Python Introduction

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What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created in 1991 by Guido
van Rossum.

It is used for:

 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.

What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi,
etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
  Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very
quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-orientated way or a
functional way.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed to for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as the
scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages often
use curly-brackets for this purpose.

 Python Syntax
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Execute Python Syntax

As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by
writing directly in the Command Line:
>>> print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!
Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py
 Python Indentations
Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for
readability only, in Python the indentation is very important.
 Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.
Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
Run example »

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
Run example »

Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.
Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:
Example
Comments in Python:
#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")
Python Variables
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Creating Variables
Unlike other programming languages, Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type and can even change type after they
have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9,
and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)
Output Variables
The Python print statement is often used to output variables.

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:

Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:

Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z = x + y
print(z)

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)

If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)
Python Numbers
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Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.
Example
Integers:

x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.

Example
Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

Example
Floats:
x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Run example »

Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example
Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Python Casting

Specify a Variable Type

There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal

(by rounding down to the previous whole number), or a string literal
(providing the string represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal
or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals

Example
Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1 result : 1

y = int(2.8) # y will be 2 result : 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3 result : 2

Example
Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Example
Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

String Literals
String literals in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or
double quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

Strings can be output to screen using the print function. For

example: print("hello").

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays
of bytes representing unicode characters. However, Python does not have a
character data type, a single character is simply a string with a length of 1.
Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1]) // result : e
Example
Substring. Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5]) // result : llo

Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Example
The len() method returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10

or Returns True if one of the statements is true x < 5 or x < 4

not Reverse the result, returns False if the result not(x < 5 and x < 1
is true
Python Identity Operators
Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns true if both variables are the same x is y

object

is not Returns true if both variables are not the same x is not y
object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x in y

present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x not in y

not present in the object
Python Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits

<< Zero fill left Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the leftmost
shift

>> Signed right Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from the left,
shift rightmost bits fall off
Python Lists
Python Collections (Arrays)
There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed.
No duplicate members.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that

type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

List
A list is a collection which is ordered and changeable. In Python lists are written
with square brackets.

Example
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist) // result : = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
Access Items
You access the list items by referring to the index number:

Example
Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1]) // result : = banana

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist) // result : = [“apple”,”blackcurrant”,”banana”,”cherry”]

Loop Through a List

You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x) // result : = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

You will learn more about for loops in out Python For Loops Chapter.

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

List Length
To determine how many items a list have, use the len() method:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist)) // result : = 3
Add Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist) // result : = [“apple”,”banana”,”cherry”,”orange”]

To add an item at the specified index, use the insert() method:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist) // result : = [“apple” ,”orange”,”banana”,”cherry”]

Remove Item
There are several methods to remove items from a list:

Example
The remove() method removes the specified item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist) // result : = [“apple”, ”cherry”]
Example
The pop() method removes the specified index, (or the last item if index is not
specified):

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop()
print(thislist) // result : = [“apple” ,”banana”]

Example
The del keyword removes the specified index:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist) // result : = [“banana”, ”cherry”]

Example
The del keyword can also delete the list completely:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist
print(thislist) #this will cause an error because "thislist" no longer
exists.

Example
The clear() method empties the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist) // result : = [ ]
The list() Constructor
It is also possible to use the list() constructor to make a list.

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thislist) // result : = [“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”]

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Python Tuples

Tuple
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. In Python tuples are
written with round brackets.

Example
Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple) // result : = (“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”)

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

Example
Return the item in position 1:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1]) // result : = banana
Change Tuple Values
Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples
are unchangeable.

Example
You cannot change values in a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

thistuple[1] = "blackcurrant"
# The values will remain the same:
print(thistuple) // result : = (“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”)

Loop Through a Tuple

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

// result : =

Apple

Banana

Cherry
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

// result : ("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple"

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a list have, use the len() method:

Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple)) // result : = 3

Add Items
Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it. Tuples are unchangeable.

Example
You cannot add items to a tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
thistuple[3] = "orange" # This will raise an error
print(thistuple)

Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thistuple) // result : = (“apple”, “banana”, “cherry”)
Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of whe

Python Sets
Set
A set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. In Python sets are
written with curly brackets.

Example
Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

//result : {“banana”, “cherry”, “apple”}

# Refresh this page to see the change in the result

Note: Sets are unordered, so the items will appear in a random order.

# Note: the set list is unordered, meaning: the items will appear in a random
order.

# Refresh this page to see the change in the result

Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index, since sets are
unordered the items has no index.

But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified
value is present in a set, by using the inkeyword.

Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

//result :

Apple

Banana

Cherry
Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

//result : true

Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Add Items
To add one item to a set use the add() method.

