Module 1 – Descriptive Statistics

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. discuss the applications of descriptive and inferential statistics as
experienced by the students in their workplace;
2. plan for an quantitative action research that focuses to answer the
pressing problems in their workplace;
3. create a data file in preparation for data processing and analysis in the
succeeding lessons.

Introduction

Based from the feedback of students, Statistics is a dreaded subject since it deals with
abstract numerical data. Furthermore, they said they are not adept in working with numbers,
their meanings and interpretations. The beginner who is not quite familiar with the different
statistical terms and concepts would seemingly find the subject like learning a foreign language,
although once learned it will not for long remain entirely foreign. Along with Mathematics in
general, Statistics shares the ordinary symbols for numerical operations. Thus, much of the
vocabulary is already known to the students. As for the new concepts, their meanings will
unfold as the students continuously use them.

Much of the literature in any specialized field, particularly those dealing with research,
contains statistical symbols, ideas and concepts. Therefore, it is necessary to build an adequate
vocabulary for statistics. Students are required to understand better the vocabulary in statistics
so that they can follow through with the succeeding lessons. When students are familiar with the
language and vocabulary in statistics, they will look forward to the subsequent lessons as
enjoyable and meaningful.

What is Statistics?

Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organizing,

summarizing, presenting and analyzing data as well as deriving valid conclusions and making
reasonable decisions on the basis of this analysis. Statistics is concerned with the systematic
collection of numerical data and its interpretation (Bruce, A. & Bruce, P., 2017).  It is a method
of dealing with numerical data.
 Statistics could be descriptive indicating various methods of describing data, and it could
be inferential that is modeling relationships among variables Descriptive Statistics are numerical
measures that describe a distribution by providing information on the central tendency of the
distribution, the width of the distribution, and the shape of the distribution (Jackson, 2012).
Descriptive statistics includes statistical procedures used to describe the population or group
being studied. The results cannot be generalized to any larger group. The data could be collected
from either a sample or a population, but the results help one to organize and describe data.

Griffin, B. (2000) posited that descriptive statistics are used to describe data in a succinct
and understandable way. Descriptive statistics are summary indicators of larger groups of data.
The example illustrates how descriptive statistics may be used to reduce large amounts of
information into a few summary indicators--thus reducing class scores to a class average. Two
important summary methods for data are measures of central tendency (typical or average
scores) and measures of dispersion (variability or spread of scores).

Descriptive Statistics describes data e.g. a chart or graph and inferential statistics allows

one to make predictions or “inferences” from that data. With inferential statistics, one takes data
from samples  and makes generalizations about a population. For example, one might stand in a
mall and ask a sample of 100 people if they like shopping at Robinsons. One could make a bar
chart of yes or no responses (descriptive statistics) or one could use the data to reason
(inferential statistics), that around 75-80% of the population (all shoppers in all malls) like to
shop at Robinsons.

Example 1: Of 150 randomly selected students at Bukidnon State University Graduate

School, 75 of them had Master of Education major in Educational
Administration. Some examples of descriptive statistics are the following
statements: First, "20% of these students are taking Public Administration as
their major."  Second, “12% of these students are taking Mathematics
Education as their major”; and third, 10% of these students are taking
English Language Teaching as their major.

Example 2. If we measure the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of all the graduate students
enrolled in the Graduate School program of Bukidnon State University and
calculate its mean, that mean is a descriptive statistics because it describes
the characteristics of a complete population.

Example 3. The average grade of a random sample of 50 students in Statistical Methods

taken from the different majors during the first semester of a school year
before this semester was 1.5 with a standard deviation of 0.20. These two
values, 1.5 and 0.20 are called descriptive statistics because they describe the
properties of a sample by major.
 In a random sample, members of the population are selected in such a way that each has
an equal chance of being selected. In the second example, the population is the total number of
students enrolled in Graduate School program, while in the third example the average grade and
the standard deviation are considered.

