UNIT-I

MATRICES
Matrix : A system of mn numbers real (or) complex arranged in the form of an ordered set
of ‘m’ rows, each row consisting of an ordered set of ‘n’ numbers between [ ] (or) ( ) (or) || ||
is called a matrix of order m xn.
a11 a12 .........a1n
 
a21 a12 .........a 2n
Eg: .........................  =[aij]mxn where 1≤i≤m,1≤j≤n.

......................... 
a m1 a m2.......... amn 
m xn
Order of the Matrix: The number of rows and columns represents the order of the matrix. It
is denoted by mxn, where m is number of rows and n is number of columns.
Types of Matrices:
Row Matrix: A Matrix having only one row is called a “Row Matrix”.
Eg: 1 2  1x3
Column Matrix: A Matrix having only one column is called a “Column Matrix” .
1 
 
Eg: 1 
2  3x1
Null Matrix: A= aij such that aij=0 i and j. Then A is called a “Zero Matrix”. It is
mxn
denoted by Omxn.
Eg:
RectangularMatrix:If A=  aij mxn, and m n then the matrix A is called a “Rectangular
Matrix”
1 1 2
Eg : is a 2x3matrix
2 0 4

SquareMatrix:IfA=aij mxn and m = n then A is called a “Square Matrix”.
1 1 
Eg :  is a 2x2 matrix
2 2
Lower Triangular Marix: A square Matrix AnXn aij nxn is said to be lowerTriangular

of aij = 0 if i <j i.e. if all the elements above the principle diagonal are zeros.
4 0 0

Eg: 
5 2 0 is a Lower triangular matrix
7 3 6
Upper Triangular Matrix: A square Matrix A aij nxn is said to be upper triangular of

aij = 0 if i.>j. i.e. all the elements below the principle diagonal are zeros.
 1 3 8 

Eg: 0 4 5 is an Upper triangular matrix

0 0 2
Triangle Matrix: A square matrix which is either lower triangular or upper triangular is
called a triangle matrix.
Principal Diagonal of a Matrix: In a square matrix, the set of all aij, for which i = j are
called principal diagonal elements. The line joining the principal diagonal elements is called
principaldiagonal.
Note: Principal diagonal exists only in a square matrix.
Diagonal elements in a matrix: A= [aij]nxn, the elements aij of A for which i = j.
i.e. a11, a22….ann are called the diagonal elements of A
1 2 3
Eg: A= 4 5  diagonal elements are 1, 5, 9
 6 
7 8 9

Diagonal Matrix: A Square Matrix is said to be diagonal matrix,if aij = 0 for ij i.e.all

the elements except the principal diagonal elements arezeros.

Note: 1. Diagonal matrix is both lower and uppertriangular.
2. If d1, d2…….dn are the diagonal elements in a diagonal matrix it can be
represented as diagd1,d2,.,dn
 3 0 0 
Eg : A = diag(3,1,-2)=  
0 1 0 
0 0 2

Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose leading diagonal elements are equal is called a
2 0 0
“ScalarMatrix”. Eg :A=  
0 2 0 
0 0 2

Unit/Identity Matrix: If A = aij such that aij=1 for i = j, and aij=0 for i j then A is
nxn

called a “Identity Matrix” or Unit matrix. It is denoted byIn

1 0 0
1 0 
I2 = ; I3= 
Eg: 0 1 0
0 1 
0 0 1
Trace of Matrix: The sum of all the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called Trace
of a matrix A, and is denoted by Trace A or trA.
 a h g 

Eg : A = h b f then tr A = a+b+c

 g f c 
Singular & Non Singular Matrices: A square matrix A is said to be “Singular” if the
determinant of │A│= 0, Otherwise A is said to be “Non-singular”.
Note: 1. Only non-singular matrices possess inverse.
2. The product of non-singular matrices is alsonon-singular.
Inverse of a Matrix: Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n if there exist a matrix B
such that AB=BA=I then B is called the inverse of A and is denoted byA-1.
If inverse of a matrix exist, it is said to be invertible.
Note: 1. The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix to posses inverse is that
|A| ≠ 0.
2 .Every Invertible matrix has unique inverse.
3. If A, B are two invertible square matrices then AB is also invertibleand

AB
1
B 1 A1

4.
A1  where detA  0 ,
adjA
det A 

Theorem: The inverse of a Matrix if exists is Unique.

Note: 1. (A-1)-1=A 2. I-1 =I
Theorem: If A, B are invertible matrices of the same order, then
(i). (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
(ii). (A1)-1 = (A-1)1
Sub Matrix: - A matrix obtained by deleting some of the rows or columns or both from the
given matrix is called a sub matrix of the given matrix.
1 5 6 7 
Eg: Let A = 8 9 10 5 . Then8 9 10 is a sub matrix of A obtained by deleting first
  3 4 5 
 2x3
3 4 5 1 

row and 4th column of A.

Minor of a Matrix: Let A be an mxn matrix. The determinant of a square sub matrix of A is
called a minor of the matrix.
Note: If the order of the square sub matrix is ‘t’ then its determinant is called a minor of
order ‘t’.
 2 1 1
 1 2 
Eg: A=  3  be a 4x3 matrix
1 2 3
 
5 6 7 
2 1
Here B=[ ] is a sub-matrix of order‘2’
3 1
B = 2-3 = -1 is a minor of order ‘2

2 1 1
And C= [3 1 2] is a sub-matrix of order‘3’
5 6 7
det C = 2(7-12)-1(21-10)+(18-5) = -9
Properties of trace of a matrix: Let A and B be two square matrices and be any scalar
1) tr ( A) = (tr A) ; 2) tr(A+B) = trA + trB ; 3) tr (AB) =tr(BA)
Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A Such that A2=A then A is called “Idempotent
Matrix”.
1 0
Eg: A=[ ]
0 1
Involutary Matrix: A square matrix A such that A2 = I then A is called an Involutary
Matrix.
0 1
Eg: A=[ ]
1 0
Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Nilpotent if there exists a + ve integer n
such that An = 0 here the least n is called the Index of the Nilpotent Matrix.
1 0
Eg: A=[ ]
0 0
Transpose of a Matrix: The matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of the
given matrix A is called as transpose of the given matrix A. It is denoted by AT or A1
1 2 1 3
Eg: A=[ ] Then AT=[
]
3 4 2 4
Properties of transpose of a matrix: If A and B are two matrices and AT , BT are their
transposes then

1)AT A ; 2)AB  ATB T; 3) KA  KAT ; 4)AB  B TAT

T T T T

Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be symmetricif AT A

If Aaij  then AT a ji nxn where aij a ji

nxn

a h g
Eg: h  is a symmetric matrix
 b f 
 g f c
 Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Skew symmetric If AT A .
If A a thenAT  a where a a
ij nxn ji nxn ij ji
.
0 a  b

Eg : a 0  is a skew – symmetricmatrix
 c 
b c 0

Note: All the principle diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are always zero.
Since aij = -aij aij = 0
Theorem: Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of symmetric and
skew symmetric matrices.
1
Proof: Let A be a square matrix, A = AA= 1

A AT A AT = 
2 2
1
2
 1
 
AAT  AAT
2
 =P+Q,whereP=
1
AA
2
;Q= T 1
2
A AT 


Thus every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of two matrices.