To add more than one item to a set use the update() method.

Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)

// result : {“banana”, “cherry”, “apple”, “orange”}

Example
Add multiple items to a set, using the update() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.update(["orange", "mango", "grapes"])

print(thisset)

// result : {'banana', 'grapes', 'cherry', 'mango', 'orange', 'apple'}

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set have, use the len() method.

Example
Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))

//result : 3
Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

// result :{ “apple”, “cherry” }

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset) // result : {“cherry”,”apple”}

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop(), method to remove an item, but this method will
remove the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know
what item that gets removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x) // result : apple

{'banana', 'cherry'}

print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you will not know
which item that gets removed.

Example
The clear() method empties the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

// result : set()
Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset) // result : print(thisset) #this will raise an error

because the set no longer exists

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thisset) // result : {'banana', 'cherry', 'apple'}
Python Dictionaries

Dictionary
A dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. In
Python dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and they have keys and
values.

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict) // result : {'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year':
1964}

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict["model"] // result : Mustang

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model") // result : Mustang

Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:

Example
Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018 // result : {'brand': 'Ford', 'model':
'Mustang', 'year': 2018}

Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the
dictionary, but there are methods to return thevalues as well.
Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)

// result :

brand
model
year

Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])

//result :

Ford
Mustang
1964

Example
You can also use the values() function to return values of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
// result :

Ford
Mustang
1964

Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() function:

for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)

// result :

brand Ford
model Mustang
year 1964

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

// result :
Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items (key-value pairs) a dictionary have, use
the len() method.

Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

// result : 3

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning
a value to it:

Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

// result : red

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)

//result :

{'brand': 'Ford', 'year': 1964}

Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a
random item is removed instead):
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)

// result :

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang'}

Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

// result :

{'brand': 'Ford', 'year': 1964}

Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
 "model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer
exists.

// result :

Example
The clear() keyword empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)

// result : { }

The dict() Constructor

It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a dictionary:
Example
thisdict = dict(brand="Ford", model="Mustang", year=1964)
# note that keywords are not string literals
# note the use of equals rather than colon for the assignment
print(thisdict)

// result :

{'brand': 'Ford', 'model': 'Mustang', 'year': 1964}

Python If ... Else

Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if

statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example
If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

// result : b is greater than a

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if
statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know
that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope in the code.
Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not
true, then try this condition".

Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

// result : a and b are equal

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but
the elif condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding
conditions.

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

// result : a is greater than b

In this example a is greater to b, so the first condition is not true, also

the elif condition is not true, so we go to theelse condition and print to screen
that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
// result : a is greater than b
Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as
the if statement.

Example
One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

// result : "a is greater than b"

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can
put it all on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement:

print("A") if a > b else print("B")

// result : B

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

// result : =
And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

if a > b and c > a:

print("Both conditions are True")

// result : Both conditions are True

Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions are True")

// result : At least one of the conditions are True

Python While Loops

Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition
is true.

Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

// result :

5
Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need
to define an indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is
true:

Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1

// result :

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue
with the next:
Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i = 0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

// result:

6
Python For Loops

Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a
dictionary, a set, or a string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming language, and works
more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming
languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a
list, tuple, set etc.

Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

// result :

apple
banana
cherry
The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

// result :

b a n a na

//display output one bye one

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all
the items:

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
 if x == "banana":
break

// result :

Apple

Banana

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the
print:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

// result :

Apple

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and
continue with the next:

Example
Do not print banana:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

//result :

Apple

Cherry

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by

default, and increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example
Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

// result :

1
2

Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to

specify the starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means
values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):

Example
Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

// result :

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is

possible to specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2,
30, 3):
Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)

// result :

2
5
8
11
14
17
20
23
26
29

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when
the loop is finished:

Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

// result :
0
1
2
3
4
5
Finally finished!

Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":

Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

// result :

red apple
red banana
red cherry
big apple
big banana
big cherry
tasty apple
tasty banana
tasty cherry

Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call
itself.

Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that

a function calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through
data to reach a result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to
slip into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess
amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to
programming.

In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call

itself ("recurse"). We use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1)
every time we recurse. The recursion ends when the condition is not greater
than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works,
best way to find out is by testing and modifying it.

Example
Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k>0):
result = k+tri_recursion(k-1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)
// result :

Recursion Example Results

1
3
6
10
15
21
Python Functions

A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

// result : Hello from a function

Parameters
Information can be passed to functions as parameter.

Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You
can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one parameter (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function
to print the full name:

Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

// result :

Emil Refsnes
Tobias Refsnes
Linus Refsnes

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without parameter, it uses the default value:

Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)
my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

// result :

I am from Sweden
I am from India
I am from Norway
I am from Brazil

Return Values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

// result :

15

25

45
Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have
one expression.

