

Figure 6 shows an example of how relative permeabilities may look like after a formation of
in-situ gel. Relative permeabilities are krw and kro prior to the treatment, and krw2 and kro2 after
an in-situ gel formation.

- 13 -
 Figure 6: Relative permeabilities before, and after gel formation18

2.4.6 Strategies of attacking water production

Seright presents a strategy for attacking excessive water production11. The main message
presented in his paper, is that the simplest problems should be attacked first. Conventional
methods, such as simple cement squeeze or mechanical water control devices are cheaper and
should be used for treatment of relatively uncomplicated problems. For near wellbore
treatments, the strength of the cement is very important since pressure gradients are at their
highest values.

Gel treatments can be used where the cement is impossible to squeeze, for example, when
flow behind casing occurs. Gels have higher injectivity than cements and can be placed where
cement placement is limited. Hello.

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A fault or a fracture, connected to an aquifer or producer, should be treated with gelants.
Gelants have near water viscosity and they can be injected deeply in the formation and assure
that the fault or facture is plugged.

More complex problems, such as a fracture crossing a horizontal well should be treated with
preformed gel. Even though, a preformed gel cannot penetrate the formation, it can be a good
barrier closer to the borehole.

The most important part of water production treatment choice is to determine where the
problem is and what the cause is. It is essential to use data which is already available to apply
the necessary treatments quickest possible.

Summarizing sources of excessive water production and their treatment options, table 1 is
presented. Problems are grouped into 4 categories according to difficulty of treatment in
increasing order.

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 Table 1: Excessive water production sources and suggested treatments11

Category A: ―conventional‖ treatments normally are an efficient choice

 Casing leaks without flow restrictions

 Flow behind casing without flow restrictions

 Unfractured wells with effective barriers to crossflow

Category B: Treatments with gelants normally are an efficient choice

 Casing leaks with flow restrictions

 Flow behind casing with flow restrictions

 ―Two dimensional coning‖ through a hydraulic fracture from an aquifer

 Existence of natural fractures connecting a production well with an aquifer

Category C: Treatments with preformed gels are an efficient choice

 Faults or fractures crossing a deviated well

 Single fracture causing channeling between wells

 Natural fracture system allowing channeling between wells

Category D: Difficult problems where gel treatments should not be used

 Three dimensional coning

 Cusping

 Channeling through strata (no fractures), with crossflow

- 16 -
Chemical methods for water shut off have been applied successfully for field applications in
the recent years16. In-depth placement of a blocking agent can increase sweep efficiency,
reduce water cut and thus, increase the profitability of the field. It is believed that this subject
will remain central in the near future. Additionally, the impact, caused by chemicals injected
in the formation, on the environment has to be minimized, as the oil industry is expanding
towards more sensitive environments. Sodium silicate is one of the few environmentally
friendly chemicals that can be applied in water management problems. Therefore, the primary
aim for this thesis is to analyze sodium silicate gels, their rheological properties and possible
gelation agents.

- 17 -
3 Theoretical Background

This section presents the theoretical background required for this study. A thorough review
and evaluation of chemicals and their properties, basic chemical equations, and gelling
processes are presented in this chapter. Additionally, a general equation for gel kinetics is also
derived. Understanding the chemical processes is essential in all experimental research.

3.1 Chemistry of sodium silicate

Chemistry of water-soluble silicates is very complex and not completely understood. Sodium
silicate is manufactured by heating silica and sodium carbonate to temperatures above 1300°C
to form a water-soluble glass referred as ―water glass‖. Iler presents these reactions21:

1 1
3SiO 2 Na 2 SO 4 C CO 2 SO 2 3SiO 2 Na 2 O (1)
2 2
3SiO 2 Na 2 CO 3 CO 2 3SiO 2 Na 2 O (2)

Sodium silicates are commercially produced as glasses having SiO2 : Na2 O molar ratios of
1,6-3,9.

When sodium silicate is dissolved in water, different silicate species tend to dominate at
varying pH. Equilibrium equations describe which species dominate and are listed as
follows21:

SiO2 H 2O Si (OH ) 4 (3)

Si (OH ) 4 OH HSiO3 2H 2 O (4)

2 HSiO3 Si 2 O52 H 2O (5)

Si 2 O52 H 2O HSi 2 O63 H (6)

HSiO3 OH SiO32 H 2O (7)

- 18 -
Equilibrium constants for equations 3-7 are 10-9,8 ,10-12,16, 10-9,8, 10-12,8, 2200 respectively. By
using these equilibrium constants, it is possible to calculate the concentration of each silicate
species at different pH.

3.2 Gel formation

At higher pH values, dimer species dominate but when the pH is reduced, silicate will react to
form gel through a polymerization process. To initiate gel formation the pH has to be reduced
to a value below 11. The development of the gel can be described with the following steps21:

1. Polymerization of monomer to polymer

2. Growth of particles
3. Linking of growing particles to form polymer chains and forming a gel.

These steps are shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Schematically illustration of polymerization of silica21

- 19 -
In solution, molecules will grow by linking to other silica molecules, resulting in a polymer
creation. This process is complicated and not very well understood. Water molecules are
―captured‖ and locked in a network of silicate molecules. There are many configurations of
polymerization. One (simplified) configuration is illustrated in figure 8. The degree of the
polymerization increases as the processes move down in the figure 8.

Figure 8: Simplified silicate polymerization22

- 20 -
The rate and extent of sodium silicate polymerization is affected by several factors. To
understand and control gelation time, these factors must be taken into account. Summary of
which and how different factors effect gelation time is presented as follows:

 PH: When the pH of solutions decreases, the process will move down in figure 8.
 Molar Ratio: An increase in silica ratio will result in higher degree of polymerization.
 Dilution rate: dilution at constant pH will de-polymerize silica (process moves up in
figure 8).
 Salts: Act as catalysts and increase the rate of polymerization (moves down in figure 8)
 Temperature: Process is accelerated at higher temperatures.

The main factor, controlling gelation time for sodium silicate, is the pH of the solution.
However, this relationship is not linear for all pH values. Therefore, this correlation can be
divided into several pH intervals, where a change in the pH will follow a certain trend. This is
shown in table 2 where the pH values of an aqueous solution of sodium silicate are decreased
and the effect of this reduction, in given intervals, are presented.

Table 2: Stability of silicate species in solution when the pH is reduced

pH interval Gelation time Reason

11≤pH≤14 Does not gel Solution is stable

5,5≤pH<11 Decrease in gelation time Reduction in negative charge

2≤pH<5,5 Increase in gelation time Catalyzed by OH-

0≤pH<2 Decrease in gelation time Catalyzed by F- from metal ions

- 21 -
3.3 Gelling agents

This section describes chemicals which initiate gelling of sodium silicate. First, an overview
of possible gelling agents is presented. Later, the chemicals used in the experimental work of
this thesis (HCl and glyoxal) are discussed for oilfield applications. Finally, esters and their
properties are evaluated and their applicability to form gels for water control applications is
discussed.

The simplest way to reduce pH of the solution is to add acid. Such systems have been applied
for many years and a lot of work has been done on optimizing silicate/acid systems for the
petroleum production purposes13, 16, 23.

Despite the fact that acids have been widely used as gelling agents, there are plenty of other
chemicals that can be used. Krumrine and Boyce have presented a good overview of such
agents15. Most of them are shown in table 3.

- 22 -
 Table 3: Gelling agents for sodium silicate

Type Compound(s) Examples

Acids HCl, H2SO4, HNO3

Inorganic Ammonium Salts (NH4)2CO3, (NH4)2SO4, NH4Cl

Alkali Metall Salts Na2ZnO2, NaHSO4, KF, K2ZnO2, NaCl

Polyvalent Metal Salts Cations Al, B, Ti, Zr, Fe, Cu, Si with
anion HCO2-, CH3CO2-, OH-

Acids Formic, acetic, propionic and

corresponding Al, Ba, Ca, Mg, Zn salts

Aldehydes Formaldehyde, paraformaldehyde,

glyoxal, benzaldehyde

Polyhydric Alcohols Ethyleneglycol, dextrin, cellulose,

glycerin, starches, sugars

Organic Esters, Amides, Lactones Ethylacetate, ethyl chloroformate, formide

dimethylformide,

Polymers Polystyrene, dipolvynilbenzene, polyesrer

resins, latex polyvinyl alcohol

Surfactants Most nonionic and many anionic

surfactants

Organic Compounds Proteins, polypeptides, gelatins, asphalt

Natural Minerals

Inorganic Compounds Clay, fly ash, shale, gypsum, sulfur

- 23 -
 3.3.1 Hydrochloric acid

Addition of almost any acid will cause gelation of sodium silicate. In this work, hydrochloric
acid (HCl) was chosen as a gelation agent for some experiments to verify results found in the
literature and to compare HCl with glyoxal as a reacting agent.

HCl is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water. HCl is a good and cheap gelling agent for
silicate systems. Concentrated acid (37 wt%) has a pH value of -1,1. At the point HCl is
added to sodium silicate solution the pH value drops. However, use of concentrated acid is
limited because it causes immediate gelation in mixture with sodium silicate. I this work, HCl
was diluted to 2M solution, a value which is also found in the literature for pH control in field
applications23. The pH of diluted solution is 0,3. The biggest advantages of HCl as a gelling
agent for silicate gels are price, availability and little, if any, damage on environment.

3.3.2 Glyoxal

Glyoxal is the smallest double aldehyde (two aldehyde groups) with chemical formula
OCHCHO. Its structure is shown in figure 9.

Figure 9: Structure of glyoxal24

- 24 -
Glyoxal and sodium silicate were combined as early as 1964 to form hard, cement-like
coatings25. Very hard substances have been created in the past by using high (around 50 wt%)
glyoxal concentrations. Such gels are extremely hard, cohesive and water insoluble. For water
control applications, glyoxal concentrations must be lowered to reduce the cost of the gel
system and adjust required gelation time. For casing repair, on the other hand, hard substances
created with high glyoxal concentration might be an alternative.

As mentioned, sodium silicate pH has to be reduced to a value under 11; an addition of a

sufficient amount of glyoxal can be used to achieve that. For this system, the reduction of pH
is highly dependent on temperature and, therefore, this system has an advantage when
gelation has to be delayed until it is injected deeply in reservoir. Ideally, there should exist a
system of sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal which would be close to stable, i.e. it
would not gel at room temperatures, but once the necessary temperature is reached, it would
form a strong and water insoluble gel. Parameters that have an effect here are: sodium silicate
concentration, glyoxal concentration and ions in dilution water.

3.3.3 Esters

Even though esters were not used in the experiments for this work, they are a very interesting
alternative for petroleum applications as gelling agents. In reaction with water, esters produce
acid and alcohol and, thereby, can initiate polymerization. Esters are organic compounds
derived by reacting an oxoadic with a hydroxyl compound, such as an alcohol or phenol. An
example of ester structure is shown in figure 10.

Figure 10: General structure of an ester26

- 25 -
Esters react with water. This reaction is called hydrolysis and general formula is presented in
figure 11.