 
T
1  1
Consider PT AAT  AAT  ATAT =1AAT=P, sinceP P,
T 1 T T

2  2 2 2

P is symmetric

 
T

ConsiderQT1AAT   AAT  ATAT =-

1 T 1 T
1
A A = - Q
T

2  2 2 2

Since QT Q , Q is Skew-symmetric.

To prove the representation is unique:LetA=R+S1 be the representation, where R is

symmetric and S is skew symmetric. i.e. RT R, ST S

Consider ATRSTRTS TRS 2 



1 2 A AT 2S S  A AT Q

1
2
Therefore every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix

Ex. Express the given matrix A as a sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrices
2 4 9
where 
A= 14 7 13
 
9 5 11


 2 14 3
Solution: 
A  4
T
7 5 
 
9 3 11

4 10 12 1 2 5 6
AAT 10 14 18P AAT5 7 9 ;Pissymmetric
  2  
1218 22 6 911
0 18 6 0 93
A AT18 0 8Q AA9 0 4;Qisskewsymmetric
1
  2  
6 8 0 3 4 0
2 5 6 0 93
Now A =P+Q = 5 7 9+9 0 4
   
6911 340
 


Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be an Orthogonal Matrix if AAT=ATA=I,

Similarly we can prove that A=A-1 ; Hence A is an orthogonal matrix.
Note: 1. If A, B are orthogonal matrices, then AB and BA are orthogonal matrices.
2. Inverse and transpose of an orthogonal matrix is also an orthogonal matrix.
Result: If A, B are orthogonal matrices, each of order n then AB and BA are orthogonal
matrices.
Result: The inverse of an orthogonal matrix is orthogonal and its transpose is also orthogonal

Solved Problems : 
cos sin 
1. Show that A= 
cos
is orthogonal.
sin 

Sol: Given A = cos sin   then AT= cos  sin 
 sin  cos
 sin  cos
 
 Consider A.AT = cos sin  cos  sin 
 sin  cos sin  cos


=cos sin   cossincossin 1 0
2 2

sincoscossin cos2 sin2  =  I

 0 1
   
A is orthogonal matrix.
1 2 2 
1
2. Prove that thematrix 2 1 2 is orthogonal.
3 
2 2 1


 1 2 2 1 2 2

1
Sol: Given A = 2 1 2  Then AT= 12 1 2 
3  3 
2
 2 1
 2
 2 1


11 2 2 1 2 0 0  0

= 1 9
2 10
1 2  0 9 0 = 0 1
Consider A .AT = 2 1 2 2 0 = I
9
   9   
2 2 1 2 2 1 0 0 9 0 0 1

⇒ A.AT = I
Similarly AT .A = I

Hence A is orthogonal matrix

4. Is matrix 4 3 1 Orthogonal?
 
 3 1 9

2 31 2 43
Sol:- Given A=4 3 1 3 3 1
 
3 1 9 1 1 9

2 3 12 4 3 14 0 0



4 3 13 3 1 =0 26 0 I3
    
 3 1 91 1 9 0 0 91


I 3

Matrix is not orthogonal.

Complex matrix: A matrix whose elements are complex numbers is called a complex
matrix.
Conjugate of a complex matrix: A matrix obtained from A on replacing its elements by the
corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called conjugate of a complex matrix. It is
denoted byA

If Aaij mxn,A aij , where aij is the conjugate of aij .

mxn
2 3i 5 
Eg: If A=  23i 5 
6  7i 5i A = 67i 5i  
then
   


Note: If A and B be the conjugate matrices of A and B respectively, then

(i) A  =A (ii) A B =A +B (iii)KA=KA

Transpose conjugate of a complex matrix: Transpose of conjugate of complex matrix is

called transposed conjugate of complex matrix. It is denoted by A or A* .

Note: If Aand Bbe the transposed conjugates of A and B respectively, then

(i)A =A
 
(ii)AB  AB
 
(iii)KA  K A (iv)AB  AB 

Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Hermitian Matrix iff AA.

  
Eg: A=  4 13i
  then A =  4 13i  and Aθ=  4 13i 
13i 7 13i 7 13i 7
     
Note: 1. In Hermitian matrix the principal diagonal elements are real.
2. The Hermitian matrix over the field of Real numbers is nothing but real symmetricmatrix.

3. In Hermitian matrixA= aij nxn, aijajii,j.

Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Skew-Hermitian Matrixiff

AA.
3i 2 i
2i and
Eg: Let A= 
2 i i
then 3i
A = 2i


i  T 3i
A  2i
2i 
i 
     

 A is skew-Hermitian matrix.
T
 A =-A

Note: 1. In Skew-Hermitian matrix the principal diagonal elements are either Zero or Purely
Imaginary.
 2. The Skew- Hermitian matrix over the field of Real numbers is nothing but real
Skew - Symmetricmatrix.

3. In Skew-Hermitian matrixA= aij , aija jii,j.

nxn

Unitary Matrix: A Square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix iff

AAA A I or AA1
1  4
B  2  4i
Eg: 2 4i 
6  4 
Theorem1: Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of Hermitian and
skew – Hermitian Matrices.

1 1 1
A (2A) (AA) (AAAA) 2 2
Proof: - Let A be a square matrixwrite 2
1 1
A  ( A A)  ( A A)i.eA P Q
2 2

Let P  A A ;Q  A A

1 1
2 2
 1   1
Consider P  ( A A )  ( A A) ( A A) P
2  2

I.e. PP, P is Hermitian matrix.


1
Q  ( A A) 
  A A 2
 1  1
2 ( A A) Q
2 

Ie QQ,Q is skew – Hermitian matrix.

Thus every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of Hermitian & Skew Hermitian
matrices.

To prove such representation is unique:

Let A =R+S -------- (1) be another representation of A where R is Hermitian matrix&
S is skew – Hermitian matrix.
R R; SS

Consider A(R S)RSR S . IeAR A  (2)

 1 2 AA2RieR AAP
1
2
1
1 2 AA2SieS AA Q
2
 
Thus every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of Hermitian & skew
Hermitian matrices.

