THERMODYNAMICS

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1 BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION

Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena

of energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of
heat into other forms of energy and vice versa.

Thermodynamics System Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat energy can be transferred from one body to the other or from one location in a
body to the other. Study of the techniques and the methods adopted to transfer heat energy
is known as “HEAT TRANSFER”. To facilitate heat transfer between two bodies must be a 2
different temperatures one higher than the other to allow heat to flow from one body to
other. This means that no heat transfers occurs between two bodies which are at the same
temperature. At the same time it is very important to note that heat only flows a body at
higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Although this may look obvious, this
law is very important from the point of view of thermodynamics.
Heat transfer takes place in one of the three ways namely: Conduction, Convection
and Radiation.
A. Conduction
Conduction is the method of heat transfer of heat within a body or from one
body to the other due to the transfer of heat molecules vibrating at their mean
positions. The bodies through which the heat transfer must be in contact with each
other. There is no actual movement of matter while transferring heat from one
location to the other.
Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held
together strongly by intermolecular forces of attraction amongst them and so they
only vibrate about their means positions as they receive heat energy and thus pass it
to the surrounding molecules by vibrations.

B. Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and
gasses. In these methods, heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of matter
from one place within the body to the other. Often when we boil water we have seen
bubbles and currents develop in the water on careful observation.

C. Radiation
Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium
and can be used for transfer of heat in a vacuum as well. This method uses

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 electromagnetic waves which transfer heat from one place to the other. The heat
and light from the sun in our solar system reach our planet using radiation only.
In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when
we sit near a fire we feel warm without actually touching the burning wood. This is
possible by radiation only.

Systems of Units
Newton’s law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its
mass”.
kF ma ma
a= , F= , k= ,
m k F
where k is a proportionally constant
● System of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system : 1 dyne of force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s2
mks system : 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s2
fps system : 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2

gm cm kgm m slug❑ ft
k =1 2
k=1 2
k =1
dyne s newton s lb f s2

Systems of units where k is not unity:

If the same word is used for both mass and force in given system, k is neither unity nor
dimensionless.
1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2

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 1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s2
1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

lbm ft g m cm kg m m
k =32.174 k =980.66 k=9.8066
lb f s2 gf s2 kgf s2

Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)

kg m m kg m m
k =1 2
k=9.8066
newton s kg f s2

kg m m kg m m
Therefore: 1 2
=9.8066
newton s kg f s2

1 kgf = 9.8066 N

Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug

slug❑ ft lb ft
k =1 2
k =32.174 m 2
lb f s lb f s

slug❑ ft lb m ft
Therefore: 1 2
=32.174
lb f s lb f s2

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

Acceleration
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass

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 m
F= a
k
1 poundal = (1 lbm)(1 ft/s2)
Where: F is force in poundals
m/k is a mass in pounds
a is acceleration in ft/s2
m
F= a
k

lb f s 2
1 pound = (1 slug) (1 ft/s2) ; 1 slug=1 Where: F is force in pounds
ft
m/k is mass in slugs
a is acceleration in ft/s2

Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of material in it. The weight of the body
means the force of gravity Fg on the body.

m F Fg
= =
k a g
where g = acceleration produced by force Fg
a = acceleration produced by another force F
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are m and F g

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Problem Exercise
1. What is the weight of a 66 kgm man at standard condition?

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft/s 2 are as
follows: m1 is 500g of mass; m2 weighs 800gf; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weight
3 lbf; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in
pounds and (c) in slugs.

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4. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps 2 and
that its variation is -0.003fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in miles above
this point for which (a) the gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps 2, (b) the
weight of a given man is decreased by 5% (c) what is the weight of a 180lb m man
atop the 29,131 ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?

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Specific Volume, Specific Weight and Density
The density ρ of any substance is its mass (not weight) per unit volume.
m
ρ=
V
The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.
V 1
v= =
m ρ
The specific weight 𝛾 of any substance is the force gravity on unit volume.
Fg
γ=
V
Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of gravity as the density is to the
standard acceleration, 𝛾 / g = ρ / k conversion is easily made;
γk ρg
ρ= ∨γ=
g k
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and 𝛾.

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Problem Exercise
1. What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?

2. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/m3, ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) are
poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also,
find the weight of the mixture; local g = 9.675 mps2.

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Pressure
The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg or 29.92 in. Hg at 32 0F,
or 14.696 psia, or 1 atm.

Measuring Pressure
1. By using manometers
A. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure

p = absolute pressure
po = atmospheric prerssure
pg = gage pressure, the
prrssure due to the liquid column
hg
p = p0 + pg

B. Absolute pressure is less than

atmospheric pressure

p = p0 - pg

The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the vacuum

2. By using pressure gages

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 Pressure Gage

A presure gage is a device for measuring gage pressure. This picture

shows the movement in one type of pressure gage known as the single
tube gage. The fluid enters the tube trough the threaded connection. As
the pressure increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to
straighten, the end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The
linkage causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small pinion
gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The whole mechanism
is of course enclosed in a case, and a graduated dial, from which the
pressure is read, and is placed under the index hand.

Problem Exercise
1. A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/m 3) is located where g = 9.65
mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the column.

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Atmospheric Pressure
A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barometer

Po = 𝛾 ho

Where ho = height of column of liquid supported by atmospheric pressure P o

Problem Exercise
1. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard
atmospheric pressure.

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2. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm 2. The barometric pressure of the
atmosphere is 768 mm of Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler. (ME Board
Problem – Oct. 1987)

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Absolute Pressure

P=𝛾h

where h = ho ± hg the height of column of liquid supported by absolute pressure p.

If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury, the atmospheric pressure becomes,

po = 𝛾Hg hg = (sp gr)Hg (𝛾w) (ho)

lb
(
¿ ( 13.6 ) 62.4
)
ft 3
¿¿

po = 0.491 ho lb/in2

where ho = column of mercury in inches

then. Pg = 0.491 hg lb/in2
and, p = 0.491 h lb/in2
Problem Exercise
1. A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia.
Find the absolute pressure in psia, and in kPa

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2. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg abs), make these
conversions:
(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere,
(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abg and to psia,
(c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa,
(d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa.

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Temperature

Problem Exercise
1. Derive the relation between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Centigrade. (EE
Board Question)

2. Show that the specific heat of a substance in Btu/(lb) (F o) is numerically equal to

cal/(g)(Co).

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Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.

The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula

V=A𝜐
V Aυ
m= = = Aυρ
v v
where; V = volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area of the stream

𝜐 = average speed

M = mass flow rate

Applying the law of conservation of mass,

A1 υ1 A 2 υ 2
m= =
v1 v2

A1𝜐1ρ1 = A2𝜐2ρ2

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Problem Exercise
1. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture.
These data apply at the entrance section:
For one gas A1 = 75 in2, 𝜐1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb
For the other gas A2 = 50in2, m2 = 16.67 lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At exit, 𝜐3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb

Find

(a) the speed 𝜐2, at section 2,

(b) the flow and area at the exit section

2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ = 62.1 lb/cu
ft) at the rate of 300 gpm and is discharging through a 6-in ID line with a
constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is half full. Find the water
level and the mass change in tank 15 min later

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