Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

2.0 Particle Size Analysis

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The main objective in both crushing and grinding is to liberate valuable minerals from their associations with
gangue material and ensure that subsequent mineral separation processes operate efficiently. It has already been
noted that comminution equipment is operated in stages, primary, secondary and tertiary stages. Each stage
handles particulate material of a certain size and hence the comminution machinery is designed in such a way that
it can optimally handle material of a given size. In order to have an idea on the size of the material being conveyed
from one stage to another it becomes necessary to measure the size of the particles

Size measurement is important in characterization of fine particles for process control and product characterization
in a variety of industries that include mineral processing, metal powder production, catalysts, pulp and paper,
paints and pigments, etc. In addition to industrial usage, size measurement is popular in medical and biological
research areas also. The techniques employed for measurement and presentation of size distribution data differ
from one field to another depending on the size range being measured, and range from coarse screens (to measure
particles as large as a few cm) to electron microscopes capable of measuring down to one – hundredth of a micron.

Effectiveness of practically all dressing operations is a function of the size of the particles treated, hence the need
for evaluation of particle characteristics is a critical component of mineral dressing. For instance size analysis can
be used for the following:

[a] Estimation of efficiencies of comminution equipment or process separation

[b] Determine the quality of grinding and establishes the degree of liberation of values from the
gangue at various particle sizes
[c] Determine the optimum size of feed to the process for maximum efficiency
[d] Determine size range at which losses are occurring in the plant
[e] Particle size for optimum leaching, percolation etc
[f] Characterisation of particles allows for effective control of unit processes
[g] As a means to the development of machinery; in particular by laboratory testing of such
properties as grindability
[h] To monitor operations involved in the production of comminuted products

.Terminologies

Particle: Discrete portion of matter, small in relation to surroundings. The absolute size is not
important nor is the physical state i.e. not necessary solid. Irani and Callis (1963) defined a particle
as the smallest state of subdivision which retains all the physical and chemical properties of the
substance

Particulate Material: This consists of a number of particles which retain their individuality i.e. they
do not adhere together

Powder: Consists of discrete particles of material with a maximum size of about 1000um.

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Particulate System: Consists of a particulate material dispersed in a continuous phase of another

material

Sizing: Refers to the division of a particulate material into groups of nearly the same size

Classification: Operations in which density and size of particles are exploited to obtain grading by
settling through a fluid. The fluid is normally water or air.

Sedimentation: The process of settling of particles in a fluid by gravity

Elutriation: Washing away of finer particles from a particulate system by rising currents of fluid

3.2 DEFINITION OF PARTICLE SIZE

Definition of size is simple for geometrically simple particles such as spheres and cubes. Regular geometrical shapes
can have their size conveniently described because their shapes can be defined in terms of linear size. As the shape
becomes more complex the problems of defining the particle size increases e.g.

Sphere: one dimension will uniquely define size

Cylinder: two dimensions will uniquely define size
Cuboid: Three dimensions will uniquely define size

However particles encountered in normal academic, industrial or environmental applications are seldom simple
geometrical objects and exists in all possible different shapes. For such particles (which may be broken material
with irregular shapes especially of comminution products) it is difficult to quantify their sizes. Size for such
material, can be defined as the characteristic dimension of the material that can best represent the state of the
subdivision or its constituting particles. The characteristic dimension chosen to represent the material depends
largely on the technique of measurement and the purpose of such measurement. For example, aero dynamical or
stokes equivalent diameter are used as a measure of particle size when measured by their terminal velocities in air
or liquid. The particle size is expressed as sieve diameter if sieving is used for measurement and as free-falling
diameter where sedimentation is used. Definitions of several other commonly used particle dimensions are
available in literature. Irrespective of the method used, the measured particle size is also dependent on other
factors such as shape and other physical properties. These factors include the following:

• The size of individual particles

• The average size of all the particles
• The shape of the particles
• The size distribution of the particulate systems
• The density and surface characteristics of the particles

The size of particles is, in general, expressed as some arbitrary dimension and is close to the diameter of an
equivalent sphere. This is called an equivalent diameter. In order to measure the size of irregular particles
uniquely, equivalent diameters are used.

