Research on the Benefits

of Manipulatives
History of Manipulatives Manipulatives and Curriculum Standards
Since ancient times, people of many different The NCTM calls for manipulatives to be used in teaching
civilizations have used physical objects to help them a wide variety of topics in mathematics.
solve everyday math problems. The ■ sorting—a pre-mathematical skill that aids in
ancient civilizations of Southwest comprehension of patterns and functions
Asia (the Middle East) used
■ ordering—a pre-mathematical skill that enhances
counting boards. These were
number sense and other math-related abilities
wooden or clay trays covered
■ distinguishing patterns—the foundation for making
with a thin layer of sand. The
mathematical generalizations
user would draw symbols in
the sand to tally, for example, an ■ recognizing geometric shapes and understanding
account or take an inventory. The relationships among them
ancient Romans modified counting ■ making measurements, using both nonstandard
boards to create the world’s first abacus. The and standard units with application to both two-
Chinese abacus, which came into use centuries later, may and three-dimensional objects
have been an adaptation of the Roman abacus. ■ understanding the base-ten system of numbers
Similar devices were developed in the Americas. The ■ comprehending mathematical operations—
Mayans and the Aztecs both had counting devices that addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
featured corn kernels strung on string or wires that were ■ recognizing relationships among mathematical
stretched across a wooden frame. The Incas had their operations
own unique counting tool—knotted strings called quipu. ■ exploring and describing spatial relationships
The late 1800s saw the invention of the first true ■ identifying and describing different types of symmetry
manipulatives—maneuverable objects that appeal to ■ developing and utilizing spatial memory
several different senses and are specifically designed
■ learning about and experimenting with
for teaching mathematical concepts. Friedrich Froebel,
transformations
a German educator who, in 1837, started the world’s
■ engaging in problem-solving
first kindergarten program, developed different types of
objects to help his kindergartners recognize patterns and ■ representing mathematical ideas in a variety of ways
appreciate geometric forms found in nature. In the early ■ connecting different concepts in mathematics
1900s, Italian-born educator Maria Montessori further ■ communicating mathematical ideas effectively
advanced the idea that manipulatives are important
Different states across the nation have also mandated
in education. She designed many materials to help
the use of manipulatives for teaching math. These
preschool and elementary school students discover
have included California, North Carolina, Texas, and
and learn basic ideas in math and other subjects.
Tennessee, among others. In addition, many local school
Since the early 1900s, manipulatives have come districts mandate or strongly suggest manipulatives be
to be considered essential in teaching mathematics at used in teaching math especially for mathematics
the elementary-school level. In fact, for decades,
ades, teaching at the elementary level.
teachi
the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
matics
Manipulative use is recommended
Man
(NCTM) has recommended the use of
because it is supported by both learning
beca
manipulatives in teaching mathematical
theory and educational research in the
theo
concepts at all grade levels.
classroom.
class

2
 Concrete stage Representational stage Abstract stage
A mathematical concept is introduced A mathematical concept is Mathematical symbols (numerals,
with manipulatives; students explore represented using pictures of some operation signs, etc.) are used to
the concept using the manipulatives sort to stand for the concrete objects express the concept in symbolic
in purposeful activity. (the manipulatives) of the previous language; students demonstrate their
stage; students demonstrate how they understanding of the mathematical
can both visualize and communicate concept using the language of
the concept at a pictorial level. mathematics.

How Learning Theory Supports the Use of How Research from the Classroom Supports the Use
Manipulatives of Manipulatives
The theory of experiential education revolves around the Over the past four decades, studies done at all
idea that learning is enhanced when students acquire different grade levels and in several different countries
knowledge through active processes that engage them indicate that mathematics achievement increases when
(Hartshorn
( and Boren,, 1990). Manipulatives manipulatives are put to good use (Canny, 1984; Clements
can be key in providing
pr effective, and Battista, 1990; Clements, 1999; Dienes, 1960; Driscoll,
active, engaging
engag lessons in the 1981; Fennema, 1972, 1973; Skemp, 1987; Sugiyama, 1987;
teaching of mmathematics. Suydam, 1984). Additional research shows that use of
manipulatives over the long-term provides more benefits
Manipulatives
Manipulative help students
than short-term use does (Sowell, 1989).
learn by allowing them to move
from concrete experiences
exper to abstract With long-term use of manipulatives in mathematics,
reasoning (Heddens,
(Hedden 1986; Reisman, educators have found that students make gains in
1982; Ross and Kurtz,
Kur 1993). Experts in the following general areas (Heddens; Picciotto, 1998;
education posit that this learning ta
takes place in three Sebesta and Martin, 2004):
stages.
stages ■ verbalizing mathematical thinking
The use of manipulatives helps students hone their ■ discussing mathematical ideas and concepts
mathematical thinking skills. According to Stein and ■ relating real-world situations to mathematical
Bovalino (2001), “Manipulatives can be important symbolism
tools in helping students to think and reason in more
■ working collaboratively
meaningful ways. By giving students concrete ways to
compare and operate on quantities, such manipulatives ■ thinking divergently to find a variety of ways to
as pattern blocks, tiles, and cubes can contribute to solve problems
the development of well-grounded, interconnected ■ expressing problems and solutions using a variety of
understandings of mathematical ideas.” mathematical symbols