Solved Problems :

 
T
 B =-B
B= iA is a skew Hermitian matrix.
2). If A and B are Hermitian matrices, prove that AB-BA is a skew-Hermitianmatrix.
Sol: Given A and B are Hermitanmatrices

  
T T
 A AAnd B B --------------------- (1)

Now AB BA  ABBA  

T T

 
T
 ABB A

       A   A  B 
T T T T T T
 AB  B A  B

BA AB (By (1))

  AB BA

Hence AB-BA is a skew-Hemitian matrix.

aic b id 
3). Show that A= is unitary if and only ifa2+b2+c2+d2=1
bid a ic

aic


Sol:GivenA= b id 
bid a ic


 Then A  aic bid
bid a ic


T 


 
Hence A  A   a ic b id 
bid aic


a ic  bidaic b id 
AA
 aicbid 

b id  a ic 
=a b c d  
2 2 2 2
0
0 a2 b2c 2d2 
 
AAI if and only if a2 b2 c2 d 2  1

 0 12i 
,showthatIAIA  isaunitarymatrix.
1
4) GiventhatA=
 12i 0 
 

 1
Sol: we have I A  0  0 1 2i

0 1  12i
   0 

1 12i  And
 12i 1 
 

1
I A  0  0 1 2i

0 1  12i
   0 


 1 12i
= 12i 1 
 

(I A)1  1 1 12i

 
14i 21 12i 1 

612i
 1 
11 12i
 


 IAIA is a unitarymatrix.
1

5) Show that the inverse of a unitary matrix is unitary.

Sol: Let A be a unitary matrix. Then AAI

i.e AA I1

1

 
1
 A A1I

 

 A1 A1 I

Thus A1 is unitary.

Rank of a Matrix:
Let A be mxn matrix. If A is a null matrix, we define its rank to be ‘0’. If A is a non-zero
matrix, we say that ‘r’ is the rank of A if
i. Every (r+1)th order minor of A is ‘0’ (zero)&
ii. At least one rth order minor of A which is not zero.
It is denoted by (A) and read as rank ofA.
Note: 1. Rank of a matrix is unique.
2. Every matrix will have arank.
3. If A is a matrix of order mxn, then Rank of A ≤ min(m,n)
4. If ρ (A) = r then every minor of A of order r+1, or minor iszero.
5. Rank of the Identity matrix In isn.
6. If A is a matrix of order n and A is non-singular then ρ (A) =n
7. If A is a singular matrix of order n then (A) <n
Important Note:
1. The rank of a matrix is ≤ r if all minors of (r+1) th order arezero.
2. The rank of a matrix is ≥ r, if there is at least one minor of order ‘r’ which is not equalto
zero.
1 2 3
1. Find the rank of the givenmatrix  
3 4 4 
 Given matrix A=  
1 2 3   
3 4 4 Sol:
710 12
7 10 12

det A = 1(48-40)-2(36-28)+3(30-28) = 8-16+6 = -2 ≠ 0

We have minor oforder3 ∴ρ (A)=3
1 2 3 4
2. Find the rank of thematrix 5 6 7 
 8 
8 7 0 5 

Sol: Given the matrix is of order 3x4

Its Rank ≤ min(3,4) = 3
Highest order of the minor will be 3.
1 2 3 
Let us consider the minor 5 6 7 
 
8 7 0 

Determinant of minor is 1(-49)-2(-56) + 3(35-48) = -49+112-39 = 24 ≠ 0.

Hence rank of the given matrix is ‘3’.
Elementary Transformations on a Matrix:
i). Interchange of ith row and jth row is denoted by Ri ↔ Rj
(ii). If ith row is multiplied with k then it is denoted by RikRi
(iii). If all the elements of ith row are multiplied with k and added to the corresponding
elements of jth row then it is denoted by Rj Rj+kRi

Note: 1. The corresponding column transformations will be denoted by writing ‘c’. i.e
ci↔cj, cikcj cj cj + kci
2. The elementary operations on a matrix do not change its rank.
Equivalance of Matrices: If B is obtained from A after a finite number of elementary
transformations on A, then B is said to be equivalent to A.It is denoted as B~A.
Note : 1. If A and B are two equivalent matrices, then rank A = rank B.
2. If A and B have the same size and the same rank, then the two matrices are equivalent.
Elementary MatrixorE-Matrix: A matrix is obtained from a unit matrix by a single
elementary transformation is called elementary matrix orE-matrix.
Notations: We use the following notations to denote the E-Matrices.
1) Eij Matrix obtained by interchange of ith and jth rows(columns).

2) Eik Matrix obtained by multiplying ith row (column) by a non- zero numberk.

3) Eijk Matrix obtained by adding k times of jth row (column) to ith row(column).

Echelon form of a matrix:

A matrix is said to be in Echelon form, if
(i) Zero rows, if any exists, they should be below the non-zerorow.
(ii) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row is equal to‘1’.
(iii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the number of
such zeros in the nextrow.
Note : 1. The number of non-zero rows in echelon form of A is the rank of ‘A’.
1. The rank of the transpose of a matrix is the same as that of originalmatrix.
2. The condition (ii) isoptional.
 1 0 00 is a row echelon form.
Eg: 1.  
01 0 0 
 
0 0 1 1
 
0 0 0 0 

1  3 1
2.  is a row echelon form.
0 1 
 1
0 0 0 


Solved Problems :
2 3 7
1. Find the rank of the matrix A= 3  2 4 by reducing it to Echelon form.
 

 2 3 7 
1  3 1 

Sol: Given A =  Applying row transformations on A.

 
32 4 
 
1 31

1  3 1
R1 ↔R3 3 2 4 
A~  
2 3 7

1  3 1 
R2 → R2 –3R1; R3→R3-2R1 ~ 0 7 7

 
0 9 9

1  3 1
R2 →R2/7,R3→R3/9 ~ 0 1 1

0 1 1

1  31
R3 →R3–R2 ~
01 1
0 0 0

This is the Echelon form of matrix A.

