April 2011
TECHNICAL NOTE
Fire Damaged Reinforced Concrete –
Investigation, Assessment And Repair 102
INTRODUCTION EFFECTS OF FIRE ON CONCRETE
The purpose of this Technical Note is to summarize levels of Changes in Colour and Temperature of Concrete
damage to and effects of fire on concrete and to describe The colour change of concrete is a very important indication
technical requirements for the satisfactory investigation, of the effect of fire. Colour change provides a very good
assessment and repair of fire damaged reinforced concrete visual guide to estimating the temperature range to which
bridges and other structures. concrete has been exposed at various depths during the fire.
Elevated temperatures result in significant modifications to
LEVELS OF FIRE DAMAGE TO CONCRETE the concrete microstructure, associated with dehydration
Concrete can sustain various degrees of damage of the cementitious paste, modifications to the aggregate/
depending on the severity of the fire and the high paste interface, and micro-cracking. These modifications
temperature levels reached. are detrimental to concrete performance. The common
changes in concrete properties associated with various
The effects on concrete components of high temperature
peak temperatures are as follows:
fire includes:
Up to 120oC: Oven-drying temperature has negligible
reduction in compressive strength;
effect or damage on the pore system or microstructure
micro-cracking within the concrete microstructure; of concrete. There is no change in colour. Only
colour changes consistent with strength reductions; free moisture is lost from within the concrete
reduction in the modulus of elasticity; microstructure. There is no significant change in the
various degrees of spalling; properties of concrete up to these temperatures. For
temperatures lower than 120oC, concrete porosity
loss of bond between concrete and steel;
varies very little and the shape and pore size distribution
possible loss of residual strength of steel curves shows no significant modification (6, 7).
reinforcement and possible loss of tension in
Up to 250oC: Characterised by localised cracks and
prestressing tendons (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
dehydration of the cementitious paste with complete
The more severe fire damage would also involve the total loss of free moisture and a reduction in paste volume.
exposure of main bars, significant exposure of prestressing Commencent of strength reduction (Fig 1).
tendons, significant cracking and spalling, buckling of steel
300oC - 600oC: Significant cracking of both the
reinforcement and even significant fracture and deflection
cementitious paste and aggregates due to expansion.
of concrete components (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).
Colour of concrete changes to pink (Fig 2).
Fire damage to bridges is not a frequent occurrence At 400 oC: Decomposition of calcium hydroxide.
compared to fire in commercial, domestic or industrial
Greater than 600oC: Complete dehydration of the
buildings. A fire in a building can be fuelled and maintained
cementitious paste with considerable shrinkage
by an abundance of combustible materials. A bridge usually
cracking, honeycombing and generally concrete
has no inherent fuel load and a fire may be the result of a
becoming friable, very porous and easily broken down.
vehicle collision, particularly involving fuels, cargo, tyres
Colour of concrete changes to grey. Strength lost.
or other flammable materials. Fire can cause significant
disruption to the operation of a bridge and the travelling Greater than 900oC: Colour of concrete changes to buff.
public, depending on the extent and severity of damage Greater than 1200oC: The various components of
and whether pre-stressing steel is involved. Immediate concrete start to melt.
safety measures may include totally or partially closing a Greater than 1400oC: Concrete melts completely.
bridge, reduced speed limits as part of an overall traffic
management response, posting a load limit or placing
netting to collect fragments of spalling concrete.
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2 TECHNICAL NOTE - No. 102 : April 2011
At approximately 300oC the cementitious paste and Modulus of Elasticity
aggregates containing iron salts, which are commonly In the temperature range of up to 300oC the loss in modulus
present in concrete aggregates, turn pink (Fig 2). According of elasticity of concrete is similar to the loss in strength and
to research this is also the point at which a significant loss in the order of 40%. At around 550oC the loss in modulus
of strength takes place due to the heating of the concrete. of elasticity is in the order of 50%.
Siliceous aggregates are characterised by a colour change
to pink under these extreme temperatures, although it is TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON STEEL
important to note that concrete which has not turned pink
does not mean that it has not been damaged by fire. Any Steel reinforcement
investigation must be undertaken with caution. Steel reinforcement (depending on the type) can lose up to
The above fire effects on concrete apply to all types of 50% of its yield strength while at elevated temperatures of
fires irrespective of the initiating and propagating fuel (for the order of 600oC. However, it can fully recover its yield
example, rubber tyres, tanker fuel, bush and grass fires). strength on cooling from temperatures of up to 450oC for
However, the intensity and duration of the fire may vary cold worked steel and up to 600oC for hot rolled steel. At
depending on the availability and combustible nature of the temperatures higher than these, the loss in yield strength is
fuel. The extent of the resultant distress also depends on permanent, reducing to mild steel levels on cooling. The
the proximity of the fire to the concrete surface. Appropriate modulus of elasticity of steel is also significantly reduced
fire retardant chemicals may be used for the protection of while steel is at elevated temperatures.
road and bridge assets from bushfires (TN 67) (8).