Syntax
lambda arguments : expression

The expression is executed and the result is returned:

Example
A lambda function that adds 10 to the number passed in as an argument, and
print the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

// result : 15

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example
A lambda function that multiplies argument a with argument b and print the
result:

x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

// result : 30
Example
A lambda function that sums argument a, b, and c and print the result:

x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

//result : 13

Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous
function inside another function.

Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument
will be multiplied with an unknown number:

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number
you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))

// result : 22
Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the
number you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

// result : 33Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the
same program:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

// result

22

33

Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short

period of time.
Python Arrays

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python lists can be
used instead.

Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example
Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

// result : ['Ford', 'Volvo', 'BMW']

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.

If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in
single variables could look like this:

car1 = "Ford";
car2 = "Volvo";
car3 = "BMW";

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And
what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the
values by referring to an index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example
Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

// result : Ford

Example
Modify the value of the first array item:

cars[0] = "Toyota"

// result : ['Toyota', 'Volvo', 'BMW']

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements
in an array).

Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

// result : 3
Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.

Example
Print each item in the cars array:

for x in cars:
print(x)

// result :

Ford
Volvo
BMW

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example
Add one more element to the cars array:

cars.append("Honda")

// result:

['Ford', 'Volvo', 'BMW', 'Honda']

Removing Array Elements
You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:

cars.pop(1)

// result:

['Ford', 'BMW']

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

cars.remove("Volvo")

// result :

['Ford', 'BMW']

Note: The remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified
value.
Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.
Python Iterators

Python Iterators
An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.

An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can
traverse through all the values.

Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator

protocol, which consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().

Iterator vs Iterable
Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are
iterable containers which you can get an iterator from.

All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an iterator:

Example
Return a iterator from a tuple, and print each value:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
// result :

apple
banana
cherry

Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example
Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:

mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

// result:
b
a
n
a
n
a
Looping Through an Iterator
We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:

Example
Iterate the values of a tuple:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in mytuple:
print(x)

// result :

apple
banana
cherry

Example
Iterate the characters of a string:

mystr = "banana"

for x in mystr:
print(x)

// result:

b
a
n
a
n
a
The for loop actually creates in iterator object and executes the next() method
for each loop.

Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the
methods __iter__() and __next__() to your object.

As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have a
function called __init__(), which allows you do some initializing when the
object is being created.

The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.),
but must always return the iterator object itself.

The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the
next item in the sequence.

Example
Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will
increase by one (returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))

// result:

1
2
3
4
5

StopIteration
The example above would continue forever if you had enough next()
statements, or if it was used in a for loop.

To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use

the StopIteration statement.

In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an error

if the iteration is done a specified number of times:

Example
Stop after 20 iterations:

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self
 def __next__(self):
if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

for x in myiter:
print(x)

//result:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Python Classes and Objects
Python Classes/Objects
Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x = 5

// result : <class '__main__.MyClass'>

Create Object
Now we can use the class named myClass to create objects:

Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

// result : 5
The __init__() Function
The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not really
useful in real life applications.

To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in __init__()

function.

All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the class is
being initiated.

Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other operations
that are necessary to do when the object is being created:

Example
Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for name and
age:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)

// result :

John

36

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being
used to create a new object.
Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belongs to the
object.

Let us create a method in the Person class:

Example
Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

// result : Hello my name is John

Note: The self parameter is a reference to the class instance itself, and is used to
access variables that belongs to the class.

The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the class itself, and is used to access variables
that belongs to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be
the first parameter of any function in the class:

Example
Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:
class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age

def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

// result : Hello my name is John

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:

Example
Set the age of p1 to 40:

p1.age = 40

// result: 40

Delete Object Properties

You can delete properties on objects by using the del keyword:

Example
Delete the age property from the p1 object:

del p1.age

// result :
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "demo_class7.py", line 13, in <module>
print(p1.age)
AttributeError: 'Person' object has no attribute 'age'

Delete Objects
You can delete objects by using the del keyword:

Example
Delete the p1 object:

del p1

//result:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "demo_class7.py", line 13, in <module>
print(p1.age)
AttributeError: 'Person' object has no attribute 'age'

Types of Inheritance in Python

In the last tutorial we learned about Inheritance and how a child class can inherit a parent class to
utilise its properties and functions.

What if a class want to inherit more than one class? Or it it possible to inherit a class, which already
inherits some other class? To answer these questions, lets see the different types of Inheritance.

