Basin-wise Water Resources

Assessment using space Inputs

PET Estimation

B. SIMHADRI RAO
Water Resources Group
National Remote Sensing Centre
 Water Resources Assessment - Rainfall Grid

Rainfall Data
 Daily rainfall grids developed IMD
 Spatial resolution of 0.5 degree
used in the pilot study
 Presently 0.25 degree gridded data
is available
 Period - 1901 to 2010 years
 Rainfall unit in mm

 Developed using 6995 rain gauge stations

 Spatial interpolation for converting point rainfall into grid data
 Inverse Distance Weighing scheme of interpolation
 Water Resources Assessment - Rainfall Grid

Rainfall Data
 0.25 degree gridded data is available (*.GRD format)
 The data file is arranged 138 X 130 grid points
 Data on the grid is from South to North
 First data grid corresponds to Latitude of 6.50 N
 Last data grid corresponds to Latitude of 37.50 N
 First data grid corresponds to Longitude of 66.50 E
 Last data grid corresponds to Longitude of 100.50 E

Pai.D.S., Sridhar.L., Rajeevan.M., Sreejith.O.P., Satbhai.N.S. and Mukhopadyay.B.

“Development and Analysis of a new high spatial resolution (0.250 X 0.250) long period
(1901-2010) daily gridded rainfall data set over India”, NCC Research Report, Sept 2013
 Water Resources Assessment - Rainfall Grid

Rainfall Data

T year T+1 year

Daily Rainfall Daily Rainfall

Monthly Rainfall Monthly Rainfall

Monthly Rainfall
for Water Year
 Water Resources Assessment - Temperature Grid

Temperature Data
 Daily temperature grids developed IMD
 Spatial resolution of 1 degree used in
the pilot study
 Period - 1969 to 2009 years (*.GRD
format)

 Developed using 395 stations

 Spatial interpolation for converting point data into grid data
 Modified version of Shepard angular distance weighting algorithm
 Water Resources Assessment - Temperature Grid

Temperature Data
 1 degree gridded data is available (*.GRD format)
 The data file is arranged 32 X 35 grid points
 Data on the grid is from South to North
 First data grid corresponds to Latitude of 6.50 N
 Last data grid corresponds to Latitude of 37.50 N
 First data grid corresponds to Longitude of 66.50 E
 Last data grid corresponds to Longitude of 100.50 E

Srivastava.A.K., Rajeevan.M. and Kshirsagar.S.R. “Development and Analysis of a high

resolution daily gridded temperature data set (1901-2010) for the Indian region”, NCC
Research Report, Jun 2008
 Water Resources Assessment - Temperature Grid

Temperature Data

T year T+1 year

Daily Mean Daily Mean

Temperature Temperature

Monthly Mean Monthly Mean

Temperature Temperature

Monthly Mean
Temperature for
Water Year
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Evaporation

• Evaporation is the process whereby liquid

water is converted to water vapour and
removed from the evaporating surface.
• Water evaporating surfaces are such as lakes,
river, soil, etc.

Transpiration

Transpiration is the process whereby liquid

water contained in plant tissues is
converted to water vapour and removed
through stomata opening to the
atmosphere.
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Evapotranspiration

• Evapotranspiration is the process whereby evaporation and transpiration

occurring simultaneously.
• Not easily distinguishable between two processes.
• Normally expressed in ‘mm’

Factors influencing ET
• Temperature
• Relative Humidity
• Wind and air movement
• Soil moisture availability
• Type of vegetation
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

• C. Warren Thronthwaite coined the term ‘Potential Evapotranspiration’

in 1944

• It is the idealised quantity of water evaporated per unit area, per unit
time from an idealised, extensive free water surface under existing
atmospheric conditions
• It is the amount of evapotranspiration with unlimited water supply
• It is considered as atmospheric demand for moisture from a surface
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

• The ET rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
• Reference surface is a hypothetical reference crop with an assumed
crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface resistance of 70s/m and an albedo
of 0.23
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