Figure 11: General formula of ester hydrolysis

The products from the hydrolysis reaction will provide the necessary delay if the
concentrations and surrounding conditions are suitable. Temperature plays an important role
in ester hydrolysis as the rate of reaction increases exponentially with an increase in
temperature.

By selecting specific esters and catalysts, a highly temperature-dependent system could be

created and optimized. As discussed earlier, such systems have an advantage when gelation
has to be delayed for deep gelant placement. A review of available literature shows that
similar systems have been created27, however, no attempt to optimize these systems was
made.

- 26 -
3.4 Gel codes

Polymerization of silicate particles is a continuous process. Gel is formed in several stages;

these stages are identified and denoted as gel codes. In literature, many different gel code
notations can be found but in this work, gel codes introduced by Stavland et al. will be used23.
Following denotation is based on visual inspection of the gelling fluid in a clear sample glass.
Classification of gel codes is presented in table 4.

Table 4: Classification of gel codes based on macroscopic gel structure observations

Gel code Description

0 Clear and low viscous fluid

1 Cloudy and low viscous fluid

2 Cloudy and high viscous fluid

3 Rigid gel

In addition, it has been reported that a gel with code 1 plugged 3 µm Milipore filter. These gel
codes have been introduced for sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl, gelation process for
other gelling agents is different and some of these codes may not be applicable. Generally, gel
code 0 and gel code 3 will be a part of all gelled systems, while codes 1 and 2 may exist for a
period which is too short to be identified, or there is no clear boundary between different
stages. Visual inspection is relatively precise as long the boundaries are well defined and the
person making observations is consistent. A better way to distinguish gel codes would be a
numerical measurement of some sort, for example, viscosity, turbidity or, ideally, average
particle size.

- 27 -
3.5 Silicate gel kinetics

As discussed earlier, time to form a gel is a function of several variables. Gelation time can be
defined as time to reach a certain gel code. Stavland et al. defined gelation time as the time
required to reach gel code 1, and derived a formula for the gelation time when sodium silicate
is crosslinked with HCl23. Time to reach gel code 1 is given by equation 8.

tgel= µ×℮α[Si]× ℮β[HCl]× ℮γ√[Ca2+]×℮Ea/RT (8)

Where: tgel= gelation time [days]

[Si]= silicate concentration [wt%]

[HCl]= HCl concentration [2M wt%]

[Ca2+]= concentration of calcium [ppm]

R= gas constant, 8,314x10-3 [kJ/mol∙K]

T= absolute temperature [K]

µ= 2,1x10-8 [days], α=-0,6, β=-0,7, γ=-0,1 and Ea= 77 kJ/mol

In this work, the formula for gelation time is presented based on a modification of equation 8.
In the equation, derived in this work, the gelation time is given in hours and it is defined as
the time required for the gel to become rigid, i.e. to reach gel code 3 (see table 4). Gel code 3
is chosen because it is easier to distinguish the boundary when the gel becomes rigid.
Additionally, some glyoxal systems would not become cloudy; thereby they ―skip‖ gel code
1. An increase in viscosity is a part of all systems, but it might be extremely difficult to
identify the transition visually. Moreover, salinity effects are also taken into account in
derivation of the equation.

A general equation will be derived with respect to these variables:

- 28 -
  Temperature
 Sodium silicate concentration
 Glyoxal concentration
 Salinity and divalent ion concentration

A general equation which can be used to describe the gelation time as a function of these
parameters is as follows:

tg= δ×℮A[Si]× ℮B[Gl]× ℮C√[Ca2+]+D√[NaCl]×℮-Ea/RT (9)

Where: tg= gelation time [hrs]

[Si]= silicate concentration [wt%]

[Gl]= glyoxal concentration [wt%]

[Ca2+]= concentration of calcium [ppm]

[NaCl]= concentration of sodium chloride [wt%]

Ea= activation energy [kJ/mol]

δ= multiplication factor [hrs]

A, B, C, D= constants

Numerical values for A, B, C, D and δ will be presented later in this thesis as a part of
discussion and calculations performed with the results obtained from experimental part of this
work.

In order to find these unknown constants, gelation time has to be measured for different
silicate and glyoxal concentrations. Additionally, salinity and calcium content in the makeup

- 29 -
water has to be varied. Some of these experiments have to be done for different temperatures
to estimate the effect of temperature on gelation time.

Equation 9 is divided into four parts where gelation time becomes a function of only one
variable, when the others are kept constant.

1. Gelation time as a function of silicate concentration only

tg= δ1×℮A’[Si] ( 10 )

2. Gelation time as a function of glyoxal concentration only

tg= δ2×℮B’[Gl] ( 11 )

3. Gelation time as a function of NaCl an CaCl2 concentrations only

tg= δ3×℮ C’√[Ca2+]+D’√[NaCl] ( 12 )

4. Gelation time as a function of temperature only

tg= δ4×℮-Ea/RT ( 13 )

Constants A’, B’, C’ D’, δ1, δ2, δ3 and δ4 are determined experimentally for each system.
However, the constants in the general equation are obtained by matching the measured data to
the general equation.

Arrhenius equation is valid for most chemical reactions, and it is used as a base to describe
temperature dependence in this equation.

- 30 -
 ( 14 )

Where: k= rate constant [s-1]

A= pre-exponential factor [s-1]

Ea= activation energy [kJ/mol]

R= gas constant [kJ/mol∙K]

T= absolute temperature [K]

3.6 Gel syneresis

Long term studies showed that silicate and polymer gels tend to expel water by contracting.
This process is called syneresis and affects long time stability of the gel. It is believed that
syneresis is an inevitable part of any gelation process27.

Although the permeability of gel-treated porous medium does increase as syneresis proceeds,
the degree of permeability reduction in core samples remains technologically useful even
when 95 % syneresis is observed in bulk samples.

As gelation process is finished and the gel has eventually become a solid, the remaining
crosslinker will continue to react. It causes shrinking of the gel and expulsion of water which
is captured by gelled sodium silicate or polymer particles. Depending on the composition of
the gel, volume of expelled water may reach 95 %. Factors which affect the degree of
syneresis are silicate/polymer and gelling agent concentrations, temperature, salinity and
divalent cations28. The degree of syneresis increases with time.

It may look like high degree syneresis in bulk samples affect the choice of gel system for a
field trial. Quite possibly, a gel that is reduced to 5% of its primary volume would not be
favored to be used for water shut-off applications. However, experimental results show that
occurrence of syneresis in a bulk gel has little, or no bearing, on the ability of that same gel to

- 31 -
reduce the permeability of a porous medium. It is worth mentioning, that extent of syneresis is
similar for bulk and core samples, but the rate can be significantly slower in cores28.

Syneresis of a polymer gel is illustrated in figure 12.

Figure 12: Progress of syneresis in porous medium

To the left, the gel is formed and no syneresis has developed yet. White line indicates a
possible fluid flow through a channel or a gel fracture. In the middle, low degree of syneresis
is observed. Some pockets of expelled water are present in the pore space. On the right side, a
high degree of syneresis has developed. Water pockets have expanded to fill the porous space,
leaving only thin layers of the gel at the pore walls. However, the remaining gel is still a
barrier for any fluid flow.

Finally, it is close to impossible to predict the effect of syneresis on gel’s efficiency in water
control operations only by looking at bulk samples. Core experiments give much more
accurate results for this type of problem.

- 32 -
3.7 Gel strength

Gels must withstand required pressure gradients, when used in water control applications.
These pressure gradients will be the highest closer to the borehole and will get weaker deeper
in the formation. So, independently on where the gel is placed it needs to be strong enough to
block water flow through formation. Such gel strength is quite difficult to measure, and time-
consuming core tests should be carried out to obtained precise data. There is, however, a way
to test bulk gel strength which have been used to evaluated different gelling systems14. A gel,
formed in a test tube, is forced through a small hole by water flow, as shown in figure 13. The
walls of the test tube are smooth, so the outlet hole has to be smaller than the tube diameter to
ensure that gel stays in the tube. When water is displacing the gel, a piston-like displacement
is dubious. Water has a much higher mobility and will try to create a fracture, or some king of
viscous fingering in the tube. Pressure difference, ΔP in the tube will deviate a lot from a core
samples. Despite that, this test can be used for relative gel strength evaluation. Higher ΔP will
always mean stronger gel. So, this simplified and quick test is a good solution for comparison
of gel strength for different gels.

GEL WATER

Figure 13: Representation of the testing tube for pressure extrusion test

- 33 -
4 Laboratory Equipment and Experimental Procedures

This section describes which experiments were carried out in this work, which chemicals and
equipment have been used. In addition, it gives a brief explanation on the experimental
procedures. Experiments are grouped according to the objective of each experiment series.

In all experiments, commercial sodium silicate Krystazil 40 (K40) from vendor BIM Norway
was used. The SiO2:Na2O molar ratio was 3.4 and SiO2 concentration at 27.84 wt%. It had a
pH value of 11,3. A 4 wt% sodium silicate concentrate was used in the majority of
experiments presented in this work. This choice was based on sodium silicate concentrations
reported in the literature23.

4.1 Sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl

The amount of HCl added is reported as wt% of 2M solution which was prepared from
concentrated 37 wt% HCl by diluting it with distilled water. Acid was added slowly to water
while mixing carefully. Following amounts were used:

803g d H2O

197g 37 wt% HCl

=1000 g 2M HCl

The pH value was measured to be 0,30 of the 2M solution at room temperature.

- 34 -
 4.1.1 Bulk gelation time

Gelation times have been estimated in literature for sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl, this
test is used to verify the gelation time data and the newly computed data is used for later
AcoustoSizer tests.

Test purpose: Find out times required to reach gel code 1 for HCl concentrations 8,5- 11,0
wt% at 25°C and 60°C. Accordingly to test results, a sample with appropriate gelation time is
chosen for testing procedures in AcoustoSizer.

Test procedure: K40 is weighed in a glass beaker, then the calculated amount water is added
to the same beaker and the solution is put aside for mixing on a magnetic stirrer. HCl is
weighed in a separate beaker and then slowly added to the sodium silicate solution under
mixing to avoid quick local gelation. The final solution is then mixed for at least 5 minutes
before poured in a sample glass and placed in the oven or placed in room temperature. Time
to reach gel code 1 is determined visually and reported.

Compositions of samples are calculated and presented in the table 5.

Table 5: Compositions of bulk gelation samples

Sample 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
HCl wt% 8,5 9 9,5 10 10,5 11
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184
dH2O [g] 38,566 38,316 38,066 37,816 37,566 37,316
2M HCl [g] 4,25 4,5 4,75 5 5,25 5,5

- 35 -
 4.1.2 AcoustoSizer tests

Polymerization process and silicate particle growth is very poorly understood. For a better
awareness of gelation progress AcoustoSizer was employed to measure particle size
distribution during gel formation of sodium silicate.

Equipment used: AcoustoSizer II from Colloidal Dynamics. The setup is shown in figure 14.