3.2 EQUIVALENT DIAMETERS

The concept of equivalent diameters can be used to uniquely define particle size of an irregularly shaped
particle. Equivalent diameters are based either on geometry or physical properties. While the equivalent

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geometry can be based upon a cube, sphere or other regular shape for reasons of convenience the
equivalent spherical diameter is typically based on spherical geometry. Thus, the equivalent spherical
diameter of a particle is the diameter of a sphere with equivalent geometrical or physical properties as the
particle in question. For example, if the microscope was used to measure the projected area diameter (i.e.
two-dimensional projection of a particle onto a microscope slide) of the irregular particle shown in
Figure_ , the equivalent projected area diameter would be determined by first measuring the projected
area of the particle and the using this area to calculate the diameter of a sphere with an equivalent
projected area as the particle shown in Figure 4_. The diameter thus obtained is referred to as equivalent
spherical diameter. Equivalent spherical diameters are widely used and are derived and determined by
measuring assize dependent property of the particle and relating it to the linear dimension of a sphere.

If an irregularly shaped particle is allowed to settle in a liquid, it’s settling velocity may be compared with
the settling velocity of a sphere of the same density settling under similar conditions. The size of the
particle is then equated to the diameter of the sphere.

However an irregularly shaped particle can have almost limitless number of different equivalent spherical
diameters depending on the particular parameter chosen for equivalence. In the same above example, the
diameter chosen for equivalence was the settling velocity of the particles. The equivalent diameter or of a
particle when the parameter for equivalence is volume will be different to the equivalent diameter of the
same particle if the parameter for equivalence is the surface area.

The equation for the projected area of a sphere is


A p = d p2
4

And the equivalent projected diameter can be calculated using:

4 Ap
dp =

The equivalent diameter can also be calculated based upon particle’s surface area. In this case, the
equation for the surface area of the sphere is

S = d s2
Hence the equivalent surface area diameter is
S
ds =

Likewise, an equivalent diameter could be calculated based upon the particle’s volume; the volume of a
sphere equals

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis


V = d v3
6

And this yields an equivalent volume diameter of

6V
dv = 3


Another useful equivalent diameter is the equivalent sieve diameter, it is the diameter of the largest
sphere which can pass through a given sieve aperture. It should be noted that the equivalent diameter of
a particle always has dimensions of length.

Some of the equivalent diameters can be defined as follows:

(a) Surface Mean Diameter (ds)

Surface mean diameter is used for chemical reactant characterisation as kinetics of most chemical
reactions are proportional to the surface area of the reactant. It is defined as diameter of a sphere
having the same surface area as the particle

S
ds =


(b ) Volume diameter (dv)

Diameter of sphere of the same volume as the particle

6V
dv = 3


(c) Free falling Diameter (df)

Diameter of sphere having the same density and free fall velocity as the particle in the same fluid
medium

(d) Stokes’ diameter (dst)

The free falling diameter under steady state laminar conditions and is given by stokes law as
1
 18v 2
d st =  
 ( −  ) g 
 s f 

(e) Sieve Diameter (da)

Diameter corresponding to a square aperture through which the particle just passes

Microscopic examination of irregularly shaped particles yield statistical mean diameters

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

(f) Feret’s Diameter

The mean of the overall width of a particle measured in all directions

(g) Martin’s Diameter

The mean of the length of chord bisecting the projected area of the particle measured in all
directions

(h) Projected Area Diameter (dp)

Projected area diameter is used in paint and pigment industry due to dependence of their
spreading ability on projected area of particles and is defined as the diameter of the sphere having
the same projected area as the particle when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of
greatest stability, or it is the mean of the diameters of circles having the same area as the particle
viewed in all directions

4 Ap
dp =


An advantage of equivalent diameters is that they provide a unique characterisation of particle size for
the given method of measurement. In addition, the diameter gives information about the particle
properties. For example, the equivalent volume diameter would give information about the volume. Thus
if the density of the particles is known, the mass and properties important to the engineering process can
be calculated. The numerical value for equivalent diameters derived from different geometric properties
will only be identical in the case of perfectly spherical particles, and if the particle irregularity increases so
will the differences between the different equivalent diameters.

The characteristic dimension ( parameter for equivalence) chosen to represent the material depends
largely on the technique of measurement and the purpose of such measurement and the purpose of such
measurement; thus for paint pigments, the projected area is important and for chemical reactants, the
total surface area is important.

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Sometimes, the equivalent diameter is not particularly relevant to the process, where as the actual
measurement made is relevant. In such cases, the size is sometimes quoted in terms of the parameter
measured e.g. terminal velocity. If for example, information is required to assess the aerodynamic effect
of a gas stream on particles, terminal velocity is more relevant than particle size. It is important when
equivalent diameters are quoted that the basis (equivalent mass, volume, surface area, projected area etc)
is clearly stated.