Inferential Statistics is a set of procedures for drawing conclusions about a population

based on the data collected from a sample (Jackson, 2012). Inferential statistics makes
predictions or inferences about a population from observations and analyses of a sample.
Inferential statistics is a statistical method that deduces from a small but representative sample
the characteristics of a bigger population. In other words, it allows the researcher to make
assumptions about a wider group, using a smaller portion of that group as a guideline. The use of
a sample data to make generalizations or inferences about a population is the primary concern of
inferential statistics together with judgments (inferences) about a population based on the
properties of some sample obtained from the population.

Inferential statistics is concerned with making predictions or inferences about a

population from observations and analyses of a sample. That is, one can take the results of an
analysis using a sample and can generalize it to the larger population that the sample represents.
In order to do this, however, it is imperative that the sample is representative of the group to
which it is generalized.

To address this issue of generalization, we have tests of significance. A t-test or Analysis

of Variance (ANOVA), for example, can tell us the probability that the results of our analysis on
the sample are representative of the population that the sample represents. In other words, these
tests of significance tell us the probability that the results of the analysis could have occurred by
chance when there is no relationship at all between the variables studied in the population
studied.

Example 1:  Of 150 randomly selected students at Bukidnon State University Graduate
School, 75 people had the Master of Education major in Educational
Administration. An example of descriptive statistics is the following
statement: "50% of these people have the Educational Administration
major." 

We have no information about all the students at Bukidnon State University

Graduate School. We have taken that information and generalized it to talk
about all students in BSU Graduate School program. The easiest way to tell
that this statement is not descriptive is by trying to verify it based upon the
information provided. 

Example 2. If we wish to make a statement about the mean IQ of all students in the
Graduate School program of the Bukidnon State University computed on a
sample of 150 students and estimate the error involved, we use the procedure
from inferential statistics.
 Example 3. A researcher randomly selected 600 college students from the College of
Education, College of Arts and Sciences, College of Business, and College
of Arts and Sciences. Each college is well represented using the stratified
random sampling with proportionate allocation. If the average grade from
each school will be compared by the researcher, inferential statistics
procedure will be done.

Terms and Concepts

Some terms and concepts often used in statistics are the following:

Variable and Constant

Variable refers to a characteristics or phenomenon which may take on different values.

In addition, a variable is something that has two or more meaningful and useful divisions,
categories, characteristics, or values (Grimm & Wozniak, 1990). A variable is defined as
anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more values. Because variable
represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually magnitude or strength, it may be
said that a variable generally is anything that may assume different numerical or categorical
values.

Types of Variable

1. Continuous and Discontinuous  variables

Variables have different properties and to these properties we assign numerical values. If
the values of a variable can be divided into fractions then we call it a continuous variable.
Income, temperature, age, or a test score are examples of continuous variables. Continuous
variables can take on an unlimited number of values between the lowest and highest points of
measurement. Continuous variables include such things as speed and distance.

Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided
into fractions, is a discontinuous variable. Such a variable is also called as categorical variable
or classificatory variable or discrete variable. Discrete data are associated with a limited number
of possible values. Gender or rank is an example of a discrete variable because there are a limited
number of mutually exclusive options. There are others that can take added categories such as
demographic variables of race, religion, education and others. All such variables that produce
data that fit into categories are said to be discrete/categorical/classificatory, since only certain
values are possible.

2.  Dependent and Independent Variables
Researchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then search
for its causes. The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on
something else, is the independent variable. The variable that is the effect or is the results or
outcome of another variable is the dependent variable (also referred to outcome variable or effect
variable.
The independent variable (X) is “independent of” prior causes that act on it, whereas the
dependent variable “depends on” the cause. It is not always easy to determine whether a
variable is independent or dependent. Dependent variable (Y) is also referred to as criterion
variable. Independent variable: What the scientist changes or what changes on its
own. Dependent variable: What is being studied/measured. The independent variable (sometimes
known as the manipulated variable) is the variable whose change is not affected by any
other variable in the experiment

A variable is contrasted with a constant. The two main variables in an experiment are

the independent and dependent variable. An independent variable is the variable that is changed
or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent
variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.t, the value of which
never changes.