Figure 14: AcoustoSizer from Colloidal Dynamics

- 36 -
Working principle29: The AcoustoSizer uses multifrequency electroacoustic technology to
obtain zeta potential, particle size and conductivity. The sample is pumped through the system
and a high frequency electric field is applied in the measurement cell. The motion of the
electrically charged particles in the alternating field generates ultrasound which is measured.
Two measurement techniques are employed: electroacoustics and ultrasonic attenuation.

If particle size is less than 70 nm, it is better to use attenuation option to obtain particle size.
For larger particles, ESA gives better results. Required input data for AcoustoSizer:

 Solvent type: polar or non polar

 Wt% of solids in solution
 Particle type: density and dielectric constant

The output is:

 Particle size distribution with numerical D50, D15 and D85 values
 Two different distribution functions: log- normal and bidisperse
 pH, temperature, conductivity, zeta potential, dynamic mobility, fit error.

The AcoustoSizer does all measurements at the same time, so re-analysis with different input
values can be performed after the initial test is carried out.

For every experiment it is essential to find out which type of measurement and which
distribution function to use. Re-analyzing the measured data gives different fit error values.
The method with the lowest value is clearly preferred. One might, as well, try different
particle types to get the best results. All the input data can be changed in the re-analysis.

- 37 -
Table 6 summarizes tests performed with the AcoustoSizer.

Table 6: Summary of the AcoustoSizer tests

Test Purpose Procedure

4% sodium silicate solution Determine the measurement K40 is diluted to 4 wt%

without HCl type and the distribution solution with distilled water,
function which fits best for no gelling agent is added.
the sodium silicate gel AcoustoSizer is then run with
particle size distribution different input properties
measurements

4 wt% sodium silicate with Measure and record particle 100 g of sample 1-6 is
11 wt% HCl size distribution variations prepared and particle size
with time. Compare the distribution measurements
results with available particle are carried out
size data and evaluate
applicability of AcoustoSizer
for gelation time and gel
strength evaluation

4 wt% sodium silicate with Examine the effect of Distilled water in sample 1-6
11 wt% HCl and 750 ppm polymer presence in the is replaced with 750 ppm
polymer makeup water on particles Xanthan solution and 100 g
sizes and growth pattern of such mixture is prepared

750 ppm Xanthan solution was prepared by dissolving 0,75 g Xanthan EX 9230 (supplied by
vendor Kelco) into 1 liter distilled water while mixing, and left for slow mixing over night.
The solution had a slightly higher viscosity than distilled water.

- 38 -
4.2 Sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal

The main part of this thesis is dedicated to test glyoxal as a possible gelling agent for water
control applications. Parameters that affect gelation time are evaluated in this section. Data
obtained from these experiments is used to determine numerical values of constants in the
general equation (see equation 9) describing gelation time for silicate/glyoxal systems.

4.2.1 Glyoxal concentration effect of on gelation time

Adjusting the concentration of the crosslinker, glyoxal in this case, is, probably, the best way
to control gelation time. The range of possible glyoxal concentrations is determined in this
test. Glyoxal was supplied by Sigma-Aldrich and was delivered as a 40 wt% aqueous
solution.

Test purpose: Estimate the effect of glyoxal concentrations on the gelation time

Test procedure: 4 wt% sodium silicate solution is prepared by diluting K40 with distilled
water. Glyoxal is weighed in a separate glass beaker and added to silicate solution while
stirring. The gelant is then left for 5 minutes to mix properly on a magnetic stirrer. Each set of
samples is placed in the 60°C preheated oven and left in the room temperature to gel. Time to
reach gel code 3 is measured and reported.

Compositions of glyoxal samples are presented in table 7.

Table 7: Compositions of glyoxal samples

Sample 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50
40% glyoxal wt% 2 2,5 3,5 4,5 6
4% glyoxal wt% 20 25 35 45 60
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184
dH2O [g] 41,816 30,316 25,316 20,316 12,816
4 % glyoxal [g] — 12,5 17,5 22,5 30
40 % glyoxal [g] 1 — — — —

- 39 -
Note that samples 2-2 through 2-5 are prepared using a diluted glyoxal solution. The original
40 wt% solution was diluted 10 times, to 4 wt%, for more precise weighing procedures.
Glyoxal is water soluble so dilution did not have any effect on gelation time, as long as true
glyoxal wt% in sodium silicate solution was kept the same. To ensure that, a sample with 6
wt% original glyoxal solution was compared to as sample with 60 wt% diluted glyoxal. No
difference in gelation time was observed.

4.2.2 Salinity and divalent ion effect on gelation time

For up-scaling to a field trial, it is important to investigate salinity effects on gelation time. In
the field, the makeup water is some kind of tap water with both Na+ and Ca2+ ions present.
Formation water is usually rich in metal ions and it will have an effect on gelation time. In
some cases, it might cause precipitation of calcium or magnesium silicate. Results from the
following tests will show how gelation time is affected by a presence of NaCl or CaCl2
separately, and by a combination of both salts. If concentrations of either of these ions are too
high in the treatment formation, there will be a need for a pre-flush with low salinity water.
Results from the following tests will show how an eventual pre-flush should be designed and
how much effect its salinity will have on gelation time. Firstly, effects of each salt are
evaluated separately. Later, a combination of both is used to determine which ions have a
bigger impact.

NaCl test

NaCl is present in sea water and will always be in the formation water. It is important to be
aware of Na+ ion effect on gelation time to properly design gel treatment for a field case.

Test purpose: Evaluate the effect of Na+ ions on the gelation time.

- 40 -
Test procedure: Samples with constant concentration of glyoxal were prepared and small
amounts of NaCl were added to each sample. Gelation time to gel code 3 is reported.

Compositions of NaCl samples are presented in table 8.

Table 8: Compositions of NaCl samples

Sample 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50
4% glyoxal [wt%] 25 25 25 25
NaCl [wt%] 1 0,5 0,2 0
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184
H2O [g] 29,816 30,066 30,066 30,316
4% glyoxal [g] 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5
NaCl [g] 0,50 0,25 0,10 0

CaCl2 test

Calcium ions react with sodium silicate to form calcium silicate which has very low solubility
in water. Precipitation of water-insoluble salts causes pore plugging when silicate solution is
injected in the formation. It is important to investigate how calcium concentration affects
gelation time and find out when precipitation of calcium silicate occurs.

Test purpose: Evaluate the effect of Ca2+ ions on gelation time.

Test procedure: Several samples with constant glyoxal concentration were prepared and
CaCl2 was added to solution. The amounts of CaCl2 had to be kept very low to avoid
precipitation of calcium silicate. In one sample, distilled water was exchanged with tap water
with 20 ppm calcium concentration.

- 41 -
Compositions of all samples are presented in table 8.

Table 9: Compositions of CaCl2 samples

Sample 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5

Water type Distilled Distilled Distilled Tap Distilled
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50
4% glyoxal [wt%] 25 25 25 25 25
Ca2+ [ppm] 1000 500 200 12 0
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184
H2O [g] 30,316 30,316 30,316 30,316 30,316
4% glyoxal [g] 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5
CaCl2 [g] 0,05 0,025 0,01 0,00 0,00

Sample 4-4 has the total calcium concentration of 12 ppm since the fraction of tap water in the
solution is 0,6 and tap water had 20 ppm Ca2+ concentration. Sample 4-5 is prepared without
CaCl2.

Combination of NaCl and CaCl2

Effects of Na+ and Ca2+ ions have been estimated separately, but for a complete picture, it is
important to know how presence of both ions affects gelation time. It is the most probable
scenario in field applications.

Test purpose: Estimate the effects of Na+ and Ca2+ ions concentrations on the gelation time

Test procedure: Samples are prepared with same sodium silicate and glyoxal concentrations
as in previous salinity tests. Sample 4-1 has the highest concentration of NaCl and the lowest
concentration of CaCl2. NaCl concentration is then reduced while CaCl2 concentration is
increased for samples 4-2, 4-3 and 4-4. 4-5 is prepared without addition of any salts.

- 42 -
Compositions of all samples are presented in the table 10.

Table 10: Compositions of NaCl-CaCl2 samples

Sample 5-1 5-2 5-3

Water type Tap Distilled Distilled
Sample size [g] 50 50 50
4% glyoxal [wt%] 25 25 25
NaCl [wt%] 1 0,5 0,2
CaCl2 [ppm] 12 200 500
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184
H2O [g] 29,816 30,065 30,214
4% glyoxal [g] 12,5 12,5 12,5
NaCl [g] 0,50 0,25 0,10
CaCl2 [g] 0,0000 0,0010 0,0025

4.2.3 PH time dependency

Gelation process is mainly controlled by the pH of the solution. However, the pH changes
with time after crosslinker is added to the solution. The development of pH will be dependent
on what type of gelation agent is used.

Test purpose: Investigate the behavior of the solution pH after the crosslinker is added to the
sodium silicate.

Test procedure: In this test, HCl and glyoxal are used as gelling agents. Samples are
prepared and set for gelation in room temperature. The pH is measured at different times until
gel is formed.

- 43 -
Compositions of the pH samples are presented in table 11.

Table 11: Compositions of pH samples

Sample 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6

Water type Distilled Tap Distilled Tap Distilled Distilled
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
40% glyoxal wt% 2 2 2,5 2,5 6
2M HCl wt% — — — — — 11
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184
H2O [g] 41,816 41,816 30,316 30,316 12,816 37,316
40% glyoxal [g] 1 1 -- --- --- —
4% glyoxal [g] -- --- 12,5 12,5 30 —
2HCl [g] — — — — — 5,5

As it is shown in table 11, two samples were prepared with the original 40% glyoxal solution,
other three with the diluted, 4% glyoxal solution. Sample 6-6 was prepared with HCl for pH
behavior comparison between the two crosslinkers.

4.2.4 Temperature effect on gelation time

Temperature is one of the main factors which control the pH of crosslinked sodium silicate
and, thus, the gelation time. It is important to investigate how much the gelation time is
affected by an increase in temperature and which correlations can be applied to predict
gelation time in a field case.

Test purpose: Estimate the temperature effect on the gelation time for different glyoxal
concentrations.

Test procedure: 4 temperatures were used to derive the parameters for gelation time
equation. Gelation time was measured in temperatures 25°C, 40°C, 60°C and 80°C. Each set
of samples were prepared with distilled and tap water to evaluate the salinity effect at
different temperatures.

- 44 -
Compositions of all samples are presented in table 12.

Table 12: Compositions of temperature samples

Sample 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4

Water type Distilled Tap Distilled Tap
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50
40% glyoxal wt% 2 2 2,5 2,5
K40 [g] 7,184 7,184 7,184 7,184
H2O [g] 41,816 41,816 41,566 41,566
40% glyoxal [g] 1 1 1,25 1,25

4.2.5 Effect of silicate concentration on gelation time

Silicate concentration can be adjusted to achieve desired properties of a gel. Usually, higher
silicate concentrations result in stronger gel with shorter gelation time. However, gels with
high silicate are subject to high degree of syneresis. Even though some degree of syneresis
may not cause major problems, silicate concentrations were kept in the interval 1- 6 wt%.

