Appendix

Solutions of Exercises and Problems

A.1 Solutions of Nuclear Physics (Chapter 1)

1.1 Initial Problems

Exercise 1.1.1
To give a rough estimate of the nuclear density, we assume that
– the binding energy is negligible;
– proton and neutron have the same mass, m p = m n ;
– the nuclear radius is R = r0 · A1/3 , with r0 = 1.2 fm.
Under these assumptions we have

M A · mp 3 mp 3 × 1.67 10−24 g
ρ = = =   2.3 · 1014 g/cm3 .
V 4/3 π r0 A
3
4 π r0
3 12.56 (1.2 10−13 cm)3

Exercise 1.1.2
The electrostatic energy for a charge Q distributed uniformly in a sphere of radius
R is 3/5 · Q 2 /(4π 0 R). Equating this energy to the Coulomb binding energy in the
SEMF we get ,
3 Z 2 e2 Z2
= a C · ,
20 π 0 r0 A1/3 A1/3

and then

3 e2 1 3 1 197 MeV fm 1
aC = × × = × αc ×  0.6 × ×  0.7 MeV.
5 4π 0 r0 5 r0 137 1.2 fm

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 43

S. Petrera, Problems and Solutions in Nuclear and Particle Physics,
UNITEXT for Physics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19773-5
44 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Exercise 1.1.3
Using the result of problem 1.1.1, we assume for the nuclear density ρ  2.3 ×
1014 g/cm3 . Denoting with R and M respectively the radius and mass of the neutron
star, from the relation
4
π R 3 ρ = M ≈ M
3
we obtain
 1/3  1/3
3M 3 · 2 1033 g
R ≈   12.8 km.
4πρ 4 · 3.14 · 2.3 1014 g/cm3

Exercise 1.1.4
Let us consider two deuterons moving along a certain direction with equal but oppo-
site velocities (head-on collision). Since the motion is thermal, the kinetic energy of
each deuteron can be treated as non-relativistic, E = 1/2Mv2 , and assumed to be of
the order of k B T .
At large distance, in the rest frame of one of the deuterons, the other has velocity
2v. The corresponding kinetic energy equates the repulsive electrostatic energy at
the minimum distance, because of energy conservation
1 1 e2
M(2v)2 = 4E = 4k B T = .
2 4π 0 rmin

Thus a rough estimate of the minimum temperature to get nuclear processes is

e2 1 αc
Tmin = = 
4π 0 4k B rmin 4k B rmin
197 MeV · fm
  4 109 K.
137 × 4 × 8.6 10−11 MeV · K−1 × 1 fm

Exercise 1.1.5
The neutron rate per solid angle is

dN dσ dn b
= nT L
dtd d dt
where dn b /dt = I /e is the deuteron beam intensity and n T is the number of target
nuclei per unit volume, n T = N A /A ρ. The solid angle between the detector and the
interaction region (assumed point-like) is  = S/R 2 . Then we have

dN dσ S I N A
= ρL 
dt d R 2 e A

20 2 10−6 A 6 1023
13 10−3 10−24 cm2 /sr 0.2 10−3 g/cm2  1.4 103 s−1
3002 1.6 10−19 C 3
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 45

1.2 Nuclear Scattering

Exercise 1.2.1
(1) The rate of electrons scattered in the solid angle  around the angle θ , from
a beam of intensity dn b /dt (e/s) incident perpendicularly on a target with atomic
number A, thick xT (g/cm2 ), is

dn dn b dn T dσ Ie NA S dσ
= × × d  × xT × 2 × (θ ),
dt dt dS  d e A R d
√
being S/R  1. Then we have

dn 5 10−6 0.12 · 6.02 1023 20 dσ

 −19
× × 2
× (θ ) 
dt 1.6 10 40 100 d
sr dσ
 1.13 1032 × (θ ).
cm2 · s d

dσ/d(θ ) is given by |F(q 2 )|2 × (dσ/d)Mott . For β → 1 the Mott cross section
at 40◦ is    
dσ Z 2 α 2 ( c)2 cos2 θ/2 20 × 197 2
= 
d Mott 4 ( p c)2 sin4 θ/2 137

cos2 20◦
× fm2 /sr  0.272 mb/sr
4 × 7002 × sin4 20◦

The form factor for a uniform charge distribution in a sphere of radius R A is

sin x − x cos x
F(q 2 ) = 3 ,
x3

where x = q R A /

2 p c sin θ/2 × (1.18 A1/3 − 0.48) fm

x= 
c
2 × 700 MeV × sin 20◦ × 3.56 fm
  8.64,
197 MeV fm

Hence we get F(q 2 )  3.18 10−2 and finally obtain

dn sr cm2
 1.13 1032 × 0.272 10−27 × (3.18 10−2 )2  31 electrons/s.
dt cm · s
2 sr
In Fig. 1.1 the rate of the scattered electrons is shown as a function of the angle.
46 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Fig. 1.1 Rate

(counts-per-sec) for 700
MeV/c electron scattering 106
against 40 C

105

104

103

102

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
θ [degrees]

(2) As it can be seen in the figure the first local maximum is at about 25◦ . Here the
detector delivers about 1400 counts per second. The mean number of electron-ion
pairs produced by an electron crossing the gas mixture is

(−d E/d x)ion × ρ × d

Ne = × ion
Wion

1.4 × 2 106 eV/(g cm−2 ) × 1.8 10−3 g/cm3 × 0.1 cm

 × 0.10  3.36,
15 eV

where we used 2 MeV/(g cm−2 ) for the minimum ionization energy loss.
The number of events for which no electron reaches the anode is

0 = (1 − P) Ne  0.703.36  30.2%.