Factors affecting ET
• Weather parameters
 Radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind speed
• Crop factors
 Crop type,
roughness, variety
and development
stage

• Management and
Environmental
conditions
 Soil salinity, land fertility,
cultivation practices,
application of fertilisers,
pesticides, etc.
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

 Reference Crop
Evapotranspiration (ET0) is for
reference crop considering
weather conditions

 Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) is

for considering crop factors by
introducing crop coefficient (Kc)

 Crop Evapotranspiration (Etc adj) is

for considering management and
environmental conditions by
introducing Water stress
coefficient (Ks)
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

ET Estimation Methods Direct Methods

• Lysimeter
Based on Principle
• Field experimental plots
• Direct methods
• Water balance method
• Energy Balance methods
• Mass Transfer methods

Energy Balance Methods ET = (Rn – G – H)/λ

Rn Net radiation
G Soil heat flux
H Sensible heat flux
λ Latent heat of vaporisation

Mass Transfer Methods • Eddy Covariance

 Suitable for field plot levels • Bowen Ratio Bowen ratio = H/LE
LE Latent heat flux = λ * ET
λ Latent heat of vaporisation
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

ET Estimation Methods Meteorological Data

• Radiation
Based on Data source • Air temperature
• Direct measurements • Wind speed
• Relative humidity
• Meteorological data
• Satellite data

Satellite Data ET = (Rn – G – H)/λ

• Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL)
Rn Net radiation
• Surface Energy Balance Index (SEBI) G Soil heat flux
H Sensible heat flux
• ET Mapping Algorithm (ETMA) λ Latent heat of vaporisation

• Mapping ET with Internalised Calibration (METRIC)

Energy balance models use satellite data to compute Albedo, Leaf Area Index,
Vegetation Indices, Surface Emissivity, and Surface Temperature from VIS, NIR
and TIR bands
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

ET Estimation Methods

Based on Data Type

• Temperature based methods
• Radiation based methods
• Combination based methods (Energy balance + Mass balance)
Temperature Methods
 Air temperature is assumed to represent the resultant of all fluxes of energy
 Suitable only when air temperature is available

Radiation Methods
 Suitable only when Rn and T are available and wind speed and RH is not
available

Combination Methods
 Suitable when all weather data such as Rn , T, U, RH, etc, are available
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

FAO 24 - ET Estimation Methods

To accommodate users with different data availability the following methods

were presented
Blaney-Criddle Method
 For areas where only air temperature data is available

Modified Penman Method

 To offer best results with minimum possible error in relation to a living grass
reference crop
Radiation Method
 For areas where climatic data such as air temperature, sun shine, cloudiness
or radiation is available
Pan Evaporation Method
 This method assumed to give acceptable estimates for periods of ten
days or longer
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

FAO 24 - ET Estimation Methods

Many studies confirm the following observations on these methods

Blaney-Criddle Method
 Basically empirical in nature and require local calibration to achieve
satisfactory results
Modified Penman Method
 This method found to over estimate ET0 even by up to 20% for low
evaporative conditions
 My require local calibration of wind function to achieve satisfactory results
Radiation Method
 This method show good results in humid climates but performance in arid
conditions is erratic and tends to under estimate ET
Pan Evaporation Method
 This method clearly reflect the shortcomings of estimating crop ET from
open water evaporation and their performance proves erratic
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

FAO 24 - ET Estimation Methods

Many studies confirm the following observations on P-M method

Penman-Monteith Method
 Relatively accurate
 Consistent performance in both arid and humid climates
 This method with strong likelihood of correctly estimating ET in a wider
range of locations and climates
 This method has provision for application in data short situations
 Many alternative are available to estimating missing climatic data
 FAO56 recommended as the sole standard method
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

Temperature Methods

• Thronthwaite method
• Hargreaves method
• Blaney-Criddle method

Hargreaves method (1985) PET = 0.0023(Tmean + 17.8) (Tmax - Tmin )HE Ra

Tmean Daily mean air temperature in 0 C
Tmax Daily max. air temperature in 0 C
Tmin Daily min. air temperature in 0 C
Ra Extraterrestrial Radiation MJ/m2/day
HE usually taken as 0.5