3.2 PARTICLE SHAPE

Since size and shape are interrelated, a quantitative assessment of both terms is needed in order to
describe the characteristics of a particulate system. In this section we focus on the particle shape.

Particle shape influences such properties as the flowability of powders, packing, interaction with fluids
and the covering power of pigments. Particle shape is one of the most difficult to evaluate. Natural
particles are not only non spherical, but they have irregular shapes with re-entrant angles which seem to
defy quantification. Consequently, particle shape is one of the most difficult to evaluate. Although we
can attribute to a particle an equivalent diameter, this does not uniquely define the particle because only
the size of the particle is implied without reference to the degree of roughness of the particle. Thus two
particles with same Martin’s diameter can have different shapes.

For adequate description of particle shape it is necessary to define two features of a particle

(a) Particle geometry:- The extent to which a particle resembles a known geometric solid,
such as a sphere, cube or tetrahedron.

(b) Particle proportions:-relative values of length, breadth and thickness.

Particle geometry involves dimensionless combinations of sizes and the numerical relations which
emerge are called shape factors. The relation between measured sizes in (a) and particle volume or
surface are called shape coefficients.

The volume of an equivalent sphere is


V = d v3
6
We can assign a shape coefficient α such that
V =  v d v3

The subject of shape coefficient is covered in BS 4359 (1970) Part III

Particle geometry is adequately defined by Shape factors. The focus in this section is on shape factors.

Shape Factors
The size of a particle can be defined by a single dimension by expressing it in terms of one of the
equivalent diameters while particle shape is defined by shape factors. For many applications not only the
particle size but also the shape is of importance, e.g. toner powders should be spherical while polishing

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powders should have sharp edges. One of the earliest defined shape factors is the sphericity (ѱw).
Another term is the specific surface. Since the sphere represents the true size, these terms qualifies the
deviation of the particles from it’s true. (i.e. express the degree of irregularity).

Sphericity can be defined as:

Surface area of a sphere having the same volume as the particle
ѱw =
Surface area of the particle
For a sphere, sphercity ѱw =1
For a non-spherical structure ѱw < 1
For most broken rock particles ѱw around 0.6

Table: Sphericity of some materials

Material Sphericity Material Sphericity
Spheres, cubes 1.0 Ottawa sand 0.95
Cylinders (L = Dp) 1.0 Rounded sand 0.83
Raschig rings (L = Dp) 1.0 Coal Dust 0.73
L = Do, Di = 0.5Do 0.58 Flint sand 0.65
L = Do, Di = 0.75Do 0.33 Crushed glass 0.65
Berl saddles 0.3 Mica flakes 0.28

Specific surface is defined as:

Sv = Surface area of particle (s)

Volume of particle (s)

Surface area of the particle = Surface Area of a sphere of same volume

ѱw

Therefore Sv = Surface area of particle (s)

Volume of Particles. ѱw

Surface area of particle (S) = πdp2

Volume of particle (V) = (π/6)dp3

 d p2 6
Therefore Sv = =
 d p w
d 3p w
6

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METHODS OF SIZE MEASUREMENT

The techniques and instruments available for particle size measurement can be classified based on their working
principle as direct and indirect methods. Direct methods are based on measurement of geometrical size of the
particles and size analysis by sieving fall under this category. Indirect methods such as sedimentation and surface
area techniques determine a particle property, which is depended on the size, and particle size is calculated using
either theoretical or empirical equations. In addition to the well established techniques such as sieving and
microscopy, a large number of new methods are currently being developed for size measurement due to growing
industrial demand for particle characterization. A majority of these instruments are intended for aerosol size
measurement and control of air quality from environmental considerations. It is beyond the scope of this
document to cover all this techniques; and only common laboratory techniques applicable in mineral processing
are considered or mentioned and subsumed as follows

Microscopic methods
• Optical Microscope
• Electron Microscope
• Image analyses
Sieving Methods
Methods based on optical properties
• Light scattering and Extinction Techniques
• Turbidity Techniques
Sedimentation Methods
• Gravity Sedimentation
• Centrifugal Methods
• Elutriation Methods
Coulter Counter
Surface Area methods using gas adsorption
Other Techniques
Methods based on resistance of packed beds for flow of fluids

3.3 SELECTION OF INSTRUMENT FOR PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

As an aid to the selection of instruments for particle size measurement, the following should be considered:

Application
The selection of an instrument for particle size analysis depends upon the purpose for which measurement is
made. In minerals beneficiation for instance, simple sieving can be used in the determination of particle size to
control ore grinding operation for the liberation of values. However, when a mineral such as Titania is produced
specifically for use in paints or pigments, measurement of projected area mean diameter would be appropriate.
Optical instruments measuring the projected area diameter would be the choice in such cases. Thus the
application of the system should always be considered before selecting any analytical method for use in
characterizing the system. Without that, even the most accurate and precise analytical data may be irrelevant for
the purpose of the investigation.