Pre-stressing Tendons
Spalling Pre-stressing steel is more susceptible to fire damage
Spalling of the concrete will occur when the intensity of and elevated temperatures, compared to normal steel
the fire is such that moisture trapped within the concrete reinforcement because the loss in strength of the order of
microstructure, (Fig 1), achieves bursting pressures, due to 50% occurs at the lower temperature of about 400oC. Loss
the generation of superheated steam, sufficient to crack of tension in the pre-stressing tendons can be a combination
and spall the concrete. Unequal rates of thermal expansion of the elevated temperature effects on strength and loss in
between the aggregates, cementitious paste and reinforcing the modulus of elasticity of the concrete.
steel, and water quenching during fire suppression, can also
increase spalling due to thermal shock, strain differences and
Bond between steel and concrete
pressure causing micro-cracking and further strength losses. The bond between steel and concrete can be adversely
The two types of spalling that generally take place are the affected at temperatures higher than 300oC because of the
explosive type (Fig 2) due to moisture trapped within the greater thermal conductivity of steel compared to the cover
interconnected void space of the concrete microstructure concrete and differences in thermal expansion properties.
and a gradual detachment, of the concrete surface skin from
a plane of weakness (Fig 3). INVESTIGATION AND ASSESSMENT OF
FIRE DAMAGED CONCRETE
Soot and Smoke Deposits
The investigation and assessment of fire damaged
Soot blackening and smoke deposits on concrete components
concrete comprises both visual inspection and the use
are a direct by-product of an intense fire (Fig 2). These can be
of various tests to establish the full extent of damage and
deposited during the height of the fire although soot can also
the residual quality of the in-situ concrete. The visual
be deposited while the intensity of the fire is abating.
inspection should be supplemented with consideration
of temperature effects of fire damage on concrete, the
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON CONCRETE physical properties, petrographic examination, temperature
Strength of Concrete effects on reinforcing steel and prestressing strands and the
temperature effects on the concrete/steel interaction.
A significant loss of strength in the order of 30% - 40%
takes place once the temperature of concrete has reached Extraction of Concrete Cores
300oC. This is the result of significant internal cracking
During the inspection, concrete cores may be extracted
of the cementitious paste and aggregates due to thermal
from both fire damaged areas and from sound concrete
expansion, as well as the incompatibility between the paste
further away from the damage (Fig 4). The purpose of
and the steel reinforcement within the concrete. Above
obtaining the concrete cores is to:
about 500oC - 600oC more than 70% to 80% strength
reduction takes place due to the resultant friable and Enable compressive strength testing and relative
porous microstructure which lies in the grey to buff colour comparison between fire-affected and unaffected
range. In the temperature range of 150oC - 300oC the loss areas, and petrographic examination of the fire
of strength ranges between 5% and 30%. damaged concrete.
TECHNICAL NOTE - No. 102 : April 2011 3
Establish visually the depth of fire-affected concrete with REPAIR OF FIRE-DAMAGED CONCRETE
respect to both steel reinforcement and prestressing
tendons (Fig 2 and 5). Following the investigation and assessment of visual and
temperature effects of the fire damage on concrete and
Cores are usually 75 mm or 100 mm diameter for strength
steel, a detailed repair process can be developed (TN 72) (11).
and petrology testing, although they can be smaller.
Standard practice for fire-damaged concrete requires that all
Cores as small as 20 mm may be required from between
the severely fire affected concrete be removed from behind
pre-stressing tendons, often located at 50mm centres
the steel reinforcement and pre-stressing tendons, to a
both vertically and horizontally. Accurate positioning of
depth of at least one bar diameter. The removed concrete is
the drilling equipment must be achieved, probably within
then replaced with flowable or hand/trowel applied polymer
an accuracy of better than 2 mm.
modified cementitious materials or spray applied gunite
Enable a visual inspection of any internal surfaces of cementitious repair materials (Fig 5, 6).
voided superstructure components using suitable
However, it is considered that although the fire-damaged
lighting through adjacent cored holes.
concrete must be removed behind the normal steel
Strength Assessment reinforcement to afford a good mechanical key and effect
a good concrete repair, the pre-stressing tendons may not
Strength assessment can be based on actual concrete
have to be exposed any further if they are not physically
core compressive strength testing (including conversion
damaged or unravelled. It is considered that leaving
to equivalent cylinder strength based on corrected core
prestressing tendons undisturbed in somewhat lower quality,
strength), consideration of Schmidt Hammer test results
yet bonded concrete is a better result rather than replacing
(in accordance with ASTM C805)(9) and physical appraisal
that concrete with repair materials. The effectiveness and
using a hand-held hammer during the inspection of the
efficiency of the prestress transfer to the existing fire-
fire affected concrete structure. Knowledge of the original
affected concrete would be superior to that developed after
design compressive strength can be very useful in the overall
removal of the fire-affected concrete and replacement with
strength assessment. Hand-held hammer testing during
a material which will not provide composite prestress action
the visual inspection, both on fire-damaged concrete and
after the repair.
sound concrete, can provide some initial indication of the
relative quality compared to undamaged concrete. A step-by-step repair procedure should be undertaken in
accordance with the requirements of VicRoads Specification,
The estimated compressive strengths at the various
Section 689 “Cementitious Patch Repair of Concrete” (12).
locations can be utilised for structural analysis purposes.
