Partial Fractions

By Arafath
IGCSE / A level Mathematics Teacher
Overview
At GCSE you learnt how to combine a sum/difference of fractions into one.
We now want to learn how to do the opposite process: split a fraction into a sum of
simpler ones, known as partial fractions.

1 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2
+
𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+1 𝑥+2

𝑥+1
? 𝑥 𝑥−1
Method
6𝑥−2
Q Split into partial fractions.
𝑥−3 𝑥+1

If each factor of the denominator is linear, we can split like such (for constants 𝐴 and 𝐵):
6𝑥 − 2 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
𝑥−3 𝑥+1 𝑥−3 𝑥+1
We don’t like fractions in equations, so we could simplify this to:
𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐 ≡ 𝑨 𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝒙 − 𝟑

METHOD 1: Substitution METHOD 2: Equating coefficients

We can easily eliminate either 𝐴 or 𝐵 6𝑥 − 2 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 − 3𝐵
by an appropriate choice of 𝑥: Since this is an identity, the
coefficients of 𝑥 must match, and
If 𝑥 = −1: the constant terms must match.
−8 = −4𝐵 → 𝐵 = 2
If 𝑥 = 3: 6=𝐴+𝐵
16 = 4𝐴 → 𝐴=4 −2 = 𝐴 − 3𝐵
Therefore:
6𝑥 − 2 4 2 Solving simultaneous equations
≡ +
𝑥−3 𝑥+1 𝑥−3 𝑥+1 gives same solutions as before.
Test Your Understanding
C4 Jan 2011 Q3

5 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 + 2

5 = 𝐴 3𝑥 + 2 + 𝐵 𝑥 − 1

Let 𝑥 = 1:
5 = 5𝐴 → 𝐴=1
2
Let 𝑥 = − :
3
5
5=− 𝐵 → 𝐵 = −3
3
Notice we can move
Therefore the “–” to the front
of the fraction.
5 1 3
≡ −
𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 + 2 Note that we don’t technically need this last
line from the perspective of the mark scheme,
but it’s good to just to be on the safe side
More than two fractions
The principle is exactly the same if we have more than two linear factors in the
denominator.

6𝑥 2 +5𝑥−2
Q Split into partial fractions.
𝑥 𝑥−1 2𝑥+1

6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
≡ + +
𝑥 𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 + 1

6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 ≡ 𝐴 𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵𝑥 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶𝑥 𝑥 − 1
Bro Tip: While substitution
When 𝑥 = 0:
is generally the easier
−2 = −𝐴 → 𝐴=2 method, I sometimes
When 𝑥 = 1: compare coefficients of just
9 = 3𝐵 → 𝐵=3 the 𝑥 2 term to avoid having
1 to deal with fractions. No
When 𝑥 = − :
2 need to expand; we can see
3
−3 = 𝐶 → 𝐶 = −4 by observation that:
4 6 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 2𝐶
Then 𝐶 is easy to determine
6𝑥 2 +5𝑥−2 2 3 4
So ≡ + − given we know 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑥 𝑥−1 2𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥−1 2𝑥+1
Test Your Understanding
C4 June 2009 Q3
Exercise 1B/1C
Exercise 1B Exercise 1C

1 Express the following as partial 1 a 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 26

fractions. 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 𝑥+5
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
6𝑥 − 2 𝟐 𝟒 = − +
a = + 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙−𝟐 𝒙+𝟓
𝑥−2 𝑥+3 𝒙−𝟐 𝒙+𝟑
−10𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 2 𝟏 𝟐 𝟓
−7𝑥 − 12 𝟑 𝟓 b =− + −
= − 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 − 2 𝒙 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐
c 2𝑥 𝑥 − 4 𝟐𝒙 𝒙 − 𝟒
−5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 8
6𝑥 + 6 𝟐 𝟒 c
e = + 𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥−5
𝑥2 − 9 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
= − −
𝒙+𝟏 𝒙+𝟐 𝒙−𝟓
8−𝑥 𝟐 𝟑
g = −
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 𝒙 𝒙 + 𝟒 Factorise the denominator first:
2 a
6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 3 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓
= − +
𝑥3 − 𝑥 𝒙 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙−𝟏