Information Required
The selection of an instrument for a given situation is influenced by the type of information required. Many light
scattering instruments provide data on particle size distribution, mean particle size and the surface area of the
particles. Instruments based on surface area measurements give only the average particle diameter and not the size

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distribution. Because of the multiple of commercially available instruments capable of providing different types of
data, it is very important to know what data is actually required of an analysis before an instrument can be
selected for the analysis.

Size range of Interest

The particle size range to be determined often dictates the type of instrument which can be used. Instruments
based on gravity sedimentation, for instance, are unsuitable for particle below 1 micron because they require long
settling times. At the same time larger than 100 microns settle too rapidly. Gravity sedimentation is therefore only
useful for particles in the range 1 to 100 micron size range. Likewise, an optical microscope can accurately size
particles up to 0.5micron. If smaller particles are to be sized, an electron microscope should be used. Size range is
therefore an important specification in defining the requirements in size analysis.

Others
Accuracy required, amount of sample, time lapse for analysis, number of samples, nature of sample, capital cost
and cost analysis.

Of the above methods, sieving is the mostly widely used technique in Mineral processing operations

Sieving Methods

Sieving is the mostly commonly used technique for both size analysis and size fractionation of minerals. It is the
most rapid and convenient method of size analysis for particles that are coarser than about 50 microns. Recent
development of the micromesh sieves have extended the particle size range amenable to analysis by sieving down to
1 micron. Sieves used in the laboratory are usually about 25 cm in diameter with uniform openings in the base.
The sieve openings are either square or circular depending on whether woven wire mesh or punched metal plate is
used to form the base. The lower limit of the sieve opening or aperture size of the woven wire mesh is usually 37
microns though sieves with finer aperture size are recently gaining popularity. Micromesh sieves with aperture sizes
as low as 1 microns are manufactured by electroforming and are available with both square and circular openings.

Sieve analysis is widely used in mineral dressing to determine, the efficiencies of crushing and grinding operations
apart from the overall assessment of the fineness of ground products When working with finely divided materials,
it is constantly necessary to have knowledge of the sizes of the particles. This is true whether the materials are in a
natural state such as sand or gravel, or the result of processes humanly controlled, such as crushing, grinding,
disintergrating, or crystallization ( as in the manufacture of sugar and chemicals) or a combination of several of
these which is the case with materials such as cement. Cement is manufactured, sold, purchased and used on the
basis of a definite size specification determined with testing sieves. If inferior cement is used in construction, faulty
concrete will result in jeopardising lives as well as property.

Thus sieve analysis may be undertaken:

(a) as part of a research project involving an investigation of the particle size of material
(b) as part of a control procedure for the production of material where the particle size distribution is
important
(c) as the basis of a contract for the supply of material soecifie to be within stated grading limits

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Principles of Sieving
A single test sieve separates a particulate material into two fractions of which one is retained by the sieving medium
and the other passes through its apertures. The effectiveness of a sieving technique depends on the amount pf
material put on the sieve (“the charge”) and the type of movement imparted to the sieve. If the charge is too large,
the bed of material on the sieving medium will be too many particles deep to allow each one a chance to meet an
aperture in the most favourable position for gauging in a reasonable time. The charge, therefore is limited by a
requirement for the maximum amount of material retained at the end of sieving appropriate to the aperture size.
On the other hand, the sample to be sieved must contain enough particles to be representative of the
consignment, so a minimum size of sample is specified. In some cases, the sample will have to be subdivided into a
number of charges if the requirement for preventing overloading of the sizes is to be satisfied.

Sampling
Preparation of the Sample
Precise sampling is a necessary condition for obtaining accurate results for sieve tests. Therefore, just as
much care should be taken width the sampling as with actual sieving.

The method of sampling used should be such that the sample taken for sieving is truly representative of the
material from which it has been drawn. The most suitable method will depend both on the material and the
form in which it is presented, for example, whether it is in bags, in a heap or flowing as a continuous stream.
It is not possible to specify one method that is applicable to all materials, and precise sampling methods
should be specified for particular materials and circumstances.