Example: pi, , is a constant, which always takes the value of 3.1416….

e is euler’s constant, which always take the value of 2.71828…

Parameters and Estimates

Parameters are descriptive measures of an entire population. However, their values are

usually unknown because it is infeasible to measure an entire population. Because of this, you
can take a random sample from the population to obtain parameter estimates. Parameter is any
characteristic of the population which is measurable. It is a numerical measurement describing
some characteristic of a population. Usually, parameter or population values are unknown. We
estimate them from sample values. In statistical notation, the Greek letters (e.g.,  and σ are
to represent population parameters).

Example 1. The grade point average and standard deviation of all students in the
Graduate School of Bukidnon State University are examples of parameters.

Example 2. The average weekly amount spent by all the students of Bukidnon State
University.

Example 3. The average monthly income of all the Graduate School Faculty of Central
Mindanao University.

Estimate or statistic is calculated from a sample in order to estimate the population

parameter. It is a numerical summary of the sample data. We shall employ the Roman letters
(X and s) to represent estimates. Different symbols are used for parameters and statistics.
 Example 1. The grade point average and standard deviation (x and s) of a random
sample of 50 students in the School of Graduate Studies are examples of
parameters.

Example 2. The average weekly amount spent by all the students of Bukidnon State
University

Matrix 2.
Some common notations of the characteristics with the corresponding parameters and statistics

Characteristic Parameter Statistic

_
Mean μ , mu X
Standard deviation σ s
Variance σ 2
s2
Pearson Correlation Coefficient ℜ r
Number of Cases N n

The Nature of Data

Some data sets consist of numbers (e.g. heights, scores in the test, etc.) and others are non-
numerical (e.g. gender). The terms quantitative and qualitative data are often used to distinguish
between these two types.

Quantitative data consists of numbers representing counts or measurements.

Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection
methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys– online surveys,
paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews,
longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations (Wyse, S.,
2011). Quantitative data can be described by distinguishing between the discrete and continuous
types. Discrete data result from either a finite number of possible values or countable number of
possible values. The number of possible values is 0, or 1, or 2 and so on. Continuous data result
from infinitely many possible values that can be associated with points on a continuous scale in
such a way that there are no gaps or interruptions. When data represent counts, they are discrete;
when they represent measurements, they are continuous. The number of students in the class is
discrete data; the amount each one has in the wallet now are continuous data because they are
measurements that can assume any value over a continuous span.

Quantitative data are used for quantitative research. Quantitative Research is used to
quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into
useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables
– and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable
data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are
much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.

Another way to classify data is to use four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio.

The nominal level of measurement is characterized by data that consist of names, labels,
or categories only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme (such as low to high).
The simplest measurement scale is termed nominal or classificatory. A nominal measurement
scale is one in which the researcher assigns different numbers to mutually exclusive categories.
Mutually exclusive categories are those in which all observations are assigned to the same
category and have a similar characteristic, and they differ on the basis of a specific characteristic
from observations in other categories. The categories of nominal variables do not differ by
quantity, degree, or amount, but only by kind.

Example 1. The two categories of the nominal variable “gender” (male and female) are
distinct, do not overlap, include possible sexes, and cannot be ordered or
ranked.

Example 2. The same would be true of the nominal variable “region” which might be
broken into the categories of NCR, Region I, Region II, Region III, Region
IV, Region V, Region VI, Region VII, Region VIII, Region IX, Region X,
Region XI, Region XII, and ARMM, etc.

Example 3. Also, the nominal variable “province” which might be broken down into the
categories of Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and etc.

Example 4. Furthermore, the nominal variable “soft drinks brand” is distinct and cannot
be ordered or ranked.

Nominal scales represent the lowest level of measurement because they allow you only to
count and compare the number of cases in each category.

Other examples of nominal scales are given below:

The numbers on baseball players’ uniforms are nominal in nature.

In Social Science research, groups in sample are commonly labeled with numbers (such
as 1 = Matigsalog, 2 = Talaandig, 3 = Higaonon, 4 = Manobo). However, when these numbers
have been attached to categories, averaging the numbers together is not usually advisable. On
the scale for ethnic groups, the average score of 1.87 would have no meaning.
 The ordinal measurement scales involves data that may be arranged in some order, but
differences between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless. The ordinal
measurement scales classify people or things into types or kinds, but with one additional
feature. Here, the classes or categories can be ranked. Ordinal categories are distinct, mutually
exclusive, and exhaustive, but they are also orderable in terms of quantity, magnitude, or some
other criteria. In other words, ordinal measurement scales have the property of magnitude but
not the property of equal intervals for the property of absolute 0. It allows us to rank individuals
or objects but not to say anything about the meaning of the differences between the ranks.