Blaney-Criddle method PET = a + b [p(0.46*Tmean + 8.13)]

Tmean Daily mean air temperature in 0 C
a, b parameters f(RH, n/N)
p mean daily % of total annual daytime in hrs.
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

Radiation Methods
Hammon method (1987)

• Hammon method
• Priestley Taylor method
• FAO Radiation method
Tmean Daily mean air temperature in 0 C
Ht average no. of day light hours per day
es Saturation vapour pressure in kPa
Priestley Taylor method (1972)

FAO Radiation method (1991)

c f(min. Daily RH, mean ratio of n/N)

Rs Solar radiation
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

Combination Methods

• Penman method
• Penman Monteith method

Howard Penman (1948)

developed the combined
energy balance and mass
balance equation for
estimating potential
evaporation from an open
water surface
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

Combination Methods
Penman Monteith method
• Monteith (1965) introduced ‘surface resistance’ term
• Surface resistance accounts for resistance of vapour flow though the
transpiring crop and evaporation soil surface.
• Aerodynamic resistance accounts for transfer of heat and water vapour from
the evaporating surface into the air above the canopy
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

Combination Methods

Penman Monteith method

• Combined energy
balance and mass
transfer

• Regarded as most
accurate method

• Recommended by FAO56
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation Methods

Combination Methods

Penman Monteith method

• Meteorological data such as solar radiation, air temperature, saturated

vapour pressure, actual vapour pressure and wind speed is required

Assumptions
• Steady state energy flow prevails
• Changes in heat storage are not significant (i.e. not adequate for a
waterbody)
Limitation
• Surface resistance (rs) depends on vegetation
• If this method is used over a large area with different kind of vegetation, rs
estimation becomes non accurate
• It (rs) becomes more non accurate if the area contains spots without
vegetation
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Thronthwaite Method
Monthly Mean
• Mainly based on the air temperature Temperature
data only
• It is assumed that air temperature is Monthly Heat
resultant of the integrated effects of Index
net radiation and other energy fluxes
• Mostly widely used among
temperature based methods Annual Heat
Index
• No correction of different vegetation
types

PET Estimation
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Thronthwaite Method

𝐭𝐧 𝟏.𝟓𝟏𝟒 j = monthly heat index

Monthly heat index (j) j = ( ) tn = monthly mean temperature, in 0c
𝟓

Annual heat index (J) J = 𝞢𝐣

𝟏𝟎𝐭𝐧 𝐚
Potential ET PET = 𝟏𝟔𝐟( )
𝐉
Where ‘a’ is the cubic function of J
−𝟗 −𝟕
𝐚 = 𝟔𝟕𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 𝐉𝟑 - 𝟕𝟕𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 𝐉𝟐 + (179*10-4)J + 0.492
f = factor, to correct for unequal day length between months
depending on the latitude
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Thronthwaite Method

Monthly correction factors for unequal day length

Latit Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ude
N
0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
10 0.97 0.98 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.06 1.05 1.03 1.08 0.99 0.98 0.96
20 0.93 0.96 1.00 1.05 1.09 1.11 1.10 1.07 1.03 0.98 0.93 0.91
30 0.87 0.93 1.00 1.08 1.14 1.18 1.16 1.10 1.03 0.96 0.88 0.85
40 0.80 0.89 0.99 1.10 1.20 1.25 1.23 1.15 1.04 0.93 0.83 0.78
50 0.72 0.84 0.98 1.15 1.28 1.37 1.33 1.21 1.06 0.90 0.76 0.68
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Revised PET Estimation

Revised PET = PET X L

Where L = Land use coefficient, varies

with the land cover type

Land use coefficient is introduced to correct ET demand for different

vegetation types since the original Thrnothwaite method does not
correct for vegetation types
 Water Resources Assessment - PET Estimation

Revised PET Estimation

Godavari basin

Land use coefficients

for each month to
estimate revised PET