The rate of coincident counts is finally

dn c dn
= × (1 − 0 )2  1400 × 0.6982  1400 × 0.49  690 counts/s.
dt dt

Exercise 1.2.2
The number of minima is given by number of the zeroes of the form factor for a
uniform charge distribution. The latter is given by

sin x − x cos x
F(q 2 ) = 3 ,
x3
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 47

Fig. 1.2 tan x versus x 12

(black). y = x (red)
10

0
π 3π 5π 7π 9π
2 2 2 2 2
−2

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

where x = q R/, with R given by the radius of the nucleus, R = (1.18A1/3 −

0.48) fm. F(q 2 ) = 0 leads to the equation

tan x = x.

A graphical method allows to estimate the positions of the zeroes (see Fig. 1.2, black:
tan x, red: x) as the ones where the tangent equates the straight line. This occurs close
to x  3π/2, 5π/2, 7π/2, 9π/2 ...
In the actual experimental conditions x is limited up to a maximum xmax =
qmax R/. Remembering that

θ E
q = 2 p · sin =⇒ qmax = 2 p  2
2 c
we have
E 2 · 180 MeV
xmax = 2 × (1.18 A1/3 − 0.48) fm  × 6.4 fm  11.7.
c 197 MeV fm
There are three minima below this value, corresponding to the zeroes up to 7π/2.

Exercise 1.2.3
Considering the Rutherford cross section, we can write the counting rate at angle θ
as

f (θ ) = K ,
sin θ/2
4
48 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where  is the incident flux and K an overall factor including various terms (kine-
matical, geometrical, etc.). We assume that


f (20◦ ) = K = 1 s−1 . (1.1)
sin4 (20◦ /2)

Denoting with f a the counting rate for a flux attenuated by a factor a, we have

a
f a (10◦ ) = K = 1 s−1 , (1.2)
sin (10◦ /2)
4

Dividing (1.2) by (1.1) we get

 4
sin 5◦
a =  6.3%.
sin 10◦

Using the attenuated beam, the counting rate at 20◦ is f a (20◦ ). The mean waiting
time is its inverse
1 1 1

t = ◦
= ◦
=  16 s.
f a (20 ) a f (20 ) 0.063 × 1 s−1

Exercise 1.2.4
The differential cross section dσ/d(θ ) is given by |F(q 2 )|2 × (dσ/d)Mott . For
β → 1 the latter cross section is
 
dσ Z 2 α 2 ( c)2 cos2 θ/2
=
d Mott 4 ( p c)2 sin4 θ/2
 2
6 × 197 cos2 7.5◦
 × fm2 /sr  6.3 × 10−26 cm2 /sr.
137 4 × 1002 × sin4 7.5◦

The form factor can be neglected because the momentum transfer is small.1 Since
√
S/R  1, we can simply write
 
dσ
σ = × S/R 2  6.3 · 10−26 cm2 /sr × 7.5 · 10−4 sr  47 µb.
d Mott

1 Therelevant argument for the form factor is x = q R A /, where R A  1.2 fm × A1/3 is the
nuclear radius. Hence x  0.36 and for a uniform charge distribution, we have
sin x − x cos x
F(q 2 ) = 3  0.99.
x3
.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 49

The number of scatterers per unit surface is dn T /d S = d × N A /A  5 × 1022 cm−2 .

Then we have
d Ne I0 dn T
= σ  1.5 × 108 s−1 .
dt e dS
Exercise 1.2.5
The momentum transfer (we have pc  E) is

q = 2 p · sin θ/2 = 2 × 500 × sin 5◦  87.2 MeV/c.

The Mott cross section at 10◦ can be written as

 
dσ Z 2 α 2 ( c)2 2 θ
=4 E cos2 
d Mott (q c) 4 2
 2
26 × 197 5002 cos2 5◦
4× × fm2 /sr  0.24 b/sr
137 87.24

The form factor is given by

sin x − x cos x
F(q 2 ) = 3 ,
x3

where x = q R A /. Using R A  1.2 fm ×A1/3 for the nucleus radius, we find
x = 87.2 × 4.6 / 197  2 and then
 
dσ dσ b b
= |F(q 2 )|2 = 0.24 × 0.652  0.10
d d Mott sr sr

Exercise 1.2.6
The Rutherford cross section can be written as
 
dσ z Z α(c) 2 1
= ,
d 4E α sin4 θ2

where z and E α are respectively the charge and kinetic energy of alpha particles. The
solid angle corresponding to the detector is

S
 = = 10−3 sr.
R2
To achieve the required accuracy, we calculate the cross section at the largest angle
(150◦ ) in the chosen interval, where it has the smallest value
 2  2
z Z α(c)  2 × 79 × 197 10−3
σ =   0.12 fm2 = 1.2 × 10−27 cm2 .
4E α sin4 θ2 137 × 4 × 5.5 0.8705
50 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

The event rate in the detector is

NA
r = Iα ρl σ
A

where Iα is the beam intensity (N A = 6.02 × 1023 mole−1 is the Avogadro number).
Thus the intensity of the α beam must be

A r 197 10
Iα > =  2.7 × 107 s−1 .
ρl N A σ 0.1 × 6.02 × 10 1.2 × 10−27 cm2
23

Exercise 1.2.7
The Q-factor of the reaction p + 73 Li → 42 He + 42 He is

Q = M p + MLi − 2Mα = M p + [3M p + 4Mn − B(73 Li)] − 2[2M p + 2Mn − B(α)] =

= 2B(α) − B(73 Li) = 2 · 28.3 − 39.3 = 17.3 MeV > 0

The reaction is exothermic.