The rank of a matrix A= Number of non – zero rows =2
4 4 3 1
 
2. For what values of k the matrix 1 1 1 0 has rank ‘3’.
k 2 2 2
 
 9 9 k 3
Sol: The given matrix is of the order 4x4
If its rank is 3  det A =0


4 4 3 1

A = 1 1 1 0 
k 2 2 2
 
9 9 k 3
Applying R2 → 4R2-R1, R3 →4R3 – kR1, R4 → 4R4 – 9R1
4 4 3 1 
1
 1 
0
We get A~  0 
0 8  4k 8  3k 8 k 
 
0 0 4k  27 3 
Since Rank A = 3  det A =0
0 1 1
 4 8  4k 8 3k 8 k  0
0 4k 27 3

 1[(8-4k) 3]-1(8-4k) (4k+27)] = 0

 (8-4k) (3-4k-27) = 0
 (8-4k)(-24-4k) =0
 (2-k)(6+k)=0
 k =2 or k = -6
2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3
3). Find the rank of the matrix using echelonform A 
8 4 7 13
  
8 4 3 1

2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3
Sol: Given A 
8 4 7 13
  
8 4 3 1

2 1 5 
3
0 7
5
By applying R2 R2 2R1 ; R3 R3 4R1 ; R4 R4 4R1 ~
0

0 0 5 7

0 0 15  


 21

R1 R2 R3 2 1 3 5

R ,R  ,R 0 0 57 
1
1 2
1
3
3 ~ 
0 0 5 7
 
0 0 5 7 
2 1 3 5
0 0 5 7
R R R , R R R
3 3 2 4 4 2 ~ 
0 0 0 0
 0 0 
0 0 


⇒ A is inechelon form ∴ Rank of A =2

1 2 0
1 
4). Find the rank of the matrix A = 2 1 0
1 by reducing into echelon form.
 
3
 3 1 1

1 1 1 1 
 
1 2 0 1
Sol: By applying R2 R2 2R1; R3 R3 3R1; R4 R4 R1 A~0 3 1 2
 
0
 3 1 2
0 3 1 2 
 
1 2 0 1
R3 R3 R2 A~0 3 1 2
 
0 0 0 
0
0 3 1 2 
 
1 2 0 1
R3 R4 A~0 3 1 2
 
0 3 1 2
 
0 0 0 0 

1 2 0 1
R3 R3 R2 A ~ 0 3 12
 
0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 

Clear it is in echelon form, rank of A = 2

Normal form/Canonical form of a Matrix:
Every non-zero Matrix can be reduced to any one of the following forms.
I r 0  I 
; I 0 ; r ; I  Known as normal forms or canonical forms by using Elementary
0 0 r 0 r

   
row or column or both transformations where Ir is the unit matrix of order ‘r’ and ‘O’ is the
null matrix.
Note: 1.In this form “the rank of a matrix is equal to the order of an identity matrix.
2. Normal form another name is “canonical form”

Solved Problems : 
1 2 3 4 
By reducing the matrix  2 1 4 3 into normal form, find its rank.

1.
 
3 0 5 10

1 2 3 4 
 
Sol: Given A = 2 1 4 3 

30 5 10


1 2 3 4 
R2 → R2 – 2R1; R3 → R3–3R1 A~  0 3 2 5 

0 6 4 22

1 2 3 4 
R3 →R3/-2 A ~ 0 3 2 5

0 3 2 11

1 2 3 4 
R3→R3+R2 A ~  0 3 2 5
 
0 0 0 6 

0 0 0 0 
c2→ c2 - 2c1,c3→c3-3c1,c4→c4-4c1 A~  3 2  5
0 
 0 0 0 6 

 1 0 0 0
 
c3 → 3 c3-2c2,c4→3c4-5c2 A~ 0 3 0 0 
0 0 0 18

1 0 0 0

c2→ c2/-3,c4→c4/18 A~ 
0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0
 
c4 ↔c3 A~ 0 1 0 0 

0 0 1 0 

This is in normal form[I3 0], ∴ Hence Rank of A is‘3’.

1 1 1 1
2). Find the rank of the matrix A=1 2 3

4 by reducing into canonical formor
 
2
 3 5 5

3 4 5 8 
 

normal form.
1 1 1 1
Sol: Given A =1 2 3

4 
 
2
 3 5 5

3 4 5 8 
 
 


1 1 1 1
By applying R2 R2 R1, R3 R3 2R1, R4 R4 3R1 0 1 2 5
~ 
0
 1 3 7

0 7 8 5
 
1 1 1 1

R3 R3 R2 , R4 R4 7R2 
~ 0
1 2 5 

0 0 1 2
 
0 0 6 30
1 1 
 1 1 
R4 R4 6R3 0 1 2 5 
~ 
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 18 
 
1 1 1 1
R 4 0 1 2 5
4 
R 18
~ 
0 0 1 2
 
0 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0
0 1 2 5
Apply C2 C2 C1,C3 C3 C1,C4 C4 C1
~ 
0 0 1 2
 
0 0 0

1 

 1 0 0 0
C C  2C ; C C  5C 0 1 0 0
3 3 2 4 4 2 ~ 
0 0 1 2
 
0 0 0

1 

 C C  2C 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0

4 4 3 ~ 
0 0 1 0
  0 0 
0 1 

Clearlyit is in the normal form I 4 Rank of A = 4

3). Definetherankofthematrixandfindtherankofthefollowingmatrix
2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3 
 
8 4 
7 13
8 4 3  
 1
2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3 
Sol: LetA=  
8 4 
7 13
8 4 3  
 1 
R2 R2  2R1 2 1
0 0
5
3
R R  4R 7 
5

3 3 1 A~ 
R R  4R 0 0 5 7 
4 4 1 0 0 15  
 21


R R R 2 1 3
0 0 5 7
5
3 3 2
R R  3R A~ 
4 4 2 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 

It is in echelon form. So, rank of matrix = no. of non zero rows in echelon form.
Rank (A)  2
2 1 3 4
0 3 4 1 
4). Reduce the matrix A to normal form and hence find itsrank A 
2 3 7 5
 
2 5 11 6  

2 1 4
3
0 3 1
4
Sol: Given A 
2 3 7 5
 
2 5 11 6 
1 1 4 3
1
C C 0 3 1  4
1 A~ 
21 1 3 7 5
  5 11 
1 6 

R R R 1 1 3 4
0 3 4 1
3 3 2
R R R A~ 
4 4 1 0 2 4 1
 
0 4 8 2 

1 1 3 4
0 1 0 0
R R R
2 2 3 A~ 
0 2 4 1
 
0 4 8 2 


R R  2R 1 0 0 0
3 3 2 0 1 0 0
R R  4R A~ 
4 4 2 0 0 4 1
 
0 0 8 2 

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
R R  2R
4 4 3 A~ 
0 0 4 1
 
0 0 0 0 

1 0 0 0
C  4C C 0 1 0 0
4 4 3 A~ 
0 0 4 1
 
0 0 0 0 


 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
C C
1 I 0
A~  ⇒ A~ 3
3
33 0 0 1 0 0 0

 
0 0 0 0 
This is in normal form. Thus Rank of matrix = Order of identify matrix. Rank ( A)  3
0 1 2 2
5). 
Reduce the matrix A = 4 0 2 6 into canonical form and then find its rank.
 