As an illustration consider the following:

In the case where a conical pile is to be sampled using a shovel, it has to be noted that at the apex of the
conical pile , the proportion of fines is excessive. At the base, the proportion of coarse material is excessive.
Therefore sampling should be done in such away that the overall sample is a composite of small quantities
taken at random from as many parts of the pile as are accessible so that proportion of coarse and fines in the
composite will be the same as in the original material.

Where the material is flowing in a chute or launder (either with or without water). The ideal place to take
the sample is just where the material drops from the chute. This can be achieved by using a specially built
receptacle which can be swung completely across the flowing stream in a brief interval of time, so as to take
“all of the stream part of the time”. Under no circumstances should the sampling receptacle be allowed to
overflow.

Division of the Sample

The original sample as generated from the sampling campaign is often too large for direct use in a sieve test.
It must therefore be reduced. In reducing the sample, it is just as important to ensure that the final quantity
(test sample) taken for sieving is truly representative of the original sample in order to maintain the
properties or characteristics of the original sample.

Division of the sample can be achieved by several ways:

(i) Coning and Quartering

The sample should piled in a cone, each shovelful going to the centre of the cone and allowed to
run down equally all directions-this will mix the sample. Then spread out in a circle and walk
around the pile gradually widening the circle with a shovel until the material is spread out to a
uniform thickness.

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Mark the flat pile into quarters, and reject two opposite quarters. Mix again by shovelling the
material into a conical pile, taking alternate shovelfuls from the two quarters saved. Continue the
process of piling, flattening, and rejecting two quarters until the sample is reduced to the required
size.

(ii) Sample Splitters

Samples taken with mechanical sampling devices are more reliable than samples taken by hand. As
the sample obtained by the above methods is usually too large for sieve testing it must be cut down
by suitable means. For this a sample splitter can be used which will cut the sample in half with each
pass. The sample splitter (or riffler) will reduce a large sample to a quantity suitable for making sieve
tests and still retain in the small sample the same proportion of fines and coarse particles. The
sample splitter divides the sample into halves and by repeating the operation, the sample can be
split into quarters, eighths, sixteenths, etc as desired

(iii) Sample Reducer

This type reduces the time and labour required to obtain representative samples of 10lbs or over,
maximum particle size of approximately ½ inch. This device cuts out a representative sixteenth part
of the material fed to it by merely passing the material through it once.

Standard Sieves

Test sieves are designated by the nominal aperture size which is the nominal central separation of apposite sides of
a square aperture or the nominal diameter of a round aperture. Sieves with various size openings are available and
the opening sizes have been standardized. The two common sizes used in the US are the Tyler sieve series and the
US sieve series. Tyler series is standardized based on the 200 mesh sieve with average opening size of 0.0029
inches, where as the US sieve series is based on the 19 mesh sieve with an opening of 1.00 mm. Successive sieves in
these series have openings in the fixed ratio of square root of two in the standard series and square root of four in
the expanded series. Similar standards are also available in Europe and are designated as British Engineering
Standards series in UK (BSS 410 etc), AFNOR in France and DIN in Germany.

Choice of Sieve Sizes

In each of the standard series the apertures of the consecutive sieves bear a constant relationship to each other.
The ratio between the different sizes of the screen scale has been taken as 1.414 or the square root of 2. the width
of each successive opening is exactly 1.414 times the width of opening in the previous sieve. It also makes the area
or surface of each successive opening in the scale just double that of the next finer or half that of the next coarser
sieve. In other words, the width of the successive openings have a constant ratio of 1.414, while the area of the

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successive openings have a constant ratio of 2. The above scale in known as the √2 progression. The advantage of
such a scale is that the aperture areas double at each sieve facilitating graphical presentation of results.

Size Analysis by Sieving

Size analysis by sieving is performed in both wet and dry conditions. Wet sieving is usually preferred for particle
that have a tendency agglomerate, a problem commonly noted during sieving in the finer size range. In addition,
wet sieving minimizes problem of dust emission and the resultant errors in size analysis. On the other hand, dry
screening is reasonably accurate for sieving of coarse particles and is faster as drying of the size fractions is not
needed. Certain form of mechanical shaking or vibration is essential with sieving

Size analysis by sieving is accomplished by stacking sieves one over other in the order of increasing size of openings
and by shaking to cause complete fractionation. The two commonly used laboratory equipment are the Rotap and
Syntron sieve shakers manufactured by Tyler Company and Syntron Company respectively. The shaking
mechanism is a combination of circular and tapping motion in the Rotap shaker, whereas vibratory motion is used
in the Syntron machine. Similar instruments are also available for separation of particles using the micromesh
sieves.