According to the shell model, the 73 Li shell occupancies for protons and neutrons
are
p : (1s 1/2 )2 (1 p 3/2 )1

n : (1s 1/2 )2 (1 p 3/2 )2

The spin-parity is then determined by the odd (1 p 3/2 ) proton shell and is
J P = (3/2)− .
Protons at rest cannot interact with 73 Li nuclei because of the Coulomb barrier.
Neglecting for simplicity the size of the proton with respect to the one of 73 Li, the
minimum proton kinetic energy turns out to be

z Z e2 z Z αc 3 · 197 MeV fm

Tmin =    1.9 MeV.
4π 0 d R(73 Li) 137 · 1.2 71/3 fm

Indicating the spin-parities of the nuclei involved in the reaction, we have

   
1+ 3−
p + 73 Li → 42 He(0+ ) + 42 He(0+ )
2 2

Knowing that the final orbital angular momentum is zero, we deduce that the initial
total angular momentum must be zero. The angular momentum conservation imposes

1 3
⊕ ⊕ Li = 0
2 2
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 51

denoting with ⊕ the operation of addition of angular momenta and with L i the initial
orbital angular momentum. Since 21 ⊕ 23 = 1, 2, then it follows that L i must be either
1 or 2.
On the other hand parity conservation imposes the same parity for the initial and
final states. The final parity is evidently +1 and then

Pi = P( p) × P(73 Li) × Porb = (+1) × (−1) × (−1) L i

hence L i must be odd and finally L i = 1.

Exercise 1.2.8
The Mott cross section at 5◦ is
   2
dσ Zα  c cos2 θ/2
= 
d Mott pc 4 sin4 θ/2
 2
6 × 197 cos2 2.5◦ fm2 mb
 ×  99
137 × 720 ◦
4 × sin 2.5 sr
4 sr

Using the measured cross section, we derive the absolute square of the form factor
as  dσ 
80
|F(q )| =  d
2 2
dσ
meas   0.808
d Mott
99

If the nucleus is spherically symmetric, the form factor is real and then it can be
obtained as the square root of its absolute square. Note that the indetermination of
the sign is resolved looking at the momentum transfer. At 5◦ it is small and the form
factor is still far from the first zero. Thus we can assume that the form factor is
positive.
The momentum transfer turns out to be
θ
q = 2 p sin  62.8 MeV/c
2
and then

62 6 1972 √

r 2  = [1 − F(q 2
)]  × (1 − 0.808)  5.95 fm2
q2 62.82

from which we get for the 12 C nuclear radius 2.44 fm.

Exercise 1.2.9
For β  0.1 a proton is non-relativistic and its maximum energy can be written as

1
Tmax  m p β 2  0.5 × 938 × 0.01  4.7 MeV. (1.3)
2
52 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

The maximum value of beta (and then of energy) corresponds to the forward
scattering with the incident particle (γ or n) scattered back. In the case of
photon scattering, γ + p → γ + p, the kinematic relation is the same as in the
Compton scattering, with the proton replacing the electron.

Eγ
E γ = ,
1 + E γ /m p (1 − cos θ )

where E γ and E γ are the photon initial and final energies and θ is the photon scattering
angle. For θ = 180◦ the proton energy is maximum. Denoting with T = E γ − E γ
the proton kinetic energy, its maximum is

Eγ 2E γ2
Tmax = E γ − = (1.4)
1 + 2E γ /m p m p + 2E γ

(a) If we assume 10 MeV for the photon energy, from (1.4) we have

2E γ2 2 × 100
Tmax =   0.21 MeV,
m p + 2E γ 938 + 20

which is largely smaller than (1.3).

(b) Solving Eq. (1.4) in E γ and assuming that the proton energy is the one measured
(1.3), the photon energy is
√
Tmax + Tmax (Tmax + 2m p ) 4.7 + 4.7(4.7 + 2 · 938)
Eγ =   49 MeV.
2 2
(c) In the case of neutron scattering, n + p → n + p, the maximum proton energy
occurs again in the forward scattering. Since the proton and neutron masses are very
similar, this corresponds to the neutron stopped and the proton achieving the entire
initial energy. This is a well known fact in a billiard, but can be easily obtained from
kinematics. Being θ = 0, we can treat the kinematics in one dimension as

Tn = Tn + T p pn = pn + p p .

Expressing the kinetic energies as T = p 2 /(2m) and assuming m n = m p , we get

p p ( p p − pn ) = 0 =⇒ p p = pn  4.7 MeV.

Exercise 1.2.10
The Rutherford cross section is
 
dσ z Z α(c) 2 1
= ,
d 4E α sin4 θ2
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 53

where z and E α are respectively the charge and kinetic energy of alpha particles.
Using the solid angle subtended by the detector

S 0.5
 = = 2 = 5 10−3 sr,
R2 10
we get for the cross section at angle θ
 2  
z Z α(c)  2 × 79 × 197 2 5 10−3
σ (θ ) =  
4E α sin4 θ2 137 × 4 × 5.64 sin4 θ2

0.507 5.07 × 10−27

 fm 2
= cm2 .
sin4 θ2 sin4 θ2

The number of counts during the time interval t is

NA
N (θ ) = Iα tρd σ (θ )
A
where Iα is the α beam intensity and d is the target thickness. Solving in Iα we have

N (θ) 197 θ
Iα = = × N (θ) sin4
dρt NAA σ (θ) 0.005 × 19.3 × 3600 × 6.02 1023 × 5.07 10−27 2

and then
θ −1
Iα  N (θ ) × 186 × sin4 s .
2

The following table gives the beam intensity in s−1 resulting at each angle

θ 15◦ 25◦ 35◦ 45◦ 55◦ 65◦ 75◦

−1
Iα (s ) 229.9 ± 3.5 242.1 ± 9.9 226 ± 19 199 ± 28 262 ± 47 201 ± 56 179 ± 67

√
The statistical errors are calculated as N (θ ) × 186 × sin4 θ/2. Calculating the
weighted average and its variance we get

Iα = 230.7 ± 3.2 s−1 .

