Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6:

IPV4 IPV6
IPv4 has 32-bit address length IPv6 has 128-bit address length
It Supports Manual and DHCP address
It supports Auto and renumbering address configuration
configuration
In IPv4 end to end connection integrity is
In IPv6 end to end connection integrity is Achievable
Unachievable
Address space of IPv6 is quite large it can produce 3.4×1038
It can generate 4.29×109 address space
address space
Security feature is dependent on application IPSEC is inbuilt security feature in the IPv6 protocol
Address representation of IPv4 in decimal Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal
Fragmentation performed by Sender and
In IPv6 fragmentation performed only by sender
forwarding routers
In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not In IPv6 packetflow identification are Available and uses flow
available label field in the header
In IPv4 checksumfield is available In IPv6 checksumfield is not available
It has broadcast Message Transmission In IPv6 multicast and any cast message transmission scheme is
Scheme available
In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication facility
In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are provided
not provided
IPv4 has header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has header of 40 bytes fixed

TCP/Ip AND OSI

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the
functions of the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by
Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI
model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1.Process/Application Layer
2.Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3.Internet Layer
4.Network Access/Link Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows :
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 5 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries
TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer
OSI uses different session and presentation layers.
in the application layer itself.
TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance delivery of
assurance delivery of packets. packets.
TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connection less and connection oriented both services are
connection less services. provided by network layer in OSI model.
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered and is easy
model. to replace with the change in technology.

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IPv4 Classless Subnet equation

Prerequisite – Classless Addressing, Supernetting
Problem – How to calculate IP address subnet information (Network, Broadcast, First IP, Last IP)?
It’s too simple equation to calculate IPv4 Subnet Network ID.
*Used and Tested with Class C Subnets.
First Of All, Keep this Subnet Hosts Map in mind (Number of Hosts per Prefix):
Network Prefix: Number of IPs
24 : 256 IPs
25 : 128 IPs
26 : 64 IPs
27 : 32 IPs
28 : 16 IPs
29 : 8 IPs
30 : 4 IPs

Using Equation:
Network ID: floor(Host Address/Subnet Number of Hosts) * Subnet Number of Hosts
Broadcast ID: (Host ID + (Subnet Number of Hosts-1))
First Host: Network ID + 1
Last Host: Broadcast ID - 1

Ex1: 192.168.1.65/28:

65/16 = 4.0625
Network ID: 4*16 = 64 (192.168.1.64)
Broadcast ID: 64+(16-1) = 79 (192.168.1.79)
First Host ID: 64 + 1 = 65 (192.168.1.65)
Last Host ID: 79 - 1 = 78 (192.168.1.78)

Ex2: 192.168.20.166/25:
166/128 = 1.296875
Network ID: 1*128 = 128 (192.168.20.128)
Broadcast ID: 128+(128-1) = 255 (192.168.20.255)
First Host ID: 128 + 1 = 129 (192.168.20.129)
Last Host ID: 255 - 1 = 254 (192.168.20.254)

Supernetting in Network Layer

Supernetting is the opposite of Subnetting. In subnetting, a single big network is divided into
multiple smaller subnetworks. In Supernetting, multiple networks are combined into a bigger
network termed as a Supernetwork or Supernet.
Supernetting is mainly used in Route Summarization, where routes to multiple networks with similar
network prefixes are combined into a single routing entry, with the routing entry pointing to a Super
network, encompassing all the networks. This in turn significantly reduces the size of routing tables
and also the size of routing updates exchanged by routing protocols.
More specifically,
• When multiple networks are combined to form a bigger network, it is termed as super-netting
 • Super netting is used in route aggregation to reduce the size of routing tables and routing table
updates
There are some points which should be kept in mind while supernetting:
1. All the Networks should be contiguous.
2. The block size of every networks should be equal and must be in form of 2n.
3. First Network id should be exactly divisible by whole size of supernet.
Example – Suppose 4 small networks of class C:

200.1.0.0,
200.1.1.0,
200.1.2.0,
200.1.3.0

Build a bigger network which have a single Network Id.

Explanation – Before Supernetting routing table will be look like as:
NETWORK ID SUBNET MASK INTERFACE
200.1.0.0 255.255.255.0 A
200.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 B
200.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 C
200.1.3.0 255.255.255.0 D
First, lets check whether three condition are satisfied or not:
1. Contiguous: You can easily see that all network are contiguous all having size 256 hosts.
Range of first Network from 200.1.0.0 to 200.1.0.255. If you add 1 in last IP address of first
network that is 200.1.0.255 + 0.0.0.1, you will get the next network id that is 200.1.1.0.
Similarly, check that all network are contiguous.
2. Equal size of all network: As all networks are of class C, so all of the have a size of 256 which
in turn equal to 28.
3. First IP address exactly divisible by total size: When a binary number is divided by 2n then last
n bits are the remainder. Hence in order to prove that first IP address is exactly divisible by
while size of Supernet Network. You can check that if last n v=bits are 0 or not.
In given example first IP is 200.1.0.0 and whole size of supernet is 4*2 8 = 210. If last 10 bits of
first IP address are zero then IP will be divisible.