Such repair of concrete must include:
Structural Analysis breaking back all the fire affected concrete to sound
and dense concrete and exposing as much of the steel
Structural analysis should be undertaken to establish the
reinforcement as possible;
residual capacity of the structure in satisfying the prevailing
loading conditions, having regard for the concrete preparation of steel reinforcement and concrete substrate;
strength and condition of the steel reinforcement in the application of an appropriate steel primer and substrate
fire affected zone. bonding coat; and
rebuilding to the original surface profile using either
Petrographic Examination flowable, hand/trowel applied polymer modified
The purpose of the petrographic examination is to more cementitious materials or spray applied gunite
accurately delineate the extent of the damaged area and cementitious repair materials.
to identify any significant micro-cracking developed in
the cementitious paste. The extent of micro-cracking
SUMMARY
can be determined in the coarse aggregate pieces in the
fire affected zone and in adjoining sound concrete. Any When a concrete structure or component is damaged
material that may exist within these cracks should be by fire, a thorough investigation to assess the structural
identified. The petrographic examination may provide damage should be conducted as soon as possible after
further confidence in relation to the depth of fire-damaged the fire. Careful and considered interpretation of visual
concrete determined from site observations together with observations and any testing that may be conducted is
the visual inspection of the concrete cores shortly after essential to enable a correct diagnosis and prognosis of the
extraction from the affected concrete. Scanning electron problem in fire affected areas, and thus enable appropriate
microscopy may also be used to identify both the material corrective measures to be taken. In contrast to construction
that may fill these cracks and the cause of these cracks (10). materials such as timber and steel, concrete has superior
fire resistance and therefore even in severe fires it may
offer effective in-situ repair options or partial removal
and replacement options compared to the alternative of
complete demolition and reconstruction.
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4 TECHNICAL NOTE - No. 102 : April 2011
REFERENCES
1. Andrews-Phaedonos, F., Investigation, Assessment and
Repair of Fire Damaged Pre-Stressed Concrete (PSC)
Beams, 23rd Biennial Conference, Concrete Institute of
Australia, Adelaide, 2007.
2. Concrete Society, Technical Report 33, Assessment and
Repair of Fire Damaged Concrete Structures, 1990.
3. Alberta Infrastructure & Transportation, Repair Manual for Fig 1 - Scarred and spalled Fig 2 - Explosive spalling, pink tint,
Concrete Bridge Elements, Version 2, 2005. underside of flat slab concrete beam exposure of steel ligatures, main
(temperature about 150°C - 200°C) corner bars and pre-stressing
4. Building Construction, Fire Protection Planning Report, 1994. tendons. Temperature above 300°C
5. Mills, H. B. and Ullmann, B., Fire Damage and Repair
to Concrete Bridges, Symposium on Rehabilitation,
Strengthening and Maintenance of Concrete Bridges,
Johannesburg, South Africa, 1985.
6. Andrews-Phaedonos, F., Establishing the Durability
Performance of Structural Concrete, VicRoads,
Melbourne, Australia, January, 1996.
7. Noumowe, A. N. et al., High Temperature Effect on
High Performance Concrete (70 – 600 OC) Strength
and Porosity, Durability of Concrete, 3rd International Fig 3 - Concrete surface skin Fig 4 – Removal of cores from fire
detached from upper part of beam damaged concrete
Conference, Nice, France, 1994.
8. Andrews-Phaedonos, F., VicRoads Technical Note No.
67, Use of Fire Retardant Chemicals for the Protection of
Road and Bridge Assets from Bushfires, 2003.
9. ASTM C805, Standard test method for rebound number
of hardened concrete (Schmidt Hammer Measurements)
10. Shayan, A., ARRB TR Contract Report (2006) for VicRoads,
Examination of Fire Damaged Concrete Cores, 2006.
11. Andrews-Phaedonos, F., VicRoads Technical Note No. 72,
Cementitious Repair of Concrete Structures, 2006.
12. VicRoads Standard Specification Section 689, - Fig 5 – Preparation to sound and Fig 6 – Saw cutting of perimeter
Cementitious Patch Repair of Concrete, 2005. dense concrete, exposure and of repair area , application of steel
protection of steel, shows coring holes primer, formwork in place, and
repair with free flowing micro
concrete in formwork
Contact
For further information on Assessment of Fire-Damaged
Concrete, please contact:
Fred Andrews-Phaedonos
Email: [Link]-phaedonos@[Link]
Phone: (03) 9881 8939
Mobile: 0419 597 277
VicRoads believes this publication to be correct at time of printing and does not accept responsibility for any consequences
arising from the use of the information herein. Readers should rely on individual judgement and skill to apply information to
particular issues.
GDS06616 04.11
keeping victorians connected