54 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

1.3 Nuclear Binding Energy

Exercise 1.3.1
Decays among isobar nuclei belong to the class of beta decays. In the present case the
mass number, A = 197, is odd so that there is only one stable nucleus. In fact, using
the semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF) the atomic mass M(A, Z ) as a function
of Z is a single curve, because the pairing term is null for all isobars. The stable
nucleus has Z s = 79, the nucleus with Z = Z s − 1 = 78 can transmute to it via β −
decay whereas the nucleus with Z = Z s + 1 = 80 can do it via β + decay or electron
capture (EC).
We can write the atomic mass of A = 197 nuclei as

M(197, Z ) = Z m p + (197 − Z )m n − B(197, Z )/c2 + Z m e ,

where B(197, Z ) is the nuclear binding energy, for which we use the SEMF. Writing
explicitly only the terms depending on Z we have

Z2 (197 − 2Z )2
M(197, Z ) c2 = const + Z (m p − m n + m e ) c2 + aC + aA 
1971/3 197

Z2 (197 − 2Z )2
 const − 0.782 Z + 0.697 + 23.3 MeV.
5.82 197

For the β − transition from 197

78 Pt we have M(197, 78) − M(197, 79)  0.90 MeV,
hence it is allowed.
The β + transition from 197
80 Hg is allowed if M(197, 80) − M(197, 79) > 2m e , if
instead this difference is positive only the electron capture is possible. In the present
case we have M(197, 80) − M(197, 79)  0.3 MeV/c2 .
As a conclusion the possible decay types are

β− : 197
78 Pt → 197
79 Au + e− + ν̄e

EC : e− + 197
80 Hg → 197
79 Au + νe

Exercise 1.3.2
The mean neutron kinetic energy is
E ≈ k B T  k B 300  25 meV. From the
semi-empirical mass formula we get

B(235, 92) = 1786.8 MeV

B(148, 57) = 1209.8 MeV

B(87, 35) = 745.4 MeV.

Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 55

The neutron energy is negligible with respect to the other energies and then we have
for the energy release

Q = B(148, 57) + B(87, 35) − B(235, 92)  168 MeV.

A similar though less accurate conclusion can be reached using the B/A values from
the binding energy per nucleon plot reported in all the textbooks. The values are 7.6,
8.2 and 8.6 MeV, respectively A = 235, 148 e 87. Hence we obtain

Q = 148 · 8.2 + 87 · 8.6 − 235 · 7.6  176 MeV.

Exercise 1.3.3
At large distance, in the rest frame of one of the nuclei, the other has velocity 2v. At
the minimum distance R the two nuclei are at rest. From energy conservation then
we get
1 e2 αc 197 MeV fm
M(2v)2 = 4E = = =  1 MeV,
2 4π 0 R R 137 · 1.4 fm

E, the mean kinetic energy of each nucleus, is then about 0.25 MeV.
Knowing that for T = 300 K the mean kinetic energy is k B T  25 meV, the
temperature for which nuclei have E  0.25 MeV is

E 0.25 106 eV × 300

T = =  3 109 K.
kB 25 10−3 eV

The energy release is

Q = BT − 2B D  4 MeV.

Exercise 1.3.4
The reaction in the text belongs to the more general class

νe + (A, Z ) → (A, Z + 1) + e− .

The threshold energy is given by

(m e + M )2 − M 2
E th = , (1.5)
2M

where M and M are the masses of (A, Z ) and (A, Z + 1) nuclei respectively. These
masses are related to the binding energies as follows

M = Z M p + (A − Z )Mn − B(A, Z )/c2

M = (Z + 1)M p + (A − Z − 1)Mn − B(A, Z + 1)/c2 = M + M,

56 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

hence we have

M = (M p − Mn ) + B/c2 with B = B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z + 1).

B can be calculated using the semi-empirical mass formula. In particular for odd- A
nuclei only the Coulomb and asymmetry terms are needed, because:
1. the volume and surface terms depend only on A and they cancel out in the
difference;
2. for odd-A the pairing term is null for both initial and final nuclei.
We have



Z2 (Z + 1)2 (A − 2Z )2 [A − 2(Z + 1)]2
B = −aC − − aA − =
A1/3 A1/3 A A

2Z + 1 A − 2Z − 1
= aC − 4a A
A1/3 A
In the reaction considered in the text A = 37 and Z = 17 and then we have
35 2
M = −1.293 + 0.697 × 1/3
− 4 × 23.3 ×  1 MeV.
37 37
Substituting this value in (1.5) we obtain

[m e + (M + M)]2 − M 2 m e (m e + 2M) + M(2m e + M + 2M)

E th = =
2M 2M
 m e + M  1.5 MeV.

Exercise 1.3.5
Denoting by Q − the Q-factor for the β− decay
64
29 Cu → 64
30 Zn + e− + ν̄e

and Q + the one for the β+ decay

64
29 Cu → 64
28 Ni + e+ + νe

we have (omitting the factor c2 in the mass terms)

Q − = 29M p + 35Mn − B(64, 29) − 30M p − 34Mn + B(64, 30) − m e

= Mn − M p − m e + B(64, 30) − B(64, 29)  0.782 MeV + B(64, 30) − B(64, 29).
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 57

Similarly we have

Q + = M p − Mn − m e + B(64, 28) − B(64, 29)  −1.804 MeV + B(64, 28) − B(64, 29).

From the SEMF we get

302 − 292 (64 − 60)2 − (64 − 58)2

B(64, 30) − B(64, 29) = −0.697 × 1/3
− 23.3 × +
64 64

12 + 12
+ √  0.0005 MeV,
64

282 − 292 (64 − 56)2 − (64 − 58)2

B(64, 28) − B(64, 29) = −0.697 × − 23.3 × +
641/3 64

12 + 12
+ √  2.74 MeV.
64

Hence we have
Q −  0.78 MeV Q+  0.94 MeV.