2 1 3 1

1 0 2 2
Sol: Apply C1 C2 
A~ 0 4 2 6
 
1 2 3 1

1 0 2 2
R3 R3 R1 A ~ 0 4 2 6
 
0 2 1 3

1 0 0 0
C3 C3  2C1;C4 C4 2C1 A ~  0 4 2 6 
 
0 2 1 3

1 0 0 0
R
R2  2 A ~  0 2 1 3 
2  
0000

1 0 0 0
C2 C3 A ~  0 1 2 3 
 
0000

1 0 0 0
C3 C3 2C2 ;C4 C4 3C2 A ~  0 1 0 0 
 
0000

I 2 0
Which is in the normalform , (A) =2
0
 

Note: .If A is an mxn matrix 0of rank r, there exists non-singular matrices P and Q such that
I r 0 
PAQ= 
 0 0
Suppose we want to find P and Q we have procedure.
Let order of matrix ‘A’is‘3 i.e. A = I3AI3
1 0 0 1 0 0

A=  0 1 0 
A
0 1
 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1


Now we go on applying elementary row operations and column operations on the matrix A
I r 0 
(L.H.S) until it is reduced to the normalform 
 0 0
Every row operations will also be applied to the pre-factor of on R.H.S
Every column operation will also be applied to the post –factor of on R.H.S.

Solved Problems :
1 0  2
1. Find the non-singular matrices P and Q is of the normal form where A=2 3 4 
 
3 3  6

Sol: Write A = I3 A I3
1 0  2 1 0 0 1 0 0
  4= 0 1 
~2 3
 0 
A
0 1
 0 
 
3 3  6  0 0 1  0 0 1

1 0  2 1 0 0  1 0 0

0 =  2 1 
R2 →R2-2R1,R3→R3-3R1 ~0 3
   0
A
0 1
 0 
0 3 0  3 0 1 0 0 1

1 0  2 1 0 0 1 0 0
   
R3 → R3-R2, R2→1/3R2 ~ 0 1 0  2/3
1/3 0 A 0 1 0 
  
0 0 0 1 1 1  0 0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
0 =
c3→c3-2c1 ~ 0 1 2/3   
1/3 0 A 0 1 0
  
 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 
 1 0 0  1 0 2 
   
~[I2 0
]=PAQ where P =  2/3 1/3 0 Q = 0 1 0
0 0
1 1 1  0 0 1

2. Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that the normal form of A is P AQ.
1 3 6 1
Where A = 1 4 
 5 1 . Hence find its rank.
1 5 4 3 

Sol: we write A = I3A I4   

  
1 3 6 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

~ 1 4 5  0 1 0 A 0 0 

1 = 0 1
  0 0 1 0
1 5 4 3  0 0 1   
0 0 0 1 


 1 3 6 1 1 0 0  1 0 0 0

R2 →R2-R1,R3→R3-R1 ~ 0 1 1 2 =  1 1 A 0 1 0 0 
   0
0 0 1 0
0 2 2 4 10 1  
0 0 0 1 

1 3 6 1   1 0 0 0
1 0 0  
R3→R3-2R2 ~0 1 1 2= 1 1  A 0 1 0 0 


0 0 0 0 
0 
 0 0 1 0
   12 1  
0 0 0 1 

Applying c2→c2-3c1,c3 →c3-6c1, and c4→c4+c1, we get.

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 1 3  6 1
~ 0 1 1 = 1 1 A 
0 0 
 2
 0  0 1 
0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0 1 2 1   
0 0 0 1 

Applying c3→c3+c2 and c4→c4-2c2, we get.

1 3 9 7
1 0 0
1 0
= 1 1 A 0 1 1 2
0 0
~ 1 0 0 
0  0
0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0  12 1  
0 0 0 1 

I 2 0  1 0
1 39 7
 0 0  1 1
0
  0 
= PAQ Where P= Q= 1 1 2 
  
0

 
0 0 1 0 
 1  2 1 
0 0 1 

0

I 2 0
Here A ~  , ∴ Hence ρ(A)=2
0 0  
System of linear equations: In this chapter we shall apply the theory of matrices to study the
existence and nature of solutions for a system of m linear equations in ‘n’ unknowns.
The system of m linear equations in ‘n’unknowns x1, x2, x3    xn given by

a11x1 a12 x2  ...... a1n xn b1

a21x1 a22 x2  ...... a2n xn b2
} --------------------------- (1)
..............................................
am1x1am2x2......amnxnbm

The above set of equations can be written in the Matrix form as A X =B

a11 a12    a1nx1  b1 

a a      b 
21 22 a2n  x 2  2 

     .
 .   (2)
      . 
  .   
 an1 an2    annxn bm

A-Coefficient Matrix; X-Set of unknowns; B-Constant Matrix

Homogeneous Linear Equations: If b 1 b2  ........... bm  0 then B = 0
 Hence eqn (2) Reduces to AX = 0 which are known as homogeneous linear equations
Non-Homogeneous Linear equations:
It at least one ofb1,b2 --- bm is non zero. Then B 0, the system Reduces to AX = B isknown
as Non-Homogeneous Linear equations.
Solutions: A set of numbers x1, x2 xn which satisfy all the equations in the system is known
as solution of the system.
Consistent: If the system possesses a solution then the system of equations is said to be
consistent.
Inconsistent: If the system has no solution then the system of equations is said to be
Inconsistent.
Augmented Matrix: A matrix which is obtained by attaching the elements of B as the last
column in the coefficient matrix A is called Augmented Matrix. It is denoted by [A|B]
a11 a12 a13   a1n : b1
AB Ca21 a22 a23
  a2n
: b2 
 
 am1 am2 am3   amn : b3 

1. If (A/B)(A) , then the system of equations AX = B is consistent (solution exits).
a). If ( A / B) (A) = r = n (no. of unknowns) system is consistent and have a unique
solution

b). If ( A / B) (A) = r < n (no. of unknowns) then the system of equations AX = B will
have an infinite no. of solutions. In this case (n-r) variables can be assigned arbitrary values.