5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 8 𝟔 𝟐 𝟏
c = − +
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙 + 𝟏
Repeated linear factors
1 𝐴 𝐵
Suppose we wished to express as + . What’s the problem?
𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1 𝑥+1

𝑨+𝑩
Because the denominators are the same, we’d get . There’s no constant values of 𝑨 and
𝒙+𝟏
𝟏 𝑨+𝑩
𝑩 we can choose such that ≡ because the denominators will still be different.
𝒙+𝟏 𝟐 𝒙+𝟏

11𝑥 2 +14𝑥+5
Q Split into partial fractions.
𝑥+1 2 2𝑥+1

The problem is resolved by

11𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 having the factor both
≡ + +
𝑥 + 1 2 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 2 2𝑥 + 1 squared and non-squared.

11𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 5 ≡ 𝐴 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶 𝑥 + 1 2

When 𝑥 = −1: 2 = −𝐵 → 𝐵 = −2
1 3 1
When 𝑥 = − : = 𝐶 → 𝐶=3
2 4 4

At this point we could substitute something else (e.g. 𝑥 = 1) but it’s easier to equate 𝑥 2
terms.
11 = 2𝐴 + 𝐶
𝐴=4
Test Your Understanding
C4 June 2011 Q1
Dealing with Improper Fractions
The ‘degree’ of a polynomial is the highest power, e.g. a quadratic has degree 2.

An algebraic fraction is improper if the degree of the numerator is at least the degree of
the denominator.

2
𝑥 −3 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 3
𝑥+1
𝑥+2 𝑥2 − 𝑥
𝑥−1

! To split an improper fraction into partial fractions, either:

1. Divide algebraically first.
2. Or introduce a whole term 𝐴 + ⋯ and deal with identity immediately.
Dealing with Improper Fractions
3𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
Q Split into partial fractions.
𝑥−1 𝑥−2

Method 1: Algebraic Division Method 2: Using One Identity

(method not in your textbooks but in mark schemes)
3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
≡ 2 Let:
𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2
3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 𝐵 𝐶
≡𝐴+ +
Dividing algebraically gives: 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥−2
6𝑥 − 8
3+ 2 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2
Turn numerator back: ≡𝐴 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 +𝐵 𝑥−2 +𝐶 𝑥−1
6𝑥 − 8
=3+ If 𝑥 = 2: 4 = 𝐶
𝑥−1 𝑥−2
If 𝑥 = 1: −2 = −𝐵 → 𝐵 = 2
Let
6𝑥−8
≡
𝐴
+
𝐵 Comparing coefficients of 𝑥 2 :
𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 3=𝐴
𝐴=2
𝐵=4 Bropinion: I personally think the second
method is easier. And mark schemes present it
as “Method 1” – implying more standard!
𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙−𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
So ≡𝟑+ +
𝒙−𝟏 𝒙−𝟐 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙−𝟐
Test Your Understanding
C4 Jan 2013 Q3
Exercise 1E
Express as partial fractions.

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 𝟏 𝟒
1 a ≡𝟏+ +
𝑥+1 𝑥−3 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙−𝟑

𝑥 2 − 10 𝟐 𝟑
b ≡𝟏− +
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝒙−𝟐 𝒙+𝟏

𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 3 𝟑 𝟒
c ≡𝒙+ −
𝑥 𝑥−1 𝒙 𝒙−𝟏

2𝑥 2 − 1 𝟒 𝟏
d ≡ 𝟐 − +
𝑥+1 2 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙+𝟏 𝟐

4𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 11 𝟐 𝟑
2 a ≡ 𝟒 + +
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙+𝟒

b 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 + 12 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
≡𝒙+ + −
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 𝒙 𝒙−𝟐 𝒙−𝟐 𝟐
Summary
Identify what identity you’d use in each case (no need to identify constants).

𝑥2 + 3 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
≡ + +
𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥−1 𝒙 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙−𝟏

𝑥+4 𝑨 𝑩
2
≡ +
𝑥 −4 𝒙−𝟐 𝒙+𝟐

3 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
2
≡ + 𝟐
+
𝑥+1 2𝑥 − 3 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙+𝟏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑

𝑥3 + 2 𝑩 𝑪
≡ 𝑨+ +
𝑥−3 𝑥+4 𝒙−𝟑 𝒙+𝟒