Both decays are allowed. The maximum kinetic energies of the electron and positron
are equal respectively to Q − and Q + .
Exercise 1.3.6
The stability condition can be written as ∂M(A,Z
∂Z
)
= 0, M(A, Z ) being the atomic
mass of the nucleus (A, Z ), which is is single function for odd- A nuclei. Using the
SEMF we have
2ac Z 4aa (A − 2Z )
1/3
− − (Mn − M p − m e )c2 = 0
A A
hence we get for the asymmetry coefficient
 
A 2ac Z
aA = − (M n − M p − m e )c 2
 24 MeV.
4(A − 2Z ) A1/3

Exercise 1.3.7
For a β + decay, (A, Z ) → (A, Z − 1) + e+ + νe , the Q β value, is

Q β = [M(A, Z ) − M(A, Z − 1) − m]c2 ,

where
M(A, Z ) = Z M p + (A − Z )Mn − B(A, Z )/c2

M(A, Z − 1) = (Z − 1)M p + (A − Z + 1)Mn − B(A, Z − 1)/c2 .

58 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Hence we have
Q β = [M p − Mn − m]c2 − B, (1.6)

where
B = B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z − 1).

Calculating B from the SEMF, we observe that all terms cancel but the Coulomb
and asymmetry ones because
1. the volume and surface terms depend on A only,
2. A is odd and the pairing term is the same (=0) for both nuclei.
Then we have



Z2 (Z − 1)2 (A − 2Z )2 [A − 2(Z − 1)]2
B = −aC − − aA −
A1/3 A1/3 A A

2Z − 1 A − 2Z + 1
= −aC 1/3
− 4a A (1.7)
A A
Considering the decay in the text, we have A = 35 and Z = 18: hence the term
multiplying a A vanishes. Inverting equation (1.7) we obtain

A1/3 B
aC = − .
2Z − 1

From (1.6) we have

B = [M p − Mn − m]c2 − Q β = −1.293 − 0.511 − 4.95  −6.75 MeV,

where we have used the maximum positron energy for Q β . Finally we get

351/3 × −6.75
aC = −  0.63 MeV.
35
The value obtained in this way differs from the best-fit value (0.697 MeV) given with
the SEMF by less than 10%.

Exercise 1.3.8
Denoting by Q − the Q-value for
100
43 Tc → 100
44 Ru + e− + ν̄e

and with Q + the one for

100
43 Tc → 100
42 Mo + e+ + νe
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 59

we have (omitting c2 multiplying the masses)

Q − = 43M p + 57Mn − B(100, 43) − 44M p − 56Mn + B(100, 44) − m e =

= Mn − M p − m e + B(100, 44) − B(100, 43) 

 B(100, 44) − B(100, 43) + 0.782 MeV

and
Q + = M p − Mn − m e + B(100, 42) − B(100, 43) 

 B(100, 42) − B(100, 43) − 1.804 MeV

From the semi-empirical mass formula we have for an odd-A odd-Z nucleus

Z 2 − (Z ± 1)2
B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z ± 1) = −aC −
A1/3

(A − 2Z )2 − [A − 2(Z ± 1)]2 aP
−a A − 2 1/2 .
A A
In the current case we have

432 − 442
B(100, 43) − B(100, 44) = −0.697 × −
1001/3

(100 − 86)2 − (100 − 88)2 12

−23.3 × −2× √  −1.45 MeV
100 100

432 − 422
B(100, 43) − B(100, 42) = −0.697 × −
1001/3

(100 − 86)2 − (100 − 84)2 12

−23.3 × −2× √  −1.18 MeV.
100 100

Hence we obtain
Q −  2.23 MeV Q +  −0.62 MeV.

The β − decay to 100 +

44 Ru is allowed. Instead the β decay is forbidden, yet the electron
capture, allowing the transition to 42 Mo, is possible since we have Q EC = Q + +
100

2m e  0.40 MeV > 0.

Exercise 1.3.9
(a) Each fission reaction releases 200 MeV = 2 108 eV × 1.6 10−19 J/eV  3.2
10−11 J. Hence the fission rate is
60 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

P 2 109
r= =  6.25 1019 s−1 .
E fiss 3.2 10−11

(b) 1 g of 235 U releases an energy

NA 6 1023
E fiss × = 3.2 10−11 ×  0.8 1011 J/g.
A 235
In a year the total energy is

J
2 109 × 3.15 107 s  6.3 1016 J.
s

The 235 U mass consumed in a year is then

6.3 1016 J
M(235 U) =  7.88 105 g = 788 kg.
0.8 1011 J/g

Since 235 U is about 30%, the used fuel mass is about 2.6 ton.
(c) The maximum neutrino energy is equal to the Q-factor of the beta decay. Denoting
−
57 La β decay, we have (omitting c in the mass terms):
it by Q − , for the 145 2

Q − = Mn − M p − m e − B(145, 57) + B(145, 58)  0.782 MeV − B−

where B− is the difference in binding energy between parent and daughter nuclei.
Using the SEMF we have for odd-A nuclei

B− = B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z + 1) 

Z 2 − (Z + 1)2 (A − 2Z )2 − [A − 2(Z + 1)]2

 −aC 1/3
− aA ,
A A
which becomes in our case

572 − 582 (145 − 114)2 − (145 − 116)2

B− = −0.697 × 1/3
− 23.3 ×  −4.03 MeV
145 145

The maximum neutrino energy is then 0.782 + 4.03  4.81 MeV.

(d) The neutrino intensity is 20% of the fission rate 0.20 × 6.25 1019 s−1 = 1.25
1019 s−1 . At 500 m distance the neutrino flux is

Iν 1.25 1019
=   4 × 1012 m−2 s−1
4π R 2 12.56 5002
(e) For a detector having a length l (along the neutrino direction), a section S, com-
posed of material of atomic mass A, the interaction rate is
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 61

NA NA
r =×σ × × ρl S =  × σ × × M.
A A
Such proportionality between rate and mass is holding each time the detector length
is much smaller of the interaction length. Inserting our values we get

6 1023 1.44 10−5 −1 450 −1

r = 4 × 1012 m−2 s−1 × 6 10−48 m2 × × 106 g  s  yr
gA A A

Exercise 1.3.10
Let us call Q + the Q-factor for the β + -decay of 27 2
14 Si. Omitting the factor c multi-
plying the mass terms, we have:

(E e )max = Q + = M p − Mn − m e − B(27, 14) + B(27, 13)

(a) The binding energy of 27

13 Al is then

B(27, 14) = B(27, 13) + M p − Mn − m e − (E e )max = 219.36 MeV

(b) The nuclei involved in the decay are odd-A, hence the pairing term of the SEMF
disappears from the mass difference. The volume and surface terms do not contribute
in any case. Considering the two surviving terms (aC and a A ), the asymmetry term
does not contribute since we have, for A = 27 and Z = 14, (A − 2Z )2 = (A −
2(Z − 1))2 . Hence the mass difference depends only on the Coulomb term aC .
(c) For a uniform charge distribution, we have

3 e2 3 αc 2
B = [Z 2 (Si) − Z 2 (Al)] = [Z (Si) − Z 2 (Al)].
5 4π 0 R 5 R

Hence we get for the 27

14 Si radius

3 αc 2 1.4 MeV fm

R= [Z (Si) − Z 2 (Al)] = 0.6 × × (142 − 132 )  4.1 fm
5 B 5.59 MeV
Exercise 1.3.11
−
The reaction νe + 71
31 Ga → 32 Ge + e belongs to the more general class
71

νe + (A, Z ) → (A, Z + 1) + e− ,

for which the neutrino threshold energy is

(m e + M )2 − M 2
E th = ,
2M
62 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where M and M are the masses of the nuclei (A, Z ) and (A, Z + 1) respectively.
Denoting by M the mass difference M − M, we have

[m e + (M + M)]2 − M 2
E th =
2M
which, being M, m e  M, becomes

E th  m e + M. (1.8)

We can write M as

M = M − M = M p − Mn + B/c2 (1.9)

with
B = B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z + 1).

Combining (1.8) and (1.9) we finally get

B(71, 32) = B(71, 31) − B = B(71, 31) − M − (Mn − M p )c2 =

= B(71, 31) − E th − (Mn − M p − m e )c2 

 618.95 − 0.233 − 0.782  617.93 MeV.

Using the SEMF we have instead

B(71, 32)  620.88 MeV

which differs about 0.5 percent from the previous value.

Exercise 1.3.12
The minimum atomic mass for isobars can be obtained from the equation ∂M(A,Z
∂Z
)
= 0.
Using the SEMF we obtain

2aC Z 4a A (A − 2Z )
1/3
− + (Mn − M p − m e )c2 = 0
A A
The term which depends on the electromagnetic coupling constant is aC . Solving in
aC we get  
A1/3 4a A (A − 2Z )
aC = − (Mn − M p − m e )c2
2Z A

If the stable nucleus is 133

54 Xe, the aC parameter should be
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 63
 
1331/3 4 × 23.3 (133 − 108)
aC = − 0.782 MeV  0.791 MeV.
2 × 54 133

From classical electrostatics we know that the Coulomb term is proportional to the
fine structure constant aC ∝ α. Hence the change in the coupling constant is

α aC 0.791 − 0.697

=   13%
α aC 0.697

Exercise 1.3.13
(a) For photons colliding against a fixed iron target, the threshold energy is

(M + m)2 − M 2 μ2
E γth = = (1.10)
2M 2M

where M is the mass of the initial nucleus, (A, Z ), M that of the final nucleus,
(A − 1, Z ), and m the neutron mass. Denoting by M the nuclear mass difference
M − M and with B the corresponding binding energy difference, we have

μ2 = [(M − M) + m]2 − M 2 = m(m + 2M) − M(2M + 2m − M).

Since M, m  M, we get

μ2  2M(m − M) = 2MB, (1.11)

having used the relation

M = M − M = m − B

26 Fe photo-disintegrating into 26 Fe, B can be obtained from the semi-empirical

For 56 55

mass formula

B = B(56, 26) − B(55, 26)  490.95 − 478.90  12 MeV. (1.12)

Hence the photon threshold energy is

2MB
E γth  = B  12 MeV.
2M
(b) In the case of Cosmic Rays, the collision does not occur in a fixed target frame
and the expression (1.10) cannot be used. Instead we make use of the invariance of
the total 4-momentum squared so that we can write, at the threshold

2 2
(M + m)2 = (E th
N + E γ ) − ( p N + pγ ) = E N + E γ + 2E N E γ − p N − pγ − 2 p N · pγ ,
2 th 2 th 2 th th 2 th
64 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where (E Nth , pthN ) is the 4-momentum of the initial nucleus (at the threshold energy)
and (E γ , pγ ) the photon 4-momentum. Since nuclei are ultra-relativistic we have

(M + m)2  M 2 + 2E Nth E γ (1 − cos θ ),

where θ is the angle between the nucleus and photon directions. Using μ2 we obtain

2E Nth E γ (1 − cos θ )  μ2 .

The nucleus threshold energy is

μ2
E Nth = .
2E γ (1 − cos θ )

Using (1.11) and θ = π (head-on collisions), we finally get

MB 52 GeV 12 MeV

E Nth = =  3 × 1020 eV
2E γ 2 10−3 eV

where we have used M = M(56, 26)  52 GeV, as obtained from the SEMF.

Exercise 1.3.14
(a) We can write the two separation energies as

S p = B(A, Z ) − B(A − 1, Z − 1)

Sn = B(A, Z ) − B(A − 1, Z )

hence we obtain for the difference

S p − Sn = B(A − 1, Z ) − B(A − 1, Z − 1).

Using the SEMF we get

Z 2 − (Z − 1)2 (A − 1 − 2Z )2 − [A − 1 − 2(Z − 1)]2

S p − Sn = −aC − aA + DP =
(A − 1) 1/3 A−1

2Z − 1 A − 2Z
− aC + 4a A + DP , (1.13)
(A − 1)1/3 A−1

where D P originates from the difference of the pairing terms, δ P (A).