2. If ( A / B) (A) then the system of equations AX=B is inconsistent (no solution).

In case of homogeneous system AX = 0, the system is always consistent.
(or) x1 = 0, x2=0, --------- , xn = 0 is always the solution of the system known as the”zero
solution “.
Non-trivial solution:
If ( A / B) (A) = r < n (no. of unknowns) then the system of equations AX = 0 will have
an infinite no. of non zero (non trivial) solutions. In this case (n-r) variables can be assigned
arbitrary values.
Also we use some direct methods for solving the system of equations.
Note: The direct methods are Cramer’s rule, Matrix Inversion, Gaussian Elimination, Gauss
Jordan, Factorization Tridiagonal system. These methods will give a unique solution.
Procedure to solve AX = B (Non Homogeneous equations)
 Let us first consider n equations in n unknowns ie. m=n then the system will be of theform
a11x1+a12x2+a13x3+…..+a1nxn =b1
a21x1+a22x2+a23x3+…..+a2nxn=b2
…………………………………..
an1 x1+an2 x2+an3x3+…..+annxn =bn
The above system can be written as AX= B ---------- (1)
Where A is an n n matrix.
Solving AX = B using Echelon form:
Consider the system of m equations in n unknowns given by
a11x1+a12x2+a13x3+..... +a1nxn =b1
a21x1+a22x2+a23x3+..... +a2nxn=b2
…………………………………..
am1 x1+am2x2+am3 x3+ .... +amnxn =bm
We know this system can be we write as AX = B
a a12 a1n b 
 11 1
a a a b
 2
The augmented matrix of the above system is [A / B] =  21 22 2n
  
a a a b
 m1 m2 mn m 

The system AX = B is consistent if ρ (A) =ρ[A/B]

i). ρ (A) = ρ [A/B] = r < n (no. of unknowns).Then there is infinite no. of solutions.
ii). ρ (A) = ρ [A/B] = number of unknowns then the system will have unique solution.
iii). ρ (A) ≠ ρ [A/B] the system has no solution.
Solved Problems :
1). Show that the equations x+y+z = 4, 2x+5y-2z =3, x+7y-7z =5 are notconsistent.
1 1 1 x  4
Sol: Write given equations is of the form AX = Bi.e; 2 5 2 y3
  
1 7 7 z 5

1 1 1 4 

Consider the Augment matrix is[A/B]  [A/B]= 
2 5 2 3
1 7 7 5
1 1 1 4 

Applying R2 →R2-2R1 and R3 → R3-R1,weget [A/B] ~ 0 3 4 5
 
0 6 8 1 


1 1 1 4
Applying R3→ R3-2R2,weget [A/B] ~ 
0 3 4 5

0 0 0 11
∴ρ (A) =2 and ρ (A/B) =3
The given system is inconsistent as ρ (A) ≠ ρ[A/B].
2). Show that the equations given below are consistent and hence solvethem
x-3y-8z = -10, 3x+y-4z =0, 2x+5y+6z =3
1 3 8 x 10
Sol: Matrix notationis 3 1  4 y0 
   
2 5 6  z 3 

1 3 8 10
Augmented matrix[A/B]is [A/B]= 3 1 4 0 

2 5 6 3 
1 3 8  10
R2 → R2-3R1 R3 →R3-2R1 
~0 10 20 30 
 
0 11 22 23

1 3 8  10 
R2 →1/10R2 
~0 
 1 2 3 
0 11 22 23 

1 3 8  10
R3→R3-11R2 
~0 
 1 2 3 
0 0 0 10

This is the Echelon formof[A/B] ∴ρ (A) =2, ρ (A/B) =3

ρ (A) ≠ρ[A/B].
The given system is inconsistent.
3). Find whether the following equations are consistent, if so solve them.x+y+2z=4,
2x-y+3z=9,3x-y-z=2
1 1 2 x 4
Sol: We write the given equations in theformAX=B i.e; 2 1 
3 y9  
  
 3 1 1
 z 2

 1 1 2 4 
 
The Augmented matrix [A/B] = 2 1 3 9

3  1 1 2 


 1

1 2 4 

Applying R2→ R2-2R1 and R3→R3-3R1,weget [A/B]~ 0 3 1 1 
0  4 7 10 

1 1 2 4 
 
Applying R3 →3R3-4R2,weget [A/B]~ 0  3 1 1 
0 0 17 34 

this matrix is in Echelon form. ρ(A) = 3 and ρ(A/B) = 3
Since ρ (A) =ρ [A/B]. ∴ The system of equations is consistent.
Here the number of unknowns is 3
Since ρ (A) =ρ [A/B] = number of unknowns
 The system of equations has a uniquesolution
1 1 2 x  4 
Wehave 0 3  1 y1 
   
0 017 z 34

 -17z = -34  z = 2
-3y-z =1  -3y =z+1  -3y =3  y= -1
and x+y+2z =4  x=4-y-2z =4+1-4=1
x=1, y=-1, z=2 is the solution.
4). Show that the equations x+y+z=6, x+2y+3z=14, x+4y+7z=30 are consistent and solve
them.
1 1 1 x 6 
Sol: We write the given equations in theformAX=B i.e. 1 2 3 y14
   
 1 4 7 z 30
 1 1 1 6 
The Augmented matrix [A/B] = 1 2 3 14 
 
1 4 7 30 
 1 1 1 6 
Applying R → R -R and R →R -R ,weget [A/B] ~ 
2 2 1 3 3 1  1 2 8 
0 
0 3 6 24 

1 1 1 6 
Applying R3 →R3-3R2,weget [A/B]~  
0 1 2 8 
0 0 0 0 

This matrix is in Echelon form. ρ(A) = 2 and ρ(A/B) = 2

Since ρ (A) =ρ [A/B].


The system of equations is consistent. Here the no. of unknowns are 3

Since rank of A is less than the no. of unknowns, the system of equations will have infinite
number of solutions in terms of n-r=3-2=1 arbitrary constant.
1 1 1 x 6

The given system of equations reduced formis 0 1 2 y8
  
 0 0 0 z 0

x+y+z=6……… (1), y+2z=8…….(2)

Let z=k, put z=k in (2) we get y=8-2k
Put z=k y=8-2k in (1), we get
x=6-y-z=6-8+2k=-2+k
∴ x=-2+k, y=8-2k, z=k is the solution, where k is an arbitrary constant.
5). Showthatx2yz3;3xy2z1;2x2y3z  2;xyz1are consistent and
solvethem
2 11 x 3 
 1 2 3  1 
Sol: The above system in matrix notationis  y  
2
 2 
3 z 31 2
1 1 1   

 43 141
A X B

1 2 1 3 
3 1 2 1 
TheAugmentedmatrixis AB 
2
 2 3 
2
1 1 1  
  1
R2 R2  3R1 1 2 1 3
0 7 5 8
R R  2R
3 3 1 ~  
R R R 0
 6 5 0