Sieving Procedure
Principles of Test Sieving: Test sieving is carried out with a single test sieve or with a series of test sieves with
different nominal aperture sizes. A lid and a receiver pan should be included in both cases where appropriate. The
number of sieves used in the test should be sufficient to give the requisite information about the material, and to
avoid excessive wear or blinding. The procedure consists in gently placing the material to be sieved on the test sieve
with a specified nominal aperture size and separating the material by shaking, tapping or washing into oversize and
undersize. In sieving successively with test sieves of different aperture sizes, the test sample is separated into size
fractions designated by the aperture sizes of the test sieves used.

The following conditions should be laid down beforehand

(a) method of sieving, dry, wet or a combination of both

(b) number of sieves to be used and their aperture sizes
(c) Frame size and shape
(d) Type of sieving medium i.e. woven wire or perforated plate; if the latter, square holes or round
holes, material of construction

In establishing a procedure for standardization of sieve analyses we must consider the size or weight of sample to
be tested, the length of the sieving time, required accuracy of test, and the type test-wet or dry.

Size of sample to be Tested

In determining the size or weight of a sample, we must consider the type of material, its screenability, and the
range of particle sizes present. For example in making a sieve analysis of a material representing a feed to a screen
or product from a crusher in which the particle range is very wide, a large sample of from 500 to 1000g may be
required. If the material to be tested is a finely ground finished product, a sample of 25 to 100 grammes should be
used.

The general rule in determining the size of a sample is that it be limited in weight so that no sieve in the series
used in the analysis be overloaded. Over loading is most likely to occur in making analyses on closely graded
materials where the range of particle size is confined to close limits. In this case the size of sample should be

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determined by the capacity without overloading of the sieve retaining the largest amount of the sample. Over
loading of the sieves results in unreliable data as blinding of the meshes occurs on the heavily loaded sieve.

As an aid in determining the size of the sample, the following procedure is suggested:
Accurately split out on a sample splitter samples of varying weights- as for example 25, 50, 100, 150 and 200g of
the material. Then run these various samples on the sieves selected for a period of say 5 minutes. A comparison of
these results will definitely show the correct size of sample to use.

For example, if the 100g sample shows approximately the same results in percentages retained and passing the
sieves as the 50g sample, whereas the 150g sample shows less material through the finest sieve, thus would be an
indication that a 100g sample would be satisfactory for tests.

The quantity of material to be placed on a sieve depends on:

(a) the sieve aperture size
(b) the apparent bulk density of the material
(c) the cross sectional area of the sieve
(d) the proportion of oversize material (determined if necessary by preliminary sieving)

Largest Particle Permitted on a Test Sieve

To avoid damage to the sieve, the size of the largest particle in the charge should not exceed 10W 0.7mm where W
is the nominal aperture size

Examples

Norminal Aperture Size W Approximate Size of Largest

Particle (mm)
4 mm 26
1 mm 10
250 um 3.8
45 um 1.2

Material and equipment used should include a set of standard sieves (ranging from 4 mesh to 10 mesh with lid
and pan), sieve shaker and material to sieved (about 200 -300g)

The procedure is outlined as follows:

▪ Weigh out approximately 100 grams of sample.

▪ Set up the sieve rack from coarse at the top to fine at the bottom. Attach the pan to the bottom of the
sieve rack.
▪ Dump the sample into the top of the rack and cover.
▪ Place the sieve rack on the sieve shaker, securely fasten, and run the shaker for 20-30 minutes.
▪ Remove the sieve rack and weigh the amount of sediment collected on each sieve and in the pan.
▪ Add these values and compare the sum to the original weight. The difference should not be greater
than 1%.
▪ Thoroughly clean the sieves using the soft-bristle brushes.

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Screening Efficiency

Screening efficiency is defined is defined as the ratio of the weight of material passing through a certain sieve to
the total weight of the material smaller than the sieve opening. Size analysis by sieving is inherently inaccurate and
there is no such thing as 100 percent screening efficiency. Screening is very sensitive to several operating variables
such as a) size distribution and surface properties of the particles, b) aperture size of the sieve c) diameter of the
wire constituting the sieve surface, d) method of shaking, and, e) particle loading on the sieve surface. The
mathematical expression for screening efficiency is approximated by the expression for performance of screens:

Expression for Performance of screens

Rejection = 1 - "Recovery" of undesired fraction

If xP is the fraction of desired material in product

xF is the fraction of desired material in feed
P is the product mass flow rate
F is the feed mass flow rate.