To gain a deep understanding of mathematical ideas, ■ making presentations

students need to be able to integrate and connect a ■ taking ownership of their learning experiences
variety of concepts in many different ways. Clements ■ gaining confidence in their abilities to find solutions
(1999) calls this type of deep understanding “Integrated- to mathematical problems using methods that they
Concrete” knowledge. The effective use of manipulatives come up with themselves without relying
can help students connect ideas and integrate their on directions from the teacher
cher
knowledge so that they gain a deep understanding of
mathematical concepts.

Teachers play a crucial role in helping students use

manipulatives successfully, so that they move through
the three stages of learning and arrive at a deep
understanding of mathematical concepts.

3
 Manipulatives have also been shown to provide a
Manipulativ
foundation for students mastering the following
strong foun
mathematical concepts (The Access Center, October 1, 2004):
mathematica
■ number relations
numbe
■ measurement
measu
■ decimals
decima
■ number bases
numbe
■ percentages
percen
Studies have shown that students using manipulatives ■ probability
probab
in specific mathematical
athematical subjects are more likely to ■ statistics
statisti
achieve success than students who don’t have the
Well-known math educator Marilyn Burns considers
opportunity to work with manipulatives. Following
manipulatives essential for teaching math to students of
are some specific areas in which research shows
all levels. She finds that manipulatives help make math
manipulatives are especially helpful:
concepts accessible to almost all learners, while at the
Counting Some children need to use manipulatives same time offering ample opportunities to challenge
to learn to count (Clements, 1999). students who catch on quickly to the concepts being
taught. Research indicates that using manipulatives is
Place Value Using manipulatives increases students’
especially useful for teaching low achievers, students
understanding of place value (Phillips, 1989).
with learning disabilities, and English language learners
Computation Students learning computational skills (Marsh and Cooke, 1996; Ruzic and O’Connell, 2001).
tend to master and retain these skills more fully when
Research also indicates that using manipulatives helps
manipulatives are used as part of their instruction
improve the environment in math classrooms. When
(Carroll and Porter, 1997).
students work with manipulatives and then are given
Problem Solving Using manipulatives has been a chance to reflect on their experiences, not only is
shown to help students reduce errors and increase their mathematical learning enhanced, math anxiety is greatly
scores on tests that require them to solve problems reduced (Cain-Caston, 1996; Heuser, 2000). Exploring
(Carroll and Porter, 1997; Clements, 1999; Krach, 1998). manipulatives, especially self-directed exploration,
provides an exciting classroom environment and promotes
Fractions Students who have appropriate
in students a positive attitude toward learning (Heuser,
manipulatives to help them learn fractions outperform
1999; Moch, 2001). Among the benefits several researchers
students who rely only on textbooks when tested
found for using manipulatives was that they helped make
on these concepts (Jordan, Miller, and Mercer, 1998;
learning fun (Moch, 2001; Smith et. al, 1999).
Sebesta and Martin, 2004).

Ratios Students who have appropriate manipulatives Summary

to help them learn fractions also have significantly Research from both learning
improved achievement when tested on ratios when theory and classroom studies
compared to students who do not have exposure to shows that using manipulatives
these manipulatives (Jordan, Miller, and Mercer, 1998). to help teach math can positivelyy
affect student learning. This is true
rue
Algebraic Abilities Algebraic abilities include
for students at all levels and of all
the ability to represent algebraic expressions, to
abilities. It is also true for almost every
ery topic
interpret such expressions, to make connections
covered in elementary school mathematics curricula
curricula.
between concepts when solving linear equations,
Papert (1980) calls manipulatives “objects to think with.”
and to communicate algebraic concepts. Research
Incorporating manipulatives into mathematics lessons
indicates that students who used manipulatives in their
in meaningful ways helps students grasp concepts with
mathematics classes have higher algebraic abilities
greater ease, making teaching most effective.
than those who did not use manipulatives (Chappell
and Strutchens, 2001).