4 4 1 0 3 2 4 
 
1 2 1 3
0 1 0 4
R R R

2 2 3 ~ 
0
 6 5 4

0 3 2 4 
 
1 2 1 3 
R3 R3  3R1 0 1 0 4
R R  3R ~ 
4 4 2 0
 0 5 20

0 0 2 8 
 
1 2 1 3
R 0 1 0 4
R 3
3
5 ~ 
0 0 1 4 
 2 8 
0 0 


1 2 1 3

R R 2R 0 1 04 
4 4 3 ~  
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0 

∴ρ (A) = 3 = ρ (A/B
∴ρ (A) =ρ (A/B) = No. of unknowns = 3
The given system has unique solution.
The systems of equations equivalent to given system are

Let z k y 
1k
and x3
1kk241k8k237k
8 8 8 8
x  238 7k8  238 
X  y 
 
 8
1 k
 X 1 where k is any real number.
 8  8
z  0 k  1 

7). Find whether the following system of equations is consistent. If so solvethem.

x2y2z2, 3x2yz5, 2x5y3z4, x4y6z0.
 1 2 2  
Sol: In Matrix form it is2 5 3 x 4
 z
  
1 4 6 0
   
AX B

0 8 5 1
1 2 2 2
R R  3R
2 2 1 ~ 
R3 R3  2R1 0
 9 1 8

R R R 0 2 4 2 
4 4 1  
1 2 2 2
0 1 4 7
~  
0 9 1 8
R R R 0 2 4 2 
2 2 3  
1 2 2 2
0 1 4 7
~ 
R3 R3  9R2 0 0 37 55
R R  2R 0 0 12 16 
4 4 2  



1 2 2 2 
  0 1 4 7
~  
1
R4  R4
4 0 0 37 55

00 3 4 
 
1 2 22
01 7 
4
R4  37R4  3R3 ~  is in echelon form
0 0 37 55
 
0 0 0 17
A 3 and AB 4 A AB.∴The given system is in consistent.

8). DiscussforwhatvaluesofZ,µthesimultaneousequationsx+y+z=6,x+2y+3z=10,
x+2y+Zz = µhave
(i). Nosolution
(ii). A uniquesolution
(iii). An infinite number ofsolutions.

 1 1 1x 
   6

Sol: The matrix form of given system of Equations is A X= 1 2 3 y  10 = B
   
1 2   z  


 1 1 1 6

The augmented matrix is [A/B] = 1 2 3 10

1 2  
1 1 1 6 
 4 
R2 → R2 – R1, R3→R3-R1 [A/B]~ 0

1 2 
 0 1  1  6
1 1 1 6 
R3 →R3–R2 
~0 
1 2 4 

0 0 3 10
Case (i): let Z ≠ 3 the rank of A = 3 and rank [A/B] = 3
Here the no. of unknownsis ‘3’ ∴ρ (A) =ρ (A/B)= No. of unknowns
The system has unique solution if Z≠3 and for any value of‘µ’.

Case (ii): Suppose Z =3 and µ≠10.

We have ρ (A) = 2, ρ (A/B) = 3
The system has no solution.
Case (iii): Let Z =3 and µ=10.
We have ρ (A) = 2 ρ (A/B) = 2
Here ρ (A) = ρ (A/B) ≠ No. of unknowns =3
The system has infinitely many solutions.
9). Find the values of a and b for which the equations x+y+z=3;x+2y+2z=6;x+ay+3z=b
have (i) Nosolution
(ii) A uniquesolution
(iii) Infinite no ofsolutions.
1 1 1x 3
  
Sol: The above system in matrix notation is 1 2 2 y 6 
1 a 3z b

1 1 1 3
Augmentedmatrix AB 1 2 2 6

1 a 3 b
 R R R 1 1 1 3
2 2 1 ~0 1 1 3
R R R  
3 3 1
0 a1 2 b2


1 1 1 3 
R3 R3 R2 ~0 1 1 3 
 
0 a3 0 b9


 1 1 13

 For a3&b9 ~ 0 1 13 
 
0 0 00 

 AAB 2  3 ⇒ It has infinite no of solutions.

1 1 1 3 
 
 For ~ 0 1 1 3 
 
a3&bany value
0 a3 0b9 

 AAB3 ⇒ It has a unique solution.

1 1 1 3
 
 Fora 3& b9 0 1 1 3  
~ 

  0 0 0b9 

 A2AB3 ⇒ Inconsistent no solution

10). Solve the following systemcompletely. x y z  1; x  2y  4x ; x  4y 10z 2

1 1 1 x 1
   
Sol: The above system in matrix notation is 1 2 4 y  
1 4 10z 2
A X  B
1 1 1 1
AugmentedMatrixis AB1 2 4 
 
 1 4 10  
2

 1 1 1 1 
R R R
2 2 1 ~0 1 3 1 
R3 R3R1  
0 3 9  1
2

1 1 1 1 
 
~ 0 1 3

1 

R R  3R 0 0 0 32 
2

3 3 2

Here A2andAB 3 ⇒ The given system of equations is consistent if

2  3 2  0 2  2 2  0  21 0  2,1

Case (i): When  1
 AAB 2 Number ofunknowns.
The system has infinite number of solutions.
1 1 1 1
The equivalent matrix is 0 1 3 0

 
0 0 0 0

The equivalent systems of equations are x y z  1; y  3z  0

Let zk y3k and x(3k)K1x2k1x12k

x  12k 1 2 

      
X  y  0 3k X  0 k 3   where k is any arbitrary constant.
     
z  0 k  0 1 

Case (ii): When  2

AAB 2 no. of unknowns.

The system has infinite number of solutions.
1 1 1 1
The equivalent matrix is ~ 0 1 3 1

 
0 0 0 0

The system of equations equivalent to the given system is x + y + z = 1; y + 3z = 1

Let zk y 13kandx(13K)k1x2k

x  0 2k 0 2

X y   13k X 1k3
     
z  0 k  0 1 
where k is any arbitrary constant.
11). Showthatthe equations3x4y5z a;4x5y6zb;5x6y7zc don’t have
a solution unless a c  2b. solve equations when a=b=c= -1.
3 4 5x  a 
4 5 6y  b 
Sol: The Matrix notation is   
5 6 7z  cB
A X 
3 4 5 a
AugmentMatrixis AB4 5 6 b
 
 5 6 7 c
 R  3R  4R 3 4 5 a 
~ 0 1 2 3b 4a

 
2 2 1
R  3R5R
3 3 1
0 2 4 3c5a


3 4 5 a 
R R  2R ~0 1 2 3b4a 
3 3 2  
0 0 0 3a6b3c

Here A 2 and AB 3

The given system of equations is consistent if 3a  6b  3c  0  3a  3c  6b a c  2b

Thus the equations don’t have a solution unless a c  2b, when a b c 1
3 4 5 1
The equivalent matrix is 0 1 2 1
 
0 0 0 0

AAB  2No.of unknowns.