By substituting from the mass balance

where xR is the fraction of desired material in the reject stream.

A good sieve must simultaneously pass small particles and not pass large ones, either of these requirements is not
enough to produce a good product efficiently.

The Sieve Size Scale

In order that comparisons are valid as well as to facilitate exchange of information, sizing is based on a standard
scale. From experience it has been found that the most satisfactory scale is one in which the successive sizes form a
geometric scale. The reference point is 74 microns (0.074mm), which is the aperture on a 200 mesh woven wire
sieve. The ratio of the successive sizes in the standard scale is √2 which means that the area of the opening of any
sieve in the series is twice that of the sieve just it but only one half of the area of the sieve next above it in the
series.

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

Presentation of Results of Screen Analysis

There are different methods of plotting the results of screen analysis. The most widely used are considered here.
Normally the weight functions are plotted as ordinates and the size functions as abscissa.

Direct Plot

In this plot, the mesh numbers in equal spacing along the abscissa are plotted against the weight % retained. In
place of the mesh number, the corresponding size in millimeters or microns can also be plotted. The weight
plotted at a given size is that of the material retained on the screen of that aperture and passing next coarser
screen. An example of this plot for typical screen analysis is given in Figure 1.0 and 2.0

Cumulative Direct Plot

An example of this plot for the same sieve analysis data is given in Figure 3.0. In this plot the, the cumulative
weight % retained or passing has been plotted against size in microns. A quick and easy method for determining
the 80% passing size is also indicated in the same plot. This type of plot is the commonly used.

Size, Microns Size, Microns

Fig 1: Direct Plot of Size Analysis Data Fig 2: Direct Plot of Size Analysis Data

Size, Microns
Fig 3: Cumulative Direct Plot of Size Data

By cumulative per cent is meant the total amount of the product which would remain on a testing sieve or pass
through a testing sieve if only one sieve were used for testing the whole sample.

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

Semi Log Plot

An example of this plot is given in Fig 4.0. This method of representation screen analysis data is more precise.
Method of determining 80% passing size is also indicating. The semi – log size goes from fine to coarse along the
axis.

Log (size, microns)

Fig 4.0: Cumulative Semi – log Plot

Log – Log Plot

An example of this plot is given Fig 5.0. It is also called the Gaudin – Schuhmann plot. It is the plot of cumulative
wt% finer or passing on each screen is plotted as Y against corresponding particle size on X axis both on
logarithmic scale. In the Gaudin – Schuhmann plot the curve in the finer size ranges is a straight line while in the
coarser size ranges deviation from linearity is observed. The portion of the curve represented by the straight line is
given the expression:

m
 x
Y = 100 
k
Where:

Y = cumulative wt% finer than size x

x = particle size
k = size modulus which indicates the maximum theoretical size of particle in the sample
m = distribution modulus (slope of the line)

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

m
Distributio
n Modulus

Interpolation
in the finer
size range

Particle Size (µm) X k

Fig 5.0: Log – Log Plot (Gaudin – Schuhmann plot

The utility of the log – log plot is demonstrated by the fact that by extrapolation, based on the schuhmann plot
being a straight line, it is possible to make an assessment of the percentages of particle sizes down at least 5 µm.

The value of “m”, the distribution modulus, is a quantitative measure for particle size distribution. From Fig 6.0
below

m1

m2

Fig 6.0: Profiles of Particle Size Distribution

Modulus

The greater the value of m, the narrow the size distribution, the more uniform the particle size will be. The smaller
the value of m, the wider the size distribution, the less uniform the particle size will tend to be.