Test purpose: Estimate the effect of silicate concentration on the gelation time

Test procedure: Sodium silicate concentrations were varied while glyoxal concentrations
were kept constant for each series of samples. The gelation time was measured in 25°C and
60°C and reported. The samples are grouped according to silicate concentration and amount
of water added is presented for each sample according to glyoxal concentration. The amounts
of glyoxal are not included in the table, but they can be calculated by a simple subtraction.

Compositions of the samples are presented in table 13.

Table 13: Compositions of silicate samples

Sample 1% silicate 2% silicate 3% silicate 4% silicate 5% silicate 6% silicate

Wt%
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
glyoxal
K40 [g] 1,796 3,592 5,388 7,184 8,980 10,776
3,5 H2O [g] 46,454 44,658 42,862 41,066 39,270 37,474
4,5 H2O [g] 45,954 44,158 42,362 40,566 38,770 36,974
6 H2O [g] 45,204 43,408 41,612 39,816 38,020 36,224

- 45 -
4.3 Gel strength

One of the main reasons why glyoxal was chosen as a gelling agent is its ability to create very
strong gels in mixture with sodium silicate. This section describes how bulk gel was tested in
this thesis. Effects of silicate and glyoxal concentrations are evaluated. In addition, some
samples were prepared with HCl for bulk strength comparison of each gel system.

To evaluate and compare bulk gel strengths, gel is left in a tube to gel for a period of time
which is much larger than the gelation time of that particular gel. Later, the gel is displaced by
a water flow at constant rate. Pressure at the inlet of the tube is measured and reported.

Equipment used: Gilson pump, Rosemount pressure gauge and test tubes with inner
diameter equal to 1/2 inch. Test tubes were mounted caps on each end with a 1/8 inch
diameter size hole. A smaller hole than the tube’s diameter at the outlet is necessary to keep
gel in tube when pressure is applied. A bottle to collect the extruded gel is placed at the outlet
of the testing tube. The setup is shown in figure 15.

A bottle to
collect
extruded gel

Distilled
water

Figure 15: Setup of pressure extrusion tests

- 46 -
5 Results and Discussion

In this section, results from all experiments are presented. This section is subdivided into
three main parts. First, results from particle size growth and distribution experiments are
displayed and evaluated.

Second, gel formation with glyoxal is presented. Effects of temperature, silicate and glyoxal
concentrations, salinity and presence of divalent ions are calculated and reported.

Finally, gel strength measurements are reviewed and discussed.

5.1 Sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl

Behavior of sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl is well known and described in literature.
However, AcoustoSizer measurements have not been done for such gel systems as per today’s
date. To start with, bulk gelation times are measured. Later particle size distribution data is
presented and discussed.

5.1.1 Bulk gelation time

Table 14 shows the pH of each sample, 5 minutes after crosslinking, and the gelation time
based on the test data presented in table 5 at two different temperatures: 25°C and 60°C.

- 47 -
 Table 14: Gelation times for HCl bulk gel test

Gelation time
[hrs:min]
Sample HCl wt% pH 25°C 60°C
1-1 8,5 10,89 21:55 05:25
1-2 9 10,79 17:03 04:18
1-3 9,5 10,77 09:05 02:53
1-4 10 10,75 03:58 02:11
1-5 10,5 10,7 02:25 01:30
1-6 11 10,63 01:30 01:10

The gelation times, shown in the last two columns of table 14, are plotted versus HCl
concentration in figure 16.

10,00
25 C
60 C
1,00
tg [hrs]

0,10

0,01
8 8,5 9 9,5 10 10,5 11 11,5
Wt% 2M HCl

Figure 16: Gelation time (gel code 1) versus HCl concentration

Figure 16 shows a good correlation for both temperatures, however, the data for 60 °C is
slightly better correlated. Gelation times are shorter for higher temperatures, and it is easier to
see the transition to code 1 in a rapid process than in a slower one. These observations are
made visually and the effect of human factor must be taken into account.

- 48 -
The main objective of this test was to find out which concentration is the most suitable for
later tests in the AcoustoSizer. The gelation time has to be low enough for the AcoustoSizer to
measure the change in particle growth, but cannot be so low that the sample plugs the
measuring cell and causes problems. To satisfy these conditions, sample 1-6 was chosen.

5.1.1 AcoustoSizer tests

Three tests were run in the AcoustoSizer. Results from these tests are presented and discussed
in this chapter.

4% sodium silicate solution without crosslinker

To identify the most suitable parameters in the AcoustoSizer, a 4 wt% sodium silicate solution
without crosslinker was tested with different input parameters. The measured data was later
re-analyzed and the input parameters giving lowest fit error were determined. The following
settings were chosen for the AcoustoSizer tests:

Table 15: Input parameters and respective values selected for the AcoustoSizer tests

Input Value

Distribution function Lognormal

Particles properties Density- 2,2 g/ml, dielectric constant 4,5

Measurement technique Attenuation

4 wt% sodium silicate with 11 wt% HCl

The sample was circulated in the AcoustoSizer and measurements of particle size distribution
were carried out continuously. Main objective in this test was to check whether measured
particle size would match the expected particle size when the gel reaches code 1. Particle size
estimation was obtained from other literature for parallel systems23. Figure 17 presents the
distribution of particle diameters at 3 different times.

- 49 -
 0,12

Time = 0
0,1
Time = 1hr 20 min
Time = 3 hrs
0,08
Differential Fraction

0,06

0,04

0,02

0
0,05 0,5
Particle diameter [µm]

Figure 17: Particle size distribution at different times

From figure 17, it is clear that sodium silicate particles are growing with time. Gelation time
for this system at room temperature is 1,5 h. Red curve indicates the measurements taken just
before the sample reached gel code 1. Sizes of the majority of particles at this time should
reach values around 1 µm according to Stavland et al.23. The sample was left for
measurements for longer time, since the expected values was not measured. After 3 hours the
sample was on the verge to reach gel code 3 and the experiment was abandoned. Still, even at
times longer than gel code 1, the AcoustoSizer did not report values in the right magnitude.

The growth of particles can be illustrated by plotting the average particle size (d50) values
versus time. This is presented in figure 18 where the vertical red line indicates time needed to
reach gel code 1.

- 50 -
 0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
d50 [µm]
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50
Time [hrs]

Figure 18: Average particle size development

Figure 18 gives a clear indication that particles are growing in the solution. However, the
growth is far from the extent which is expected. Possible reasons for unsuccessful
measurements are discussed later in this chapter.

4 % sodium silicate with 11 wt% HCl and 750 ppm polymer solution

Distilled water was replaced by a 750 ppm Xanthan solution to investigate what effect
presence of a polymer has for particle growth. Figure 19 presents the measured particle
distribution data.

- 51 -
 0,12

0,1 Time = 0
Time = 1 hr 50 min
Time = 3 hrs
0,08
Differential Fraction

0,06

0,04

0,02

0
0,05 0,5
Particle diameter [µm]

Figure 19: Particle size distribution at different times when water is replaced by a 750 ppm Xanthan solution

D50 values for this sample are plotted versus time in figure 20. The red line, again, indicates
time required to reach gel code 1.

0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
d50 [µm]

0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50

Time [hrs]

Figure 20: Average particle size development when water is replaced by a 750 ppm Xanthan solution

- 52 -
From figures 17-20, it can be observed that there is almost no difference between the two
tests. In both experiments, sodium silicate and HCl concentrations are kept the same.

From these two tests, it can be concluded that AcoustoSizer is unable to measure the actual
size of polymerizing silica particles.

The problem, most probably, lies in the inability to predict change of particle properties by the
AcoustoSizer. While the particle density is kept constant in AcoustoSizer calculations
throughout the whole measuring process, density of polymerizing silicate particles changes
when the structure is growing and water molecules are captured.

Early in the process, particle size is measured close to expected values, which means that the
equipment is able to detect particles and measuring process is, actually, working. The fact that
this equipment does accurate measurements for solutions with constant properties leads to
conclusion that it should be possible to measure particle size distribution for each time step if
the input values could be varied accordingly to polymerization of the particles. Calculations
of input properties should be extremely complicated to compute and might require some very
advanced software.

Polymerization process is very complex and not understood to a degree where software could
model density of growing silicate particles. In addition, the AcoustoSizer should be able for a
dynamic data input as time progresses.

After two series of inaccurate measurements, it was decided to abandon the AcoustoSizer for
particle size distribution measurements.

- 53 -
5.2 Sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal

In this section, glyoxal is evaluated and discussed as a possible gelation agent to form gel in
water control applications for petroleum production purposes. Results from all experimental
procedures are presented and equations for gelation times are derived.

5.2.1 Glyoxal concentration effect on gelation time

Gelation times were measured for 4 wt% silicate gels with different glyoxal concentrations.
Table 16 presents the gelation times at two different temperatures: 25°C and 60°C.

Table 16: Gelation times for glyoxal samples

Gelation time [hrs : min]

40% Glyoxal
25°C 60°C
[wt%]
6 1:41 0:16
4,5 2:57 0:21
3,5 10:00 1:10
2,5 53:57 20:37
2 315:25 64:25

Gelation times from table 16 are plotted versus glyoxal concentration in figure 21.

1000,00
25C
60C
100,00
tg [hrs]

10,00

1,00

0,10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Glyoxal concentration [wt%]

Figure 21: Gelation time versus glyoxal concentration

- 54 -
It is clear, that the gelation time decreases with increasing glyoxal concentrations. At 60°C,
and concentrations above 4,5 wt% the gelation is almost instantaneous (less than 20 minutes)
and does not decrease much with increased concentration of glyoxal. At 25°C, the same trend
can be observed. The line flattens out for concentrations above 4,5 wt%.

Glyoxal concentrations 2 – 4,5 w%, however, give good correlation for both temperatures.
Equations for gelation time in this interval are as follows:

Constants in equation 11 are derived based on samples with glyoxal concentrations in the
range 2-4,5 wt% So, the equation for 4 wt% sodium silicate and distilled water becomes:

At 25°C tg= 5934,9℮-1,743[Gl]

At 60°C tg= 4114,6℮-2,159[Gl]

Three samples with lower concentrations were prepared as well. After 1,5 months in 60°C the
sample with 1 wt% glyoxal has not yet reached gel code 3, but some local gelation was
observed. Samples with 0,25 wt% and 0,5 wt% glyoxal have become cloudy, similar to gel
code 1 for silicate crosslinked with HCl. However, in room temperature, the same samples
stayed clear and have not shown any indication of gelation.

5.2.2 Salinity and divalent ion effect on gelation time

Addition of NaCl and CaCl2 has catalyst effect on gelation. The effect of each salt was
evaluated separately first. Later, a combination of both salts was used to investigate gelation
times when both salts are present and, thus, determine which ions have a greater effect.

- 55 -
Effect of Na+ ions on gelation time

The gelation times for samples with NaCl are presented in table 17.

Table 17: Gelation times for NaCl samples

Gelation time
[hrs : min]
NaCl
25°C 60°C
[wt%]
1 01:37 00:34
0,5 03:42 01:42
0,2 10:13 04:07
0 53:57 20:37

Gelation times from table 17 are plotted in figure 22 versus square root of NaCl concentration
at two different temperatures.