Last 10 bits of first IP address are zero (highlighted by green color). So 3rd condition is also
satisfied.
Therefore, you can join all these 4 networks and can make a Supernet. New Supernet Id will be
200.1.0.0.
Advantages of Supernetting –
1. Control and reduce network traffic
2. Helpful to solve the problem of lacking IP addresses
3. Minimizes the routing table
Disadvantages of Supernetting –
• It cannot cover different area of network when combined
• All the networks should be in same class and all IP should be contiguous
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Introduction of MAC Address in Computer Network

In order to communicate or transfer the data from one computer to another computer we need
some address. In Computer Network various types of address are introduced; each works at
different layer. Media Access Control Address is a physical address which works at Data Link Layer.
In this article, we will discuss about addressing in DLL, which is MAC Address.

Media Access Control (MAC) Address –

MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a computer, which is embedded into

network card (known as Network Interface Card) during the time of manufacturing. MAC Address is
also known as Physical Address of a network device. In IEEE 802 standard, Data Link Layer is
divided into two sublayers –
1. Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer
2. Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer
MAC address is used by Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of Data-Link Layer. MAC Address is
word wide unique, since millions of network devices exists and we need to uniquely identify each.
Format of MAC Address –

MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which is mostly represented
by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. First 6-digits (say 00:40:96) of MAC Address identifies the
manufacturer, called as OUI (Organizational Unique Identifier). IEEE Registration Authority
Committee assign these MAC prefixes to its registered vendors.
Here are some OUI of well known manufacturers :

CC:46:D6 - Cisco
3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD

Routing Algorithms (Distance Vector, Link State) Study Notes

Routing:
•Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic.
•Goals of routing are correctness, simplicity, Robustness, Stability, Fairness and Optimality.
•Routing is performed for many kinds of network, including the telephone network, electronic data
networks and transportation networks. 
•Routing Algorithms can be classified based on the following:
•Static or Dynamic Routing,
•Distributed or Centralized,
•Single path or Multi-path,
•Flat or Hierarchical,
•Intra Domain or Inter-Domain,
•link State or Distance Vector.
Nonadaptive Routing 
•Once the pathway to destination has been selected, the router sends all packets for that destination
along that one route.
•The routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology of the network. 
•Examples: Centralized, Isolated, and Distributed Algorithms

Adaptive Routing
•A router may select a new route for each packet (even packets belonging to the same transmission) in
response to changes in condition and topology of the networks.
•Examples: Flooding, and Random Walk.
Routing Algorithms
Shortest Path Routing:

•Links between routers have a cost associated with them. In general, it could be a function of distance,
bandwidth, average traffic, communication cost, mean queue length, measured delay, router processing
speed, etc.
 •The shortest path algorithm just finds the least expensive path through the network, based on the cost
function.
•Examples: Dijkstra's algorithm
Distance Vector Routing:
•In this routing scheme, each router periodically shares its knowledge about the entire network with its
neighbours.
•Each router has a table with information about the network. These tables are updated by exchanging
information with the immediate neighbours.
•It is also known as Belman-Ford or Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm.
•It is used in the original ARPANET, and in the Internet as RIP.
•Neighbouring nodes in the subnet exchange their tables periodically to update each other on the state
of the subnet (which makes this a dynamic algorithm). If a neighbour claims to have a path to a node
which is shorter than your path, you start using that neighbour as the route to that node.
Link State Routing:
•The following sequence of steps can be executed in the Link State Routing.
•The basis of this advertising is a short packed called a Link State Packet (LSP).
•OSPF (Open shortest path first) and IS-IS are examples of Link state routing.
•Link State Packet(LSP) contains the following information:
1.The ID of the node that created the LSP;
2.A list of directly connected neighbours of that node, with the cost of the link to each
one;
3.A sequence number;
4.A time to live(TTL) for this packet.
•When a router floods the network with information about its neighbourhood, it is said to be
advertising.
1.Discover your neighbours
2.Measure delay to your neighbours
3.Bundle all the information about your neighbours together
4.Send this information to all other routers in the subnet
5.Compute the shortest path to every router with the information you receive
6.Each router finds out its own shortest paths to the other routers by using Dijkstra's
algorithm.
Flooding Algorithm:
•It is a non-adaptive algorithm or static algorithm.
•When a router receives a packet, it sends a copy of the packet out on each line (except the one on
which it arrived).
•To prevent from looping forever, each router decrements a hop count contained in the packet header.
•As soon as the hop count decrements to zero, the router discards the packet.
Flow-Based Routing Algorithm:
•It is a non-adaptive routing algorithm.
•It takes into account both the topology and the load in this routing algorithm;
•We can estimate the flow between all pairs of routers.
•From the known average amount of traffic and the average length of a packet, you can compute the
mean packet delays using queuing theory.
•Flow-based routing then seeks to find a routing table to minimize the average packet delay through
the subnet.
Given the line capacity and the flow, we can determine the delay. It needs to use the formula for delay time T.
 •Where, μ = Mean number of arrivals in packet/sec, 1/μ = The mean packet size in the bits, and c =
Line capacity (bits/s).
 
The Optimality Principal: This simple states that if router J is on the optimal path form router I to router k,
then the optimal path from J to K also falls along this same path.