4
Reference Citations
The Access Center, http://coe.jme.edu/mathvidsr/disabilities.htm Martino, A. M. & Maher, C. A. (1999). Teacher questioning to
(October 1, 2004) promote justification and generalization in mathematics: What
Cain-Caston, M. (1996). Manipulative queen. Journal of research practice has taught us. Journal of Mathematical
Instructional Psychology, 23(4): 270–274. Behavior, 18(1): 53–78.
Canny, M. E. (1984). The relationship of manipulative materials Moch, P. L. (Fall 2001). Manipulatives work! The Educational Forum
to achievement in three areas of fourth-grade mathematics: Nunley, K. F. (1999). Why hands-on tasks are good. Salt Lake City,
Computation, concept development, and problem solving. UT: Layered Curriculum.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 45A: 775–776. Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms, Scranton, PA: Basic Books.
Carroll, W. M. & Porter, D. (1997). Invented strategies can develop Phillips, D. G. (1989). The development of logical thinking: A three-
meaningful mathematical procedures. Teaching Children year longitudinal study. Paper presented to the National Council
Mathematics, 3(7): 370–374. of Teachers of Mathematics, Orlando, FL.
Chappell, M. F. & Strutchens, M. E. (2001). Creating connections: Picciotto, H. (1998). Operation sense, tool-based pedagogy, curricular
Promoting algebraic thinking with concrete models. breadth: a proposal, accessed at http://www.picciotto.org.
Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. Reston, VA: Pugalee, D. K. 1999. Constructing a model of mathematical
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. literacy. The Cleaning House 73(1): 19–22.
Clements, D. H. (1999). “Concrete” manipulatives, concrete ideas. Reisman, F. K. (1982). A guide to the diagnostic teaching of
Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 1(1): 45–60. arithmetic (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Clements, D. H. & Battistia, M. T. (1990). Constructive learning and Ross, R. & Kurtz, R. (1993). Making manipulatives work:
teaching. The Arithmetic Teacher, 38: 34–35. A strategy for success. The Arithmetic Teacher (January 1993).
Dienes, Z. P. (1960). Building up mathematics. London: Hutchinson 40: 254–258.
Educational Ruzic, R. & O’Connell, K. (2001). Manipulatives. Enhancement
Driscoll, M. J. (1984). What research says. The Arithmetic Teacher, Literature Review, accessed at http://www.cast.org/ncac/
31: 34–35. Manipulatives1666.cfm.
Fennema, E. H. (1972). Models and mathematics. The Arithmetic Sebesta, L. M. & Martin, S. R. M. (2004). Fractions: building a
Teacher, 19: 635–640. foundation with concrete manipulatives. Illinois Schools Journal,
———. (1973). Manipulatives in the classroom. The Arithmetic 83(2): 3–23.
Teacher, 20: 350–352. Skemp, R. R. (1987). The psychology of teaching mathematics
Hartshorn, R. & Boren, S. (1990). Experiential learning of (revised American edition). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
mathematics: Using manipulatives. ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Smith, N. L., Babione, C., & Vick, B. J. (1999). Dumpling soup:
Education and Small Schools. Exploring kitchens, cultures, and mathematics. Teaching Children
Heddens, J. W. (1986). Bridging the gap between the concrete and Mathematics, 6: 148–152.
the abstract. The Arithmetic Teacher, 33: 14–17 Sowell, E. (1989). Effects of manipulative materials in mathematics
———. Improving mathematics teaching by using manipulatives. instruction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Edcuation,
Kent State University, accessed at www.fed.cubk.edu.hk. 20: 498–505.
Heuser, D. (1999). Reflections on teacher philosophies and Stein, M. K. & Bovalino, J. W. (2001). Manipulatives: One piece of
teaching strategies upon children’s cognitive structure the puzzle. Mathematics Teaching in Middle School,
development—reflection II; Pennsylvania State University, 6(6): 356–360.
accessed at http://www.ed.psu.edu/CI/Journals/1999AETS/ Sugiyama, Y. (1987). Comparison of word problems in textbooks
Heuser.rtf between Japan and the U.S. in J. P. Becker & T. Miwa (eds),
———. (2000). Mathematics class becomes learner centered. Proceedings of U.S.-Japan Seminar on Problem Solving.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 6(5): 288–295. Carbondale, IL: Board of Trustees, Southern Illinois University.
Jordan, L., Miller, M., & Mercer, C. D. (1998). The effects of Suydam, M. (1984). Research report: manipulative materials. The
concrete to semi-concrete to abstract instruction in the Arithmetic Teacher, 31: 27.
acquisition and retention of fraction concepts and skills.
Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9: 115–122.
Krach, M. (1998). Teaching fractions using manipulatives. Ohio
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 37: 16–23.
Maccini, P. & Gagnon, J. A. (2000, January). Best practices for
teaching mathematics to secondary students with special needs.
Focus on Exceptional Children, 32 (5): 11.
Marsh, L. G. & Cooke, N. L. (1996). The effects of using
manipulatives in teaching math problem solving to students
with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research &
Practice, 11(1): 58–65.