100
60 C

25 C
10
tg [hrs]

0,1
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
Sqrt Na concentration [wt%^1/2l]

Figure 22: Gelation time versus NaCl concentration

Figure shows that a very good correlation is developed when gelation time is plotted versus
square root of NaCl concentration instead of the concentration itself.

- 56 -
Gelation time as a function of salinity is derived. The two following equations are valid for 4
wt% sodium silicate, 2,5 wt% glyoxal concentration and distilled water.

At 25°C: tg= 51,378℮-3,55√[Na+]

At 60°C tg= 19,26℮-3,49√[Na+]

The slopes for both temperatures are nearly identical, so it is safe to assume that this
correlation would be valid for other temperatures as well.

Effect of Ca2+ ions on gelation time

The gelation times for samples with CaCl2 are presented in table 18.

Table 18: Gelation times for CaCl2 samples

Gelation time
[hrs : min]
Ca2+ [ppm] 25°C 60°C
500 19:48 5:33
200 22:00 11:00
12 50:51 18:51
0 53:57 20:37

Gelation times from table 18 are plotted in figure 23 versus square root of CaCl2
concentration at two different temperatures.

- 57 -
 100
60 C
25 C
tg [hrs]

10

1
0 5 10 15 20 25

Sqrt Ca concentration [ppm^1/2]

Figure 23: Gelation time versus CaCl2 concentration

Measured data fits better when the gelation time is plotted against the square root of calcium
concentration instead of calcium concentration. Figure clearly shows that gelation times are
reduced with increased Ca2+ ion concentration. However, reduction of gelation time is not as
significant as for NaCl samples.

Gelation time as a function of calcium concentration is derived. The two following equations
are valid for 4% sodium silicate, 2,5 wt% glyoxal concentration and distilled water and are
given at two different temperatures.

At 25°C: tg= 55,05℮-0,050√[Ca2+]

At 60°C tg=22,263℮-0,057√[Ca2+]

Again, the slopes are similar and the effect of Ca2+ concentration on gelation time would be
similar for other temperatures as well.

In sample 4-1, with 1000 ppm Ca2+ concentration, an immediate precipitation was observed
and the sample was not taken into gelation time calculations even though it did gel with
precipitated calcium silicate on the bottom of sample glass. So, somewhere between 500 ppm

- 58 -
and 1000 ppm there is an upper limit for Ca2+ concentration in the formation water for field
applications. A sufficient pre- flush with lower Ca2+ concentrations is required to ensure that
there is no precipitation of calcium silicate in the pores of the formation. However, this should
not be generalized since these experiments were performed for 4% silicate gels and lower
concentrations of silicate would need higher calcium concentrations to cause precipitation.

It is worth mentioning, that gels with higher Ca2+ concentrations seemed to have higher gel
strength. The strength was evaluated visually by making the gel ring and by poking it with a
small metal stick.

Combination of NaCl and CaCl2

Presence of both Na+ and Ca2+ ions is a very probable scenario in field applications.
Therefore, it is important to estimate the magnitude of each ion concentration, when both are
present in the makeup water. Results from earlier tests showed that increasing concentrations
of each salt decreased the gelation time. Precipitation of calcium silicate is the limiting factor
when increasing amount of CaCl2 added. Much larger concentrations of NaCl lead to higher
degree of reduction in gelation time in previous samples.

Results from this test are presented in table 19.

Table 19: Gelation times for NaCl-CaCl2 samples

Gelation time
[hrs : min]
NaCl Ca2+
25°C 60°C
[wt%] [ppm]
1 0 1:37 0:34
1 12 1:34 0:24
0,5 200 3:12 1:12
0,2 500 7:04 2:14
0 500 19:48 5:33
0 0 53:57 20:37

- 59 -
Table 19 shows a general trend which was expected. High NaCl concentration causes almost
immediate gelling at 60°C. Gelation times for the three NaCl/CaCl2 samples are plotted in the
figures 24 and 25 versus NaCl and CaCl2.

1,2 25

1
20
NaCl

Sqrt of Ca [ppm^1/2]
0,8
CaCl2 15
NaCl [wt%^1/2]

0,6
10
0,4

5
0,2

0 0
0,1 2,1 4,1 6,1 8,1
tg [hrs]

Figure 24: Gelation time versus NaCl and CaCl2 concentrations, 25°C

1,2 25

1 20
Sqrt of Ca [ppm^1/2]

NaCl
NaCl [wt%^1/2]

0,8
CaCl2 15
0,6
10
0,4

0,2 5

0 0
0,10 0,60 1,10 1,60 2,10 2,60
tg [hrs]

Figure 25: Gelation time versus NaCl and CaCl2 concentration, 60°C

- 60 -
Figures 24 and 25 indicate that gelation time is reduced when either of the concentrations is
increased. When sodium silicate and glyoxal concentrations are kept constant at given
temperature for these samples, the only variables are NaCl and CaCl2 concentrations.
However, no equations for gelation time can be obtained directly from these graphs, so a
general equation has to be derived for all salinity samples.

For calculation of the constants, a method of least squares in Maple was used. Since there are
two variables, a 3D problem was solved. To do so, surface curves were fitted for each
temperature data set and constants giving lowest error value for each temperature were
derived.

Equation 12 is presented with the calculated constants. The following equations are valid for 4
wt% sodium silicate and 2,5 wt% glyoxal at two given temperatures.

At 25°C: tg= 47,57℮ -0,0302√[Ca2+]-3,3079√[NaCl]

At 60°C: tg= 19,54℮ -0,0378√[Ca2+]-3,4794√[NaCl]

Magnitude of the effect that each metal ion has on gelation time can be presented visually.
Gelation time is plotted in Maple against the NaCl and CaCl2 concentrations in figure 26.

- 61 -
60°C 25°C

Figure 26: Gelation time (hrs) versus NaCl and CaCl2 concentrations
- 62 -
As seen from figure 26, addition of NaCl has a much greater effect on gelation time. It is so,
because of the total amount added to the solution. Larger amounts of Ca2+ ions result in
precipitation. Numerical values can be tricky to obtain from looking at the two 3D graphs, so
calculated gelation times are presented in table 20. In addition, measured values are displayed
for comparison purposes.

Table 20: Measured and calculated gelation times for all salinity samples

Gelation time [hrs : min] Gelation time [hrs : min]

25°C 60°C
NaCl [wt%] Ca2+ [ppm] Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
1 0 1:37 1:44 0:34 0:36
0,5 0 3:42 4:35 1:42 1:40
0,2 0 10:13 10:50 4:07 4:07
0 500 19:48 24:13 5:33 8:23
0 200 22:00 31:02 11:00 11:27
0 12 50:51 42:51 18:51 17:08
1 12 1:34 1:34 0:24 0:31
0,5 200 3:12 2:59 1:12 0:58
0,2 500 7:04 5:31 2:14 1:46
0 0 53:57 47:34 20:37 19:32

Table 20 shows a quite small deviation between the measured and the calculated data.
Calculations are based on quite simple function and constants are derived from 10 samples.
To obtain more accurate results, one might have to have more measurements and evaluate
other functions as well. Table 20 shows that the calculated values deviate mostly at high Ca2+
concentrations. It does not cause much trouble for the applicability of the equation, since in a
field trial, low concentrations of Ca2+ ions are expected.

- 63 -
 5.2.3 PH time dependency

It is important to know how the pH of a sodium silicate solution changes with time to
understand the gelation process. Generally, the pH value measured right after crosslinker is
added would not stay constant. The behavior will be diverse for different gelation agents. The
trend of how the pH develops can contribute to better understanding of different gelling
systems.

The measured pH values for given times are presented table 21.

Table 21: The pH values for the pH samples

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6

2 wt% 2 wt% 2 wt% 2,5 wt% 6 wt% 11% 2M
glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal HCl
Dist. water Tap water Dist. water Tap water Dist. water Dist water
Time Time Time Time Time Time
pH pH pH pH pH pH
[min] [min] [min] [min] [min] [min]
0 11,08 0 11,17 0 11,01 0 11,08 0 11,03 5 10,58
10 11,07 25 11,03 5 11,01 40 10,91 15 10,92 20 10,69
35 10,99 65 10,97 45 10,91 75 10,91 30 10,83 35 10,73
75 10,96 100 10,96 80 10,9 120 10,91 45 10,75 79 10,79
110 10,96 145 10,97 125 10,93 1135 11,03 60 10,66 94 10,8
155 10,97 1100 11,05 1140 11,01 75 10,6 124 10,81
1110 11,07 100* 10,5 142 10,82
180* 10,83

* Gel code 3 is reached

Gelation times for samples 6-1 through 6-4 are much larger than the pH test. Table 22 is
presented to display time required to reach gel code 3.

Table 22: Gelation times for pH samples

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4

2 wt% glyoxal 2 wt% glyoxal 2 wt% glyoxal 2,5 wt% glyoxal
Dist. water Tap water Dist. water Tap water
Gelation time [hrs : min] 315:25 211:47 53:57 50:51

- 64 -
For a graphical representation, the pH values from table 21 are plotted versus time in the
figure 27.

11,3

11,2

11,1

11
"6-1"
10,9
"6-2"
pH

10,8 "6-3"
"6-4"
10,7
"6-5"
10,6 "6-6"

10,5

10,4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Time [min]

Figure 27: PH versus time

When glyoxal is used as gelation agent, pH values decrease from the initial values. The
opposite behavior is observed for gelation agent HCl, where the initial pH is the lowest and it
increases with time. For samples with lower glyoxal concentrations (2-2,5 wt%), pH drops to
a certain value ant then slowly increases until gel is formed. The pH of sample 6-5 drops
rapidly until gel is formed due to its high glyoxal concentration (6 wt%).

Samples 6-5 and 6-6 are similar in gelation time, but the pH development is completely
opposite. This can be explained by the very nature of the gel system. Glyoxal is reacting with
water and produces more H+ ions whereas H+ ions from HCl are used by sodium silicate faster
than they are created by the acid.

There exists an upper limit for pH where sodium silicate still gels. When the pH is higher than
this limit the solution should be stable. In literature, this limit was stated at pH= 11. Here, we
can see that it is not the case, since all test samples created gel at pH values slightly higher

- 65 -
than 11. The pH of 4% sodium silicate solution without crosslinker was measured to be at
11,33, so the limit must lie between 11,1 and 11,33.

A system, where pH value would not drop below this limit would be stable. An example of
such system could be a gel with 4 wt% sodium silicate and 1 wt% glyoxal solution. It has a
gelation time of around 1,5 months in 60 C, but a significantly longer gelation time in room
temperatures. Maybe it would not gel at all. Problem with this particular system is its gel
strength. Gel is not rigid and it might be unable to withstand larger pressure gradients in the
reservoir. Such system is impossible to create with an addition of acid. As figure 27 shows,
the lowest pH value is at time 0, so polymerization of silica starts at the very moment acid is
added to the solution. From these observations, it follows that if amount of acid added is
sufficient to create gel, such gel would be created at all temperatures, only in different
gelation times.