The system has infinite number of solutions. The system of equations equivalent to the
given system 3x  4 y  5z 1; y  2z  1 y  2z 1
Let z k y 1 2k and 3x  4  8k  5k 1 x  1k

x  1k  1 1

X y  12k  1 k2
     
      
z  0 k  0  1 

Linearly dependent set of vectors: A set{x1,x2, -------------- xr} of r vectors is said to bea
linearly dependent set, if there exist r scalars k1,k2---kr not all zero, such that k1x1+k2x2+-------
-+krxr = 0
Linearly independent set of vectors: A set {x1,x2, ------------- xr} of r vectors is said to bea
linearly independent set, if k1x1+k2 x2+--------------+krxr =0 then k1 =0, k2=0 ------ kr=0.
Linear combination of vectors:
A vector x which can be expressed in the form x=k 1x1+k2x2+ -------------- +knxn issaid
to be a linear combination of x1,x2------xnherek1,k2 ------------ kn are anyscalars.
Linear dependence and independence of Vectors:
Solved Problems :
1). Show that the vectors (1, 2, 3), (3,-2, 1), (1,-6,-5) from a linearly dependentset.

2X  2X

3
 6 
1 1
Sol: The Given Vector X  
 2   3  


3 1 5

The Vectors X1, X2, X3 from a square matrix.
 1 3 1 1 3 1
Let A2 2 6 Then A2 2 6
 
 3 1 5 3 1 5

= 1(10+6)-2(15-1) + 3(-18+2)
= 16+32-48 = 0
The given vectors are linearly dependent |A| = 0
2). Show that the Vector X1=(2,2,1), X2=(1,4,-1) and X3=(4,6,-3) are linearly dependent.
Sol: Given Vectors X1=(2,-2,1) X2=(1,4,-1) and X3=(4,6,-3) The Vectors X1, X2, X3 form a
squarematrix.
2 1 4 2 1 4

Let A 2 
4 6  Then A2 4 6
 
1 1 3 1 1 3

= 2(-12+6)+2(-3+4)+1(6-16) = -20≠0
The given vectors are linearly dependent |A|≠0

Consistency of system of Homogeneous linear equations:

A system of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns, namely
a11x1 a12 x2 a13 x3 ..a1n xn 0 
a x a x a x .. a x  0
21 1 22 2 23 3 2n n 

      (1)
                  

am1 x1am2 x2 am3x3 ..amnxn0
 x 0 
a11 a12 a13 ...... a1n  1   
x 2   
0

i.e.  21 22
a a a a
23 ..... 2n ...   Here A is called Co –efficient matrix.
  
am1 am2 am3 ....amn x  ..
 n   .0 
 
Note: 1. Here x1=x2= -------------n = 0 is called trivial solution or zero solution of AX =0
2. A zero solution always linearly dependent.

Theorem: The number of linearly independent solutions of the linear system AX = 0 is

(n-r), r being the rank of the matrix A and n being the number of variables.
Note: 1.if A is a non-singular matrix then the linear system AX = 0 has only the zero
solution.
 2. The system AX =0 possesses a non-zero solution if and only if A is a singular
matrix.
Working rule for finding the solutions of the equation AX = 0
(i). Rank of A = No.ofunknowns i.e. r =n
∴ The given system has zero solution.
(ii). Rank of A < No of unknowns (r<n) and No. of equations < No. of unknowns (m<n) then
the system has infinite no. of solutions.
Note: If AX =0 has more unknowns than equations the system always has infinite solutions.

Solved Problems :
1). Solve the system of equations x+3y-2z = 0, 2x-y+4z = 0, x-11y+14z =0
1 3  2 x 0
Sol: We write the given system is AX=0 i.e. 2 1 4y 0
  
1 11 4 z 0

1  2
3
R2 →R2-2R1;R3→R3-R1 A ~  0 7 8 

 
0 14 16

1 3 2
R3→R3-2R2 
A ~ 0 7 8 
 
0 0 0

The Rank of the A = 2 i.e. ρ (A) = 2 < No. of unknowns = 3

We have infinite No. of solution
Above matrix can we write as x+3y-2z = 0 -7y+8z = 0, 0 = 0
Let z = k then y=8/7k & x= -10/7 k
Giving different values to k, we get infinite no. of values of x,y,z.

2). Find allthe non-trivialsolution2xy3z0;3x2yz0;x4y5z0.

2 1 3x 0
3    
Sol: In Matrix form itis  2 1 y  0
145z 0
AX  0
 2 1 3 0

The Augumented matrixA O 3 2 1 0 
 
1 450

1 4 5 0
R R ~  3 2 1 0 
1 3  
 2 13 0 
 R2 R 2 3R 1 4 5 0
1
~0 14 14 0 
R R2R  
3 3 1
0 7 7 0
1 4 5 0
R  2R R ~  0 14 14 0 it is echelon form.
3 3 2  
 0 0 0 0

The Rank of the A = 2 i.e. ρ(A) = 2 < No. of unknowns = 3
Hence the system has non trivial solutions. From echelon form, reduced equations are
x  4 y  5z  0 and 14 y 14z  0
Let z k then y k and x  4k  5k  0 x k.

x  k 1
Thus, the solution set is X yk k 1 K.
    
z  k  1 

3). ShowthattheonlyrealnumberZforwhichthesystemx+2y+3z=Zx,3x+y+2z=Zy,
2x+3y+z = Zz, has non-zero solution is 6 and solvethem.
1 2 3 x 0
Sol: Above system can we expressed as AX=0 i.e.3 1 2 y0
 
2 3 1  z0

Given system of equations possess a non –zero solution i.e. ρ (A) < no. of unknowns.
 For this we must have det A = 0
1 2 3
 3 1 2 0
2 3 1


6  6  6 
R1 R1 R2R3  3 1  2 0
2 3 1 


1 1 1
 (6  ) 3 1  2 0
2 3 1


1 0 0
C2→ C2− C1, C3→C3−C1 (6 − Z)|3 −2−Z −1 | = 0
2 1 −1 −Z
 (6-Z)[(-2- Z)(-1- Z)+1] =0
 (6- Z) (Z2+3 Z+3) = 0
 Z = 6 only real values.
When Z = 6, the given system becomes
5 2 3  x 0
35 2 y0
 
2 3 5
 z0  

 5 2 3 x 0
R2 →5R2+3R1,R3→5R3+2R1 ~0
   
19 19 y  0 
 
0 19 19 z0
 5 2 3 x 0
   
R3→R3+R2 ~0 19 19 y  0 
 2 0 81 2 2 1 20162
 20162 0081