Example. For example, the three categories of the ordinal scale “social classes” (upper,
middle, and lower) are distinct, do not overlap, include the entire range of
social class, and can be ranked: The upper class is higher than the middle
class and the middle class is higher than the lower class. No statement can be
made however about the amount of difference between categories. The
differences between upper and middle and between middle and lower are not
calculable. Another example is ranking students GPA. If you ranked 1 st in a
class of 400, the rank could indicate greater than or less than, but not how
much higher or lower.

Example 2. The same would be true for the four categories of the ordinal scale “year
level” in the secondary education which includes first year, second year, third
year and fourth year.

Example 3. A search for junior mathematicians screening committee ranks Dina 3 rd,
Mercy 7th, and Kim 10th. We can find a difference between ranks of 3 and 7,
but the difference of 4 does not mean anything.

The interval level of measurement is like the ordinal level, with the additional property
that we can determine meaningful amounts of differences between data. However, there is no
inherent (natural) zero starting point (where none of the quantity is present.

Although the categories of nominal and ordinal scales cannot be further subdivided on a
measurement scale, the values of interval permit distances and differences between values on a
scale to be considered or measured. Some social researchers even distinguish between interval
and ratio scales. In both cases interval scales are of equal size. Whereas with interval scales
there is an arbitrary zero point, however, with ratio variables there is a true zero point where zero
is equivalent to a total absence of the variable.

Example 1. For example, time measured by calendars temperature on the Fahrenheit

scale, and intelligence by IQ scores are interval variables because zero values
do not mean the total absence of time, temperature, or intelligence,
respectively.

Example 2. Students’ scores in the college admission test and their grades in the card are
interval measurement scale.
 The ratio level of measurement scale is the interval level modified to include the inherent
zero starting point (where zero indicates that none of the quantity is present). For values at this
level, differences and ratios are both meaningful.

Example 1. Age, income, and urbanization (percent of a population living in urban

places) are ratio variables because zero values do indicate a total absence of
those attributes.

Example 2. Distances (in miles) traveled by cars in a test of fuel consumption.

Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured

techniques. Some common methods include focus group discussions (FGDs), in-depth
interviews, key informant interviews, and participation observation. The sample size is typically
small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota. Qualitative Research is primarily
exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and
motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for
potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and
opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.

Exercise 1

Part I. Individual Output of a real study on the applications of descriptive and inferential
statistics.

1. Each student must share in the class and submit a real example of a research where
descriptive and inferential statistics are used.

2. Each student will submit a plan on the quantitative action research he/she is going to do
focusing on the applications of the descriptive and inferential statistics.

Part II. Create a data file.

 1. Brown bag session on how to create a data file.

2. Each student is required to create a data file related to his field of specialization. The
data file should contain at least two (2) of each level of measurement scale with a
minimum of 50 cases. The data file will be used in the whole duration of the course.

References:

Anderson, S. W. (2001). Statistics for Business Economics. Ninth Edition.

International Thomson Publishing.

Agresti & FInaly (2013). Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences, 3rd edition.
Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

Fraenkel, J.R. & Wallen, N.E. (2006) How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education. Sixth edition, McGrawHill Companies, Inc.

Gardner, R.C. (2001). Psychological Statistics Using SPSS for Windows. New Jersey
; Prentice Hall International

Itaas, E. C., et al, (2010). Statistics for Graduate School. Published by Central
Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon Press.

Itaas, E. C., (2013). Statistical Methods. Published by Bukidnon State University,

Malaybalay City, Bukidnon Press.

Itaas, E. C., (2020). Statistics: Methods and Applications. Published by Bukidnon

State University, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon Press.

An Introduction to Statistics @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyj

Introduction to Statistics @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= LMSyi

Statistics Made Easy https://www.youtube.com/watch?

http://onlinestatbook.com/rvls/index.html

http://www.youtube.com/user/statisticsfun