K
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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

For the particle size distribution shown in the figure above, determine the value of m at particle size x of 210µm.
The corresponding value of Y at x = 210µm is 37.66%. Using the expression:

m
 x
Y = 100 
k
m
 210 
37.66 = 100 
 1400 
37.66 = 100(0.15)
m


log(37.66) = log 100(0.15)
m

log(37.66) = log100 + m log(0.15)
1.57588 = 2.00 + m(− 0.82591)
m = 0.52

Useful Applications of Size Analysis Data

1.0 Comparative efficiencies of crushing or grinding units for plant purposes are studied by relating the work
done and the product sizes when an ore is crushed in different types of crushers or ground in different
types of mills.
2.0 Particle surface areas can be calculated from sizing analyses data. The results can be reported as cm 2 of
surface area per gramme of sample.
3.0 Estimating the power required to crush and or grind an ore from a given feed size to a given product size.
The base from which such a calculation is made is the screen size at which 80% (by weight) of the feed to
the crushing unit will pass and the screen size at which 80% of the product from the crusher will pass.
This information can be used to estimate plant energy or power requirements.
4.0 The calculation of the sizing efficiency of a classifier or cyclone can be closely estimated from screen
analyses of the feed and products from such an operation.

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

Table 1.0: Typical Sieve Analysis Data of an Ore

Sieve Size Nominal Cumulative
Wt% % %
Mesh No. Microns Particle Size Retained Retained Passing
½ inch 13,500 16,054.30 15.66 15.66 84.34
5/16 inc 9,510 11,330.71 12.96 28.62 71.38
3 6,730 8,000.14 14.04 42.66 57.34
4 4,760 5,659.93 8.84 51.50 48.50
6 3,360 3,999.20 7.10 58.60 41.40
8 2,380 2,827.86 5.69 64.29 35.71
12 1,680 1,999.60 4.24 68.53 31.47
16 1,190 1,413.93 3.23 71.76 28.24
20 841 1,000.39 2.66 74.42 25.58
30 595 707.39 2.67 77.09 22.91
35 400 487.85 1.47 78.56 21.44
50 297 344.67 3.85 82.41 17.59
70 210 249.74 2.57 84.98 15.02
100 149 176.89 2.82 87.80 12.20
140 105 125.08 2.05 89.85 10.15
200 74 88.15 1.82 91.67 8.33
270 53 62.63 1.40 93.07 6.93
-270 5 16.28 6.93 100.00 0.00
100.00

Characterization of Solid Particles

Individual solid particles are characterized by

their size, shape, and density.
Dp: equivalent diameter of particle
Particle Shape
Sp: surface area of one particle
The shape of an individual particle is expressed
in terms of the sphericity F s, which is vp: volume of one particle
independent of particle size. The sphericity of a
The equivalent diameter is sometimes defined as
particle is the ratio of the surface-volume ratio
the diameter of a sphere of equal volume. For
of a sphere with equal volume as the particle
fine particles, Dp is usually taken to be the
and the surface-volume ratio of the particle. For
nominal size based on screen analysis or
a spherical particle of diameter D p, F s =1; for a
microscopic analysis. The surface area is found
non-spherical particle, the sphericity is defined
from adsorption measurements or from the
as
pressure drop in a bed of particles. For many
crushed materials, F s is between 0.6 and 0.8.

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

For particles rounded by abrasion, F s may be as Specific surface of mixture

high as 0.95.
If the particle density r p and spericity F s are
Particle size known, the surface area of particles in each
fraction can be calculated and added to give the
In general "diameter" may be specified for any specific surface, Aw.
equidimensional particles. Particles that are not
equidimensional, i.e. that are longer in one
direction than in others, are often characterised
by the second longest major dimension. For
needle like particles, Dp would refer to the
thickness of the particle, not their length. Units where xi = mass fraction in a given increment,
used for particle size depend on the size of
= average diameter, taken as arithmetic
particles.
average of the smallest and largest particle
diameters in increment.
Coarse particles: inches or millimetres
Average particle size
Fine particles: screen size

Very fine particles: micrometers or nanometers (1). Volume-surface mean diameter, , defined
by
Ultra fine particles: surface area per unit mass,
m2/g

Mixed particle sizes and size analysis

In a sample of uniform particles of diameter Dp, If the number of particles in each fraction Ni is
the total volume of the particles is m/r p, where known, then
m = mass of the sample, r p = density. Since the
volume of one particle is vp, the total number of
particle in the sample is

(2). Arithmetic mean diameter

The total surface area of the particles is

To apply the above two equations to mixtures of

particles having various size and densities, the
mixture is sorted into fractions, each of constant NT = number of particles in the entire sample
density and approximately constant size.

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Chapter 2: Particles Size Analysis

(3). Mass mean diameter Number of particles in mixture

The volume of any particle is proportional to its

"diameter" cubed.

(4). Volume mean diameter

a = volume shape factor

Assuming that a is independent of size

Histogramm

Histogram and Cumulative Curve

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MT 335: Mineral Processing