In Python, there are two types of Inheritance:

1. Multiple Inheritance
2. Multilevel Inheritance
Python - Multiple Inheritance
Multiple Inheritance means that you're inheriting the property of multiple classes into one. In case
you have two classes, say A and B, and you want to create a new class which inherits the properties
of both A and B, then:
class A:
# variable of class A
# functions of class A

class B:
# variable of class B
# functions of class B

class C(A, B):

# class C inheriting property of both class A and B
# add more properties to class C

So just like a child inherits characteristics from both mother and father, in python, we can inherit
multiple classes in a single child class.

As you can see, instead of mentioning one class name in parentheses along with the child class, we
have mentioned two class names, separated by comma ,. And just to clear your doubts, yes, you
can inherit as many classes you want. Therefore, the syntax should actually be:
class A(A1, A2, A3, ...):
# class A inheriting the properties of A1, A2, A3, etc.
# You can add properties to A class too

Python - Multilevel Inheritance

In multilevel inheritance, we inherit the classes at multiple separate levels. We have three
classes A, Band C, where A is the super class, B is its sub(child) class and C is the sub class of B.
Here is a simple example, its just to explain you how this looks in code:
class A:
# properties of class A

class B(A):
# class B inheriting property of class A
# more properties of class B

class C(B):
# class C inheriting property of class B
# thus, class C also inherits properties of class A
# more properties of class C
Python Try Except

The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.

The except block lets you handle the error.

The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try- and
except blocks.

Exception Handling
When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop and generate
an error message.

These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:

Example
The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:

try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")

// result :

An exception occurred

Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.

Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:

Example
This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:

print(x)

//result:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "demo_try_except_error.py", line 3, in <module>
print(x)
NameError: name 'x' is not defined

Many Exceptions
You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to execute a
special block of code for a special kind of error:

Example
Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other errors:

try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")

//result:

Variable x is not defined

Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no errors
were raised:

Example
In this example, the try block does not generate any error:

try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")

//result :

Hello
Nothing went wrong

Finally
The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block raises an
error or not.

Example
try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")

//result:

Something went wrong

The 'try except' is finished
Python File Open
File handling is an important part of any web application.

Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.

File Handling
The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.

The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.

There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:

"r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not exist

"a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist

"w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist

"x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists

In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode

"t" - Text - Default value. Text mode

"b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)

Syntax
To open a file for reading it is enough to specify the name of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt")

The code above is the same as:

f = open("demofile.txt", "rt")
Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need to
specify them.

Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get an error.

Python File Open

Open a File on the Server
Asume we have the following file, located in the same folder as Python:

demofile.txt

Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt

This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!

To open the file, use the built-in open() function.

The open() function returns a file object, which has a read() method for reading the
content of the file:

Example
f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

//result:

Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt

This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!
Read Only Parts of the File
By default the read() method returns the whole text, but you can also specify how
many character you want to return:

Example
Return the 5 first characters of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read(5))

//result: hello

Read Lines
You can return one line by using the readline() method:

Example
Read one line of the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())

//result : Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt

By calling readline() two times, you can read the two first lines:

Example
Read two lines of the file:
f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())
print(f.readline())

//result:

Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt

This file is for testing purposes.

By looping through the lines of the file, you can read the whole file, line by line:

Example
Loop through the file line by line:

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
for x in f:
print(x)

//result:

Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt

This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!
Python File Write

Write to an Existing File

To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:

"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file

"w" - Write - will overwrite any existing content

Example
Open the file "demofile.txt" and append content to the file:

f = open("demofile.txt", "a")
f.write("Now the file has one more line!")

Example
Open the file "demofile.txt" and overwrite the content:

f = open("demofile.txt", "w")
f.write("Woops! I have deleted the content!")

Note: the "w" method will overwrite the entire file.

Create a New File

To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with one of the following
parameters:

"x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error if the file exist

"a" - Append - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

"w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file does not exist
Example
Create a file called "myfile.txt":

f = open("myfile.txt", "x")

Result: a new empty file is created!

Example
Create a new file if it does not exist:

f = open("myfile.txt", "w")

Python Delete File

Delete a File
To delete a file, you must import the OS module, and run its os.remove() function:

Example
Remove the file "demofile.txt":

import os
os.remove("demofile.txt")

Check if File exist:

To avoid getting an error, you might want to check if the file exist before you try to
delete it:

Example
Check if file exist, then delete it:
import os
if os.path.exists("demofile.txt"):
os.remove("demofile.txt")
else:
print("The file does not exist")

Delete Folder
To delete an entire folder, use the os.rmdir() method:

Example
Remove the folder "myfolder":

import os
os.rmdir("myfolder")

Note: You can only remove empty folders.