5.2.4 Temperature effect on gelation time

Temperatures vary significantly in different reservoirs. The effect of increased temperature

for gelation time is very important. Earlier, it was assumed that Arrhenius’s equation should
be applicable in these calculations. Gelation times for temperature samples are presented in
table 23.

Table 23: Gelation times for temperature samples

Gelation time [hrs : min]

2 wt% glyoxal 2,5 wt% glyoxal
Temperature 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4
25 315:25 211:47 53:57 50:51
40 186:50 136:39 40:50 38:42
60 64:25 40:17 20:37 18:51
80 7:27 6:34 4:06 2:45

- 66 -
Table clearly shows that gelation times are significantly reduced for increased temperatures.
Arrhenius equation can be satisfied by correlating the gelation time with the inverse absolute
temperature.

The gelation times are plotted versus the inverse absolute temperature in figure 28.

1000,00

100,00
7-1
tg [hrs]

7-2

10,00 7-3
7-4

1,00
0,0028 0,0029 0,003 0,0031 0,0032 0,0033 0,0034
Inverse absolute temperature, [1/K]

Figure 28: Gelation time versus the inverse absolute temperature

Figure 28 shows that samples 7-1 and 7-2 are in straight line at temperatures above 25°C.
Samples with slightly higher glyoxal concentrations have a little worse correlation for
temperatures below 60°C. Temperature dependence is rather more complicated than first
anticipated and cannot be generalized by one simple equation. However, for data matching
Arrhenius’s equation will be used as base.

5.2.5 Silicate concentration effect on gelation time

For field applications, the required properties of a gel for water shut-off can be achieved by
varying silicate concentration. Gelation time is reduced by increasing concentration of silicate
in the solution. In addition, gels with higher silicate concentrations seem to have higher
strength. This will be investigated later in the research. Table 24 presents gelation times for
samples with different silicate concentrations.

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 Table 24: Gelation times for silicate samples

Gelation time [hrs : min]

60°C 25°C
Silicate 3,5 wt% 4,5 wt% 6 wt% 3,5 wt% 4,5 wt% 6 wt%
wt% glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal
1 1:38 1:10 1:03 52:33 32:39 27:35
2 1:06 1:22 0:48 4:11 16:32 12:41
3 0:50 0:41 0:37 4:18 3:45 3:15
4 1:10 0:21 0:16 4:40 2:57 1:41
5 1:15 0:20 0:18 4:07 2:49 1:55
6 1:08 0:17 0:20 3:28 2:00 1:21

Gelation time data for 60°C is plotted in figure 29.

10,00
3,5 wt%
4,5 wt%
6 wt%
tg [hrs]

1,00

0,10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Silicate concentration [wt%]

Figure 29: Gelation time versus silicate concentration, 60°C

Figure 29 shows a general trend that the gelation time is reduced with increasing silicate
concentration. However, some data points are not following this trend. This is especially
visible for samples with 3,5 wt% glyoxal. Gelation times for 4,5 and 6 wt% glyoxal samples
with silicate concentrations higher than 4 are so low, that the process can be described as
instant gelation.

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Gelation time data for 25°C is plotted in figure 30.

100,00

3,5 wt%
4,5 wt%
6 wt%
tg [hrs]

10,00

1,00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Silicate concentration [wt%]

Figure 30: Gelation time versus silicate concentration, 25°C

At a lower temperature, the same trend is observed. Again, the trend is not so clear for higher
silicate concentrations. It is interesting to observe that gelation times for 3,5 wt% glyoxal
samples are nearly constant for all silicate concentrations, but increases dramatically for 1
wt% silicate.

It is worth mentioning, that gels formed with 1 wt% silicate are clear even after reaching gel
code 3. Gels gain more color and turn yellow/brown for higher silicate and glyoxal
concentrations.

All samples, except the ones with 1 wt% silicate, had created hard, ringing gels. In fact, gel
structure formed by 1 wt% samples was so weak, that it could easily be broken down by a
rather weak shaking of the sampling glass. Further research of gel strength follows in the next
chapter.

After all experiments were carried out and gelation times for various conditions, the constants
in the general formula (see equation 9) for gelation time are computed. Computation was
carried out by matching measured data to the derived equation. Least square method in Maple
was used to find the constants which give lowest deviation from the measured values.

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Several attempts with a selection of specific data points were made to achieve the best
correlation. Table 25 presents the constants used in the following equation.

tg= δ×℮A[Si]× ℮B[Gl]× ℮C√[Ca2+]+D√[NaCl]×℮-Ea/RT (9)

Table 25: Constants derived for the general equation

Ea
Selection of samples ζ [hrs] A B C D
[kJ]

All samples 2,12x10-4 -0,243 -1,1 -0,025 -3,27 -40,4

Samples with 4 wt% silicate

6,45x10-5 — -1,406 -0,4106 -3,56 -40,6
concentration only

All, but the samples used in

silicate concentration test and 2,46x10-4 -0,262 -1,127 -0,025 -3,27 -40,3
6 wt% glyoxal samples.

Samples tested at temperatures

2,26x10-8 -0,0391 -1,190 -0,020 -3,11 -64,5
higher than 25°C

Table 25 shows how the constants change when different selection of samples is used. As
expected, correlations are quite complex and several equations for specific situations should
be used. Sodium silicate and glyoxal concentrations have high ranges and one equation for
both ranges will not be very accurate. For more accurate results, an equation developed for
selected region should be applied. It is also convenient to calculate gelation time as a function
of fewer variables when others can be kept constant. Equation 9 can be used for a rough
estimation of gelation time, but one must be aware that it can deviate quite a lot from the
actual time. In order to improve the quality of the equation, more samples could be tested, or
the equation could be modified.

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5.3 Gel strength

Results from gel strength tests are presented on this chapter.

A general trend was observed for all samples. At the start of every pressure test, the tube is
completely filled with gel and water is pumped at the inlet of the tube to increase pressure.
Later, as the pressure builds up to a value where the gel is not strong enough to withstand the
applied pressure. Failure of the gel can either be described as water breakthrough from the
tube, or extrusion of the gel itself. Water may create a fracture through the gel, or make a path
along the tube wall. After the pressure is increased to the value at which gel fails, the pressure
drops. When the pressure has dropped to the lower value, it increases again until next step of
gel failure occurs, as the water is pumped at a constant rate. The number of such pressure
buildups is a function of gel strength. Hard and more rigid gels allow much higher increase in
pressure before any kind of failure. The volume of extruded gel, however, is much larger at
higher pressures. Additionally, pressure does not drop to the same value in all experiments. It
has been noticed that for a certain buildup value, there is an approximate lower value to which
pressure will drop after the maximum pressure is reached. These values are presented in table
26.

Table 26: Pressure drop values

Build-up Drop
[bar] [bar]
0 - 0,2 0,05- 0,1
0,2 - 1 0,1 - 0,25
1-3 0,5 - 0,7
3-8 0

Gel strength is reported as a series of pressure build- up values. Light blue colored cells, in
some tables, indicate that some gel was left in the tube at the end of pressure extrusion test. A
typical time step between pressure buildups is usually around 30 seconds or slightly more. If
pressure did not increase for several minutes, it was concluded that water has made a fracture
to flow freely and the gel is not able to re-structure itself to block water flow. In some cases,
even after a water breakthrough and a period of water flow, the gel would still be able to

- 71 -
block the flow and the experiment could be resumed. If such ―recovery‖ of the gel was not
observed, the experiment was abandoned and marked with light blue cells in tables where
results are displayed. Time shown in all tables refers to the time of the gel prior to the test.
This time is much longer than the gelation time.

5.3.1 Sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl

One point of worry for silicate/HCl systems is the gel’s tendency to have the same gel
strength for different HCl concentration. High concentrations of HCl were used in this test
and gels created at three different temperatures were tested. Table 27 presents pressure at each
buildup step for all tests.

Table 27: Pressure extrusion results for silicate/HCl systems

Temperature [°C] 25 60 80
HCl wt% 9,5 10,5 9,5 10,5 9,5 10,5
Time [hrs] 48 24 22 22 20 20
Rate [ml/min] 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5
Buildup step ΔP [bar]
1 0,41 0,65 0,32 0,23 0,64 0,93 1,08
0,43 1,15 0,21 0,51 0,31
2 0,77 1,20 0,77 0,68 1,54 1,91 2,51
0,31 4,80 0,26 0,45 0,58
3 1,90 2,10 1,06 1,22 1,44 1,75 5,59
0,23 6,85 0,33 0,49 0,59
4 4,29 3,29 2,38 2,00 1,66 3,59
0,32 6,77 0,30 0,55 0,64
5 3,98 3,84 3,45 2,80 3,00 3,35
0,30 7,10 0,36 0,61 0,77
6 4,23 4,11 4,02 3,65 2,78 4,28
0,50 0,44 0,67 0,72
7 4,21 1,22 5,04 0,46 0,51 0,60 0,71
8 0,58 0,48 0,71 0,81
9 0,61 0,63 0,72 0,38
10 0,43 0,67 0,62
11 0,48 0,70 0,32
12 0,47 0,58
13 0,43 0,54
14 0,32
15 0,22
Max ΔP 4,29 4,21 4,02 5,04 3,00 4,28 5,59 7,10 0,61 0,70 0,72 0,81

- 72 -
Results from table 27 imply that there is no significant correlation between gel strength and
HCl concentration. Temperature, however, plays a much bigger role here. ΔP values for 80°C
samples are much lower than the ones for lower temperature samples. This may be caused by
early syneresis or shrinkage of the total gel volume in the tube as it cools down. Some
shrinkage has been observed when test tube is cooled down to room temperature. An example
is shown in figure 31. In the upper panels of the figure 31, the initial state of gel is shown.
Pictures are taken right after the test tube is taken out from the oven, and both caps are
removed. The tube is then left in room temperature to cool down. Lower panels show the
testing tube when temperature is reduced from 60°C to 25°C. Shrinkage is clearly visible and
may be a cause for water flow between tube wall and gel. More elastic gels, however, seem to
be able to block water flow without an early breakthrough. This negative shrinkage effect is
most visible for hard gels at the highest temperatures.

Figure 31: Gel shrinkage when cooled down

- 73 -
A series of new 10,5 wt% HCl samples was made, but a polymer solution with different
polymer concentrations were used instead of distilled water. With addition of Xanthan
polymer, a more elastic gel was attempted to create. Presence of polymer had little, if any,
effect on gelation time. Table 28 presents measured pressure build- up data from the test.

Table 28: Pressure extrusion results for silicate/HCl systems with Xanthan

Temperature [°C] 60
Polymer ppm 500 750 1000
Time [hrs] 16 16 16
Rate [ml/min] 1,5 1,5 1,5
Buildup step ΔP [bar]
1 0,22 0,73 0,31 0,05 0,18 0,08
2 0,67 0,35 0,13 0,16 0,13 0,10
3 0,58 0,31 0,09 0,18 0,01 0,15
4 0,49 0,22 0,09 0,18 0,04 0,17
5 0,89 0,22 0,14 0,23 0,15 0,24
6 0,77 0,23 0,20 0,10 0,19 0,22
7 0,45 0,34 0,15 0,17 0,46
8 0,43 0,34 0,20 0,28 0,45
9 0,46 0,29 0,21 0,34 0,43
10 0,74 0,35 0,23 0,29 0,38
11 0,58 0,42 0,26 0,29 0,28
12 0,59 0,41 0,28 0,32 0,30
13 0,30 0,30 0,47
14 0,37 0,22 0,38
15 0,36 0,26
16 0,39
17 0,35
18 0,28
19 0,35
20 0,48
Max ΔP 0,89 0,73 0,48 0,28 0,34 0,47

By comparing the pressure buildup values from columns 4 and 5 in table 27 with table 28, it is
clear, that the presence of polymer has a negative effect on gel strength in this case. Gel
strength is strongly reduced. A cause for this reduction might be the structure of polymer

- 74 -
 molecules in water and inability of sodium silicate to properly capture these molecules and
create a strong network of particles. Further experiments including polymer were abandoned
except for one sample with glyoxal.

5.3.2 Sodium silicate crosslinked with glyoxal

It was stated in literature that concentration of glyoxal has a big effect on gel strength. First, a
gel consisting of 4 wt% sodium silicate concentration with different glyoxal concentrations
was tested. Results from pressure extrusion tests are presented in table 29.

Table 29: Pressure extrusion results for glyoxal samples

Temperature [°C] 60
Glyoxal wt% 2,5 3 4 6
Time [hrs] 48 48 23 20
Rate [ml/min] 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5
Buildup step ΔP [bar]
1 0,25 0,32 0,44 0,41 0,78 0,92 1,20 1,42
2 0,37 0,26 0,30 0,30 2,10 1,22 2,86 2,83
3 0,42 0,30 0,27 0,35 1,17 1,35 3,81 4,08
4 0,82 0,22 0,53 0,44 1,45 1,24 3,94 6,36
5 0,64 0,38 0,68 0,61 2,07 1,53 5,49 5,72
6 0,75 0,39 0,41 2,47 1,96 5,25 6,26
7 0,39 0,55 0,61 2,00 2,04 5,70 9,47
8 0,33 0,50 0,50 2,51 2,36 4,14 10,40
9 0,20 0,55 0,70 3,17 2,85
10 0,71 0,44 2,69 2,79
11 0,58 0,46
Max ΔP 0,82 0,71 0,68 0,70 3,17 2,85 5,70 10,40

Table 29 shows that gels are getting more rigid for systems with higher glyoxal
concentrations. ΔP value of 10,4 bar for 6 wt% glyoxal is the highest pressure drop applied
during the testing of gel strength for all systems.

- 75 -
Samples with lower concentrations were tested at higher temperature. At 25°C, gelation time
for samples with 2 and 2,5 wt% glyoxal was 315 and 53 hours respectively. It was interesting
to test, whether gels with such long gelation times at room temperatures, would have
sufficient strength at reservoir temperatures. Results obtained from this test are shown in table
30.

Table 30: Pressure extrusion results for low glyoxal concentrations

Temperature [°C] 80
Glyoxal wt% 2 2,5
Time [hrs] 14 13
Rate [ml/min] 1,5 1,5
Buildup step ΔP [bar]
1 0,13 0,13 0,46 0,30
2 0,16 0,15 0,52 0,43
3 0,17 0,10 0,22 0,42
4 0,22 0,10 0,43 0,29
5 0,19 0,18 0,10 0,29
6 0,18 0,14 0,10 0,29
7 0,18 0,15 0,35
8 0,13 0,13 0,39
9 0,23 0,12 0,40
10 0,22 0,16 0,30
11 0,22 0,12 0,41
12 0,31 0,10 0,37
13 0,22 0,15 0,37
14 0,28 0,24 0,39
15 0,21 0,46
16 0,20
Max ΔP 0,31 0,24 0,52 0,46

As table 30 indicates, gels are much weaker compared to gels with high glyoxal
concentrations. However, gel strength is comparable to HCl gels, formed at the same
temperature, as shown in columns 6 and 7 in table 27. From these results, it follows that a gel
with similar strength can be created by using glyoxal instead of high concentrations HCl.
Gelation times, on the other hand, are very different, especially at lower temperatures.

- 76 -
Salinity effect is evaluated by comparing the results of pressure extrusion tests for same
glyoxal and sodium silicate concentration with varying NaCl concentration. The results are
presented in table 31.

Table 31: Pressure extrusion results for salinity test

Temperature [°C] 60
NaCl wt% — 1 0,25
Glyoxal wt% 2,5 2,5 2,5
Time [hrs] 48 20 20
Rate [ml/min] 1,5 1,5 1,5
Build- up step ΔP [bar]
1 0,25 0,32 0,14 0,13 0,09 0,29
2 0,37 0,26 0,16 0,11 0,22 0,21
3 0,42 0,30 0,18 0,13 0,16 0,18
4 0,82 0,22 0,20 0,16 0,17 0,23
5 0,64 0,38 0,17 0,20 0,28 0,31
6 0,75 0,39 0,15 0,18 0,27 0,25
7 0,39 0,55 0,15 0,18 0,31 0,23
8 0,33 0,50 0,17 0,18 0,22 0,24
9 0,20 0,55 0,22 0,22 0,22 0,26
10 0,71 0,25 0,23 0,25 0,26
11 0,58 0,23 0,26 0,17 0,28
12 0,18 0,29 0,19 0,13
13 0,22 0,20 0,27
14 0,23 0,25 0,24
15 0,22 0,19
16 0,16 0,23
17 0,18 0,23
18 0,20 0,27
19 0,16 0,20
20 0,25
Max ΔP 0,82 0,71 0,25 0,29 0,31 0,31

Evidently, salinity, in addition of reducing gelation time, has a negative impact on gel
strength.

- 77 -
Finally, sodium silicate concentration effect on gel strength was tested. Visually, gels with
lower silicate concentrations (but higher than 1 wt%) were not identified as weaker and had a
nice ringing sound. The measured pressure data is presented in table 32.

Table 32: Pressure extrusion test results for silicate concentration test

Temperature [°C] 60
Silicate wt% 1 2 3 5 6
Glyoxal wt% 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5
Time [hrs] 30 30 30 30 30
Rate [ml/min] 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5
Buildup step ΔP
1 0,15 0,24 0,14 0,26 0,22 0,33 0,47 0,38 0,23 0,15
2 0,15 0,11 0,30 0,38 0,64 0,50 0,40 0,35 0,23 0,26
3 0,14 0,15 0,70 0,37 0,76 0,55 0,35 0,35 0,32 0,28
4 0,45 0,60 0,58 0,40 0,12 0,65 0,66 0,42 0,32 0,29
5 0,43 0,56 0,39 0,55 0,74 0,69 0,19 0,43 0,38 0,33
6 0,83 0,52 0,63 0,61 0,73 0,83 0,30 0,47 0,39 0,15
7 0,72 0,42 0,58 0,80 0,80 0,88 0,42 0,46 0,54 0,24
8 1,07 0,38 0,85 0,83 0,90 1,03 0,42 0,38 0,14 0,37
9 0,35 1,34 0,60 0,73 1,24 0,33 0,26 0,27 0,38
10 0,20 1,04 0,38 1,12 0,41 0,36 0,25 0,33
11 0,34 0,32 1,44 0,62 0,27 0,35
12 0,30 1,42 0,62 0,28 0,20
13 1,05 0,16
14 0,33
Max ΔP 1,07 0,60 1,34 0,83 1,44 1,24 0,66 0,47 0,54 0,38

Table 32 shows that higher silicate concentrations do not necessarily contribute to stronger
gels. This could probably be explained by an assumption that for each silicate concentration,
there should exist an optimal glyoxal concentration to create optimal gel strength. This
assumption should be investigated further with more samples and more accurate tests.

- 78 -
Results from all these tests show that this method to test gel strength is quite inaccurate and
should not be used as a base for gel design in a field trial. Core tests should give much more
accurate results, however, core tests are more expensive and time-consuming. The purpose of
gel bulk tests was to compare two different gel systems. Relative comparison results are quite
precise because procedures were consistent for every test.

- 79 -
6 Conclusions and Recommendations

In this thesis, a laboratory evaluation of sodium silicate for water management purposes was
carried out. The results obtained from the various experimental tests are summarized in this
section and the conclusions, based on the results obtained in this work, are presented.

1. For the glyoxal as a gelling agent in bulk gelation tests the following conclusions can
be stated:

 Gelation time is reduced with increasing glyoxal concentration.

 NaCl and CaCl2 have catalyst effect on gelation time.

 Ca2+ ion concentrations higher than 1000 ppm cause precipitation of calcium silicate.

 Temperature effects on gelation time can be described by Arrhenius equation for

temperatures higher than 25°C.

 Increased sodium silicate concentration tends to reduce gelation time, but no clear
correlation is developed.

 Equations for each scenario were developed and a general equation for gelation time
as a function of all variables was derived by measured data matching to the previously
derived formula.

 Solution pH was tested for both crosslinkers. For silicate/HCl systems, the start value
was the lowest value and pH increased with time. Opposite behavior was observed for
silicate/glyoxal systems. PH had its maximum value right after glyoxal was mixed in
the silicate solution. The pH then dropped to the minimum value and started
increasing slowly until gel was formed.

- 80 -
2. Gel strength of sodium silicate gel systems with both crosslinkers (HCl and glyoxal)
was tested. Gel strength was presented as pressure values at which the tested gel
integrity to sustain applied pressure is compromised either as the injected water
breakthrough or the gel being partially or totally displaced from the testing tube. These
values are relative and should only be used when gels are tested under similar
conditions. These conclusions were reached from gel strength measurements:

 HCl concentration does not have a significant effect on gel strength.

 Gel’s strength is reduced as the temperature increases.

 Addition of Xanthan polymer results in a reduction of the gel strength.

 Gel strength can be increased by higher glyoxal concentrations.

 An increase of silicate concentration only slightly increases gel strength when glyoxal
is used as a crosslinker.

3. Gelation times found in literature for sodium silicate crosslinked with HCl were
verified. The AcoustoSizer from Colloidal Dynamics was unable to measure particle
size distribution for sodium silicate gels obtained with HCl. Measured particle
diameter values deviated significantly from the expected ones.

4. Results from the tests, conducted in this work imply that gel properties vary
significantly dependent under which conditions the gel is formed. For example,
gelation times vary significantly with temperature and the gel strength can be adjusted
by adjusting glyoxal concentration. Gel formed by crosslinking sodium silicate with
glyoxal can be applied for zonal isolation, where gels need to have longer gelation for
deep placement and high gel strength close to the borehole to withstand high pressure
gradients. Additionally, near wellbore problems (casing repair, etc) can be solved by a
formation of very hard, cement-like substances created with high silicate and glyoxal
concentrations.

- 81 -
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MS.

20. Liang, J. T.; Sun, H.; Seright, R. S., Why Do Gels Reduce Water Permeability More

Than Oil Permeability?, SPE Reservoir Engineering 1995, SPE 27829-PA.

21. Iler, R. K., The Chemistry of Silica, Solubility,polymerization, Colloid and Surface

Properties, and Biochemistry. 1979.

22. Bol, G. M.; George, E. J.; Houben, R. J. H.; Howard, S. K., The Development of a

Silicate-based Drilling Fluid. Chemical in the Oil Industry, Recent Developments 1998.

23. Stavland, A.; Jonsbråten, H. C.; Vikane, O.; Skrettingland, K.; Fischer, H., In-depth

Water Diversion Using Sodium Silicate- Preparation for Single Well Field Pilot on Snorre. In

16th European Symposiumon Improved Oil Recovery, Cambridge, UK, 2011.

24. Wikipedia. Glyoxal. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyoxal (05.05.2011)

25. Gandon, L., Preparation of Silica Gels from Alkaline Silicates and Polyalcohol Esters.

United States Patent Office 1964, Patent number: 3,149,985.

26. Wikipedia. Esters. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester (05.05.2011)

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27. Vinot, B.; Schechter, R. S.; Lake, L. W., Formation of Water Solluble Silicate Gels by

the Hydrolysis of Diester of Dicarboxylic Acid Solubilized as Microemulsions. SPE

Reservoir Engineering 1989, SPE 14236.

28. Bryant, S. L.; Rabaioli, M. R.; Lockhart, T. P., Influence of Syneresis on Permeability

Reduction by Polymer Gels SPE Production & Facilities 1996, SPE 35446-PA.

29. Colloidal Dynamics, AcoustoSizer II Instruction Manual. 2011.

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 Appendix A
This appendix presents true compositions of all samples.

Sample number 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
HCl wt% 8,5 9 9,5 10 10,5 11
K40 [g] 7,1855 7,1789 7,2081 7,207 7,178 7,166
H2O [g] 38,562 38,327 38,001 37,8739 37,5104 37,358
2M HCl [g] 4,269 4,5127 4,16 5,0353 5,284 5,4949
Total 50,0165 50,0186 49,3691 50,1162 49,9724 50,0189
True K40 wt% 4,00 4,00 4,06 4,00 4,00 3,99
True HCl wt% 8,54 9,02 8,43 10,05 10,57 10,99

Sample number 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50
Glyoxal 4% wt% 2 2,5 3,5 4,5 6
Glyoxal 40% wt% 20 25 35 45 60
K40 [g] 7,1903 7,1785 7,1863 7,1874 7,1841
H2O [g] 41,8320 30,4034 25,5362 20,3481 12,8727
Glyoxal 4% [g] 0,0000 12,5489 17,5286 22,5190 30,0326
Glyoxal 40% [g] 1,0069 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000
Total 50,0292 50,1308 50,2511 50,0545 50,0894
True K40 wt% 4,0012 3,9866 3,9813 3,9976 3,9930
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 2,0126 2,5032 3,4882 4,4989 5,9958
True Glyoxal wt% 0,8050 1,0013 1,3953 1,7996 2,3983

Sample 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50
Glyoxal 4% wt% 25 25 25 25
NaCl [wt%] 1 0,5 0,2 0
K40 [g] 7,1800 7,1816 7,1900 7,1785
H2O [g] 30,3083 30,3195 30,3192 30,4034
Glyoxal 4 % [g] 12,5030 12,5069 12,4959 12,5489
NaCl [g] 0,5027 0,2621 0,1002 0,0000
Total 50,4940 50,2701 50,1053 50,1308
True K40 wt% 3,9587 3,9772 3,9950 3,9866
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 2,4761 2,4879 2,4939 2,5032
True Glyoxal wt% 0,9905 0,9952 0,9976 1,0013
True NaCl wt% 0,9956 0,5214 0,2000 0,0000

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Sample 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5
Water type Distilled Distilled Distilled Tap Distilled
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50
Glyoxal 4% wt% 25 25 25 25 25
CaCl2 [ppm] 1000 500 200 12 0
K40 [g] 7,1942 7,2225 7,1976 7,1923 7,1785
H2O [g] 30,4150 30,3213 30,3287 30,3160 30,4034
Glyoxal 4 % [g] 12,5098 12,5039 12,5062 12,5060 12,5489
CaCl2 [g] 0,0490 0,2520 0,0110 0,0000 0,0000
Total 50,1190 50,0477 50,0325 50,0143 50,1308
True K40 wt% 3,9962 4,0177 4,0050 4,0035 3,9866
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 2,4960 2,4984 2,4996 2,5005 2,5032
True Glyoxal wt% 0,9984 0,9994 0,9998 1,0002 1,0013
True CaCl2 [ppm] 977,6731 5035,1964 219,8571 0,0000 0,0000

Sample 5-1 5-2 5-3

Sample size [g] 50 50 50
4% Glyoxal [wt%] 25 25 25
NaCl [wt%] 1 0,5 0,2
CACl2 [ppm] 0 200 500
K40 [g] 7,1766 7,1875 7,1992
H2O [g] 30,1953 30,0979 29,862
Glyoxal 4 % [g] 12,5067 12,512 12,4974
NaCl [g] 0,1023 0,2606 0,5014
CaCl2 [g] 0,0257 0,0115 0
Total 50,0066 50,0695 50,06
True K40 wt% 4,00 4,00 4,00
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 2,50 2,50 2,50
True Glyoxal wt % 1,00 1,00 1,00
NaCl [wt%] 0,20 0,52 1,00
CaCl2 [ppm] 513,93 229,68 0,00

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Sample 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6
Water type Distilled tap Distilled Tap Distilled Distilled
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
40% Glyoxal wt% 2 2 2,5 2,5 6 0
HCl wt% 0 0 0 0 0 11
K40 [g] 7,1903 7,1909 7,1785 7,1923 7,1841 7,1660
H2O [g] 41,8320 41,8700 30,4034 30,3160 12,8727 37,3580
Glyoxal 4% [g] 0,0000 12,5489 12,5060 30,0326 0,0000
Glyoxal 40% [g] 1,0069 1,0067 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000
HCL [g] 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 5,4949
Total 50,0292 50,0676 50,1308 50,0143 50,0894 50,0189
True K40 wt% 4,0012 3,9985 3,9866 4,0035 3,9930 3,9885
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 2,0126 2,0107 2,5032 2,5005 5,9958 0,0000
True Glyoxal wt% 0,8050 0,8043 1,0013 1,0002 2,3983 0,0000
True HCl wt% 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 10,9856

Sample 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4

Water type Distilled Tap Distilled Tap
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50
4% Glyoxal wt% 2 2 2,5 2,5
K40 [g] 7,1856 7,1770 7,1785 7,1923
H2O [g] 41,8076 41,8754 30,4034 30,3160
Glyoxal 4% [g] 0,0000 0,0000 12,5489 12,5060
Glyoxal 40% [g] 1,0064 1,0159 0,0000
Total 49,9996 50,0683 50,1308 50,0143
True K40 wt% 4,0010 3,9907 3,9866 4,0035
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 2,0128 2,0290 2,5032 2,5005
True Glyoxal wt% 0,8051 0,8116 1,0013 1,0002

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Sample 1% silicate 2% silicate 3% silicate 4% silicate 5% silicate 6% silicate
Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
Glyoxal 40% [g] 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5
K40 [g] 1,8061 3,5972 5,3854 7,1863 8,9965 10,7644
H2O [g] 46,4560 44,6902 42,8656 25,5362 39,3303 37,4845
Glyoxal 40% [g] 1,7520 1,7544 1,7536 1,7589 1,7553
Glyoxal 4% [g] 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 17,5286 0,0000 0,0000
Total 50,0141 50,0418 50,0046 50,2511 50,0857 50,0042
True K40 wt% 1,0054 2,0012 2,9983 3,9813 5,0007 5,9931
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 3,5030 3,5059 3,5069 3,4882 3,5118 3,5103
True Glyoxal wt% 1,4012 1,4023 1,4028 1,3953 1,4047 1,4041

Sample 1% silicate 2% silicate 3% silicate 4% silicate 5% silicate 6% silicate

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
Glyoxal 40% [g] 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5
K40 [g] 1,8110 3,5966 5,3741 7,1904 9,0010 10,7614
H2O [g] 45,9450 44,1694 42,2978 40,4987 38,9971 36,9741
Glyoxal 40% [g] 2,2541 2,2499 2,2509 2,2519 2,2549 2,2471
Total 50,0101 50,0159 49,9228 49,9410 50,2530 49,9826
True K40 wt% 1,0082 2,0020 2,9969 4,0083 4,9865 5,9940
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 4,5073 4,4984 4,5088 4,5091 4,4871 4,4958
True Glyoxal wt% 1,8029 1,7993 1,8035 1,8036 1,7948 1,7983

Sample 1% silicate 2% silicate 3% silicate 4% silicate 5% silicate 6% silicate

Sample size [g] 50 50 50 50 50 50
Glyoxal 40% [g] 6 6 6 6 6 6
K40 [g] 1,8071 3,6001 5,3671 7,1877 8,9871 10,9110
H2O [g] 45,1980 43,4410 41,5870 39,9900 37,8541 36,1748
Glyoxal 40% [g] 3,0100 2,9971 3,0250 3,0190 3,0010 2,9874
Total 50,0151 50,0382 49,9791 50,1967 49,8422 50,0732
True K40 wt% 1,0059 2,0030 2,9897 3,9864 5,0199 6,0664
True Glyoxal 40% wt% 6,0182 5,9896 6,0525 6,0143 6,0210 5,9661
True Glyoxal wt% 2,4073 2,3958 2,4210 2,4057 2,4084 2,3864

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 Appendix B
This appendix presents some pictures to show differences between different gel types and
stages of the gelation process.

The initial state of all samples is shown, here sodium silicate is crosslinked with glyoxal and
picture is taken right after crosslinking.

The same samples are shown below. From left, sample is still at gel code 0, in the middle, gel
code 1 is reached and gel code 3 is shown on the right side.

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Here, samples with 2,5 wt% glyoxal are shown after forming a relatively clear gel at 80°C.
Distilled water is replaced by tap water in sample on the right side of the picture.

The same concentrations as the above, but gelling took place at 25°C. The samples are much
cloudier. Distilled water is replaced by tap water in sample on the right side of the picture.

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Samples with high glyoxal concentrations are shown below. Concentrations are (from left to
right) 4, 6 an 8 wt% glyoxal. The gelaltion of these samples is almost immediate (<20 min)

Below, samples with 3,5 wt% glyoxal are shown. Silicate concentration is increased (from left
to right) 1-6 wt%

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A better illustration of how clear the samples with low silicate concentrations are is presented
below. Sample on the left side of the picture has 2 wt% silicate, the other one- 1 wt%.m
Glyoxal concentration is 3,5 wt% in both samples.

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Finally, two identical samples are compared. The one on the left side has gelled at room
temperature, the other one at 60°C. They both were mixed at the same time. The picture is
taken 20 hrs after mixing. Gelation time at 25°C is ~3hrs, at 60°C ~20 minutes.

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