The possible values of D P are reported in the following table, where e and o stand
for even and odd nucleon parity in the corresponding nucleus.
(b) If in Eq. (1.13) we insert Z = A/2, valid for light nuclei, we obtain
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 65

parent S p : (Z , N − 1) Sn : (Z − 1, N ) DP
Z, N parity δ P parity δ P
ee eo 0 oe 0 0
oo oe 0 √ eo 0 √ 0 √
eo ee +a P /√ A − 1 oo −a P /√ A − 1 +2a P /√ A − 1
oe oo −a P / A − 1 ee +a P / A − 1 −2a P / A − 1

A−1
S p − Sn = −aC = −aC (A − 1)2/3 .
(A − 1)1/3

Note that in this case we have D P = 0, because A = 2Z is necessarily even, corre-

sponding to the first two rows of the table. The difference S p − Sn is always negative
and decreasing with A. Hence larger energy is needed to extract neutrons than pro-
tons.
(c) If instead we use Z = A/2.5, approximately valid for heavy nuclei, we obtain

2/2.5 A − 1 2 A
S p − Sn = −aC + aA + DP =
(A − 1)1/3 2.5 A − 1
 
2 A − 1.25 A
= −aC + a A + DP .
2.5 (A − 1)1/3 A−1

Also in this case the difference S p − Sn decreases with A. The general treatment is
complicated because of the presence of D P , which can have either sign.
For even-A nuclei (D P = 0) the curve starts from positive values because of the
a A term. In the following figure the S p − Sn behaviour is shown for even- A nuclei.
30
Sp-Sn (MeV)

20

10
A = 2.5
Z
0

−10
A=2
Z
−20

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

A
66 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

(d) Using (1.13) we get

• 10 Ne: S p − Sn  −4.96 MeV;
20

• 18 Ar: S p − Sn  −2.28 MeV;

38

• 46 Pd: S p − Sn  −1.02 MeV;

106

• 56 Ba: S p − Sn  +4.15 MeV.

137

• 80 Hg: S p − Sn  −0.248 MeV.

200

Apart the fourth nucleus, 137

56 Ba, all nuclei are even A and the values of the separation
differences can be interpreted looking at the figure. The nuclei reported in the list
increase with A and show a transition from case (a) to case (b). The two assumptions
are strictly valid only for the first and last nuclei. The arrow in the figure sketches
the transition region.

1.4 Nuclear Decays

Exercise 1.4.1
Denoting by Tα the kinetic energy of the emitted α-particle, we have approximately

A
Qα  Tα .
A−4

Hence the Q α values are

240
Q1  × 5.17  5.26 MeV
236
240
Q2  × 5.12  5.21 MeV
236

The γ energy corresponds to the difference between Q 1 (240 Pu → 236

U) and Q 2
(240 Pu → 236 U∗ ). Hence we get

E γ = Q 1 − Q 2 = 0.05 MeV

Exercise 1.4.2
Calling τ1 and N1 the mean lifetime and number of 244 Pu nuclei at time t, τ2 and N2
the same quantities for 240 U and τ3 and N3 the same quantities for 240 Np, we have
τ1  τ2 , τ3 . Furthermore if t corresponds to the time of the measurement (= 30 d),
we have also t  τ1 . Under these conditions the secular equilibrium equation2 holds

N1 N2 N3
  .
τ1 τ2 τ3

2 See e.g. problem 1.4.6. The secular equilibrium is obtained for ω1  ω2 , ω3 and ω1 t  1.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 67

The source has a mass of 1 mol and then N1 = N A , with N A the Avogadro number
(1/2)
τ2 T 14 h × 6.02 · 1023
N (240 U ) = N2 = N1 = 2(1/2) N A   1.2 · 1013
τ1 T1 8.1 · 107 × 365 × 24 h

(1/2)
τ3 T
N (240 N p) = N3 = N1 = 3(1/2) N A 
τ1 T1

67 min × 6.02 · 1023

  9.4 · 1011
8.1 · 107 × 365 × 24 × 60 min

The decays involved in the chain are

244
94 Pu → 240
92 U + α
240
92 U → 240
93 Np + e− + ν̄e
240
93 Np → 240
94 Pu + e− + ν̄e .

The activity measured in the α-decay is

 
 d N1  6.02 · 1023 × 0.69
A =    N1 = N1 ln 2   1.6 · 108 s−1 .
dt  τ1 (1/2) 8.1 · 107 × 365 × 24 × 3600 s
T1

Exercise 1.4.3
The decay constant of 226 Ra is

ln 2 0.693
ω=   1.4 10−11 s−1 .
T1/2 1.6 × 103 × 3.15 × 107 s

The activity of a source is given by

 
dN 
A(t) =   = ωN (t) = ωN0 e−ωt [s−1 ]
dt 

The number of 226 Ra nuclei at time 0 is

NA 6.02 × 1023
N0 = =  2.66 × 1021
A 226
Hence we have

A(0) = ωN0  1.4 10−11 × 2.66 1021  3.7 1010 s−1 .

68 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Note that this is the definition of 1 Curie (1 Ci).

Exercise 1.4.4

6 C beta decay is 6 C →
The 14 14 14
7 N + e− + ν̄e . The specimen activity is given by
 
 d N  N(14 C)

A= = .
dt  τ (14 C)

The number of 14
6 C nuclei present in the specimen when it was still a living organism
is

NA 6.02 · 1023
N0 (14 C) = f × N0 (C) = f × m ×  1.3 · 10−12 × 5 ×  3.3 · 1011 ,

A(C) 12.001

where f is the fraction of 14 6 C nuclei in a living organism, m its mass, N A the

Avogadro number and
A(C) the atomic mass of natural carbon. The 14 6 C mean
lifetime is τ (14 C) = T1/2 (14 C)/ ln 2  8200 years. Hence we have for the specimen
activity when the organism died

N0 (14 C) 3.3 · 1011

A0 =   1.28 s−1 ,
τ (14 C) 8200 × 3.15 · 107 s

The present activity is related to A0 through the equation

3600 decays
A(t) = A0 · e−t/τ (
14
C)
=  0.5 ,
2 × 3600 s s

hence we get the age of the fossil

A(t) 0.5
T = −τ (14 C) × ln  −8200 yr × ln  7700 yr.
A0 1.28

Exercise 1.4.5
The nucleus 226 Ra has a decay constant given by

ln 2 0.693
ω= =  1.4 10−11 s−1 .
T1/2 1.6 × 10 × 3.15 × 107 s
3

For 1 g of 226 Ra we have then an activity

 
dN 
 = ωN0 = ω N A × 1  1.4 10−11 × 6.02 × 10  3.7 1010 s−1 .
23
A =  
dt A 226

This is the current definition of 1 Curie (1 Ci).

Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 69

The 60 Co source we are considering has an activity of 10 Ci, that is 3.7 1011 s−1 .
If m is its mass we get

A T1/2 60 5.26 × 3.15 × 107

m=A  3.7 1011 ×  8.8 mg.
N A ln 2 6.02 × 1023 0.693

A simpler approach to get the same result is obtained using the following relation,
which holds for sources with equal activities
(1)
m1 A1 T1/2
= × (2) .
m2 A2 T1/2

This equation can be used in our case knowing that our source has the same activity
of 10 g of 226 Ra. Hence we get
(Co)
ACo T1/2 60 5.26
m Co = m Ra × × (Cu)  10 × ×  8.7 mg.
ARa T1/2 226 1600

Exercise 1.4.6
The numbers of nuclei of the three types are ruled by the following nested equations

d N1
= −ω1 N1
dt
d N2
= ω1 N1 − ω2 N2
dt
d N3
= ω2 N2 − ω3 N3 .
dt

In our case, the initial conditions are N1 (0) = N0 , Nk (0) = 0 and d Nk /dt (0) = 0
for k = 2, 3. The particular solution for these consitions is

N1 (t) = N0 e−ω1 t
ω1
N2 (t) = N0 (e−ω1 t − e−ω2 t )
ω2 − ω1
 
e−ω1 t e−ω2 t e−ω3 t
N3 (t) = N0 ω1 ω2 + + .
(ω2 − ω1 )(ω3 − ω1 ) (ω3 − ω2 )(ω1 − ω2 ) (ω1 − ω3 )(ω2 − ω3 )

uhe nucleus 3 is stable and then ω3 = 0 and N3 (t) can be written as

 
e−ω1 t e−ω2 t
N3 (t) = N0 1 + + .
ω1 /ω2 − 1 ω2 /ω1 − 1
70 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

N1 N3
0.8 ω 1 = 10 s-1
ω 2 = 50 s-1
ω3 = 0
0.6

0.4

0.2
N2

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
time [s]

Fig. 1.3 Relative abundances for a decay chain with three nuclei having the decay constants given
in the figure

In Fig. 1.3 the three nuclear populations are shown as a function of time for the decay
constants given in the text. For t = 1/4 s we obtain

e−ω1 t e−ω2 t
N3 1 + ω1 /ω2 −1
+ ω2 /ω1 −1
=  10.9.
N1 e−ω1 t

Exercise 1.4.7
The fraction of 238 U isotopes decayed in 2.5 109 years is
   
t t ln 2
f = 1 − exp − = 1 − exp − 
τ T1/2
 
2.5 109 × 0.693
 1 − exp −  32%
4.5 109

The specific activity is the activity per unit mass. Hence we have
A N A ln 2
a = = 
M A T1/2

6.02 1023 0.693 μCi

  1.23 104 s−1 · g−1  0.33
238 4.5 109 × 3.15 107 g

Exercise 1.4.8

22 Ti →
1. 44 + α.
40
20 Ca
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 71

This decay is not allowed. Only nuclei having A ≥ 200 can fulfill the kinematical
conditions for the α-decay.
95 Am → 93 Np + α.
2. 241 237

This decay is allowed if Q α > 0. Using the SEMF we obtain

Q α = M(241, 95) − M(237, 93) − Mα = B(237, 93) − B(241, 95) + Bα

= 1798 − 1820 + 28.3  5.91 MeV.

Hence the decay is allowed.

+
55 Cs → 56 Ba + e + νe .
3. 141 141

This decay is forbidden because charge is not conserved.

−
28 Ni → 29 Cu + e + ν̄e .
4. 69 69

This decay is allowed, provided that we have Q β− > 0.

Q β− = M(69, 28) − M(69, 29) − m e

= 28M p + 41Mn − B(69, 28) − 29M p − 40Mn + B(69, 29) − m e

= Mn − M p − m e + B(69, 29) − B(69, 28)  0.782 + 600.0 − 593.5  7.3 MeV

Hence the decay is allowed.

Exercise 1.4.9
As in problem 1.4.6, the time evolution of the nuclei involved in the chain is

N1 (t) = N0 e−ω1 t
ω1
N2 (t) = N0 (e−ω1 t − e−ω2 t )
ω2 − ω1
 
e−ω1 t e−ω2 t e−ω3 t
N3 (t) = N0 ω1 ω2 + + .
(ω2 − ω1 )(ω3 − ω1 ) (ω3 − ω2 )(ω1 − ω2 ) (ω1 − ω3 )(ω2 − ω3 )

In our case the third equation is not used. We have ω1 = ln 2/2.25 = 0.31 min−1 ,
ω2 = ln 2/22.9 = 0.03 min−1 . The maximum N2 is found solving the equation
d N2
=0
dt

−ω1 e−ω1 t + ω2 e−ω2 t = 0

whose solution is
ln(ω1 /ω2 )
t =  8.5 min
ω1 − ω2

The time dependence of the nuclear fractions is shown below.

72 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

0.9 79
Kr
0.8
79
Rb
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 79
Sr
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
time [min]

Exercise 1.4.10
Denoting by NU and NRn the numbers of 238 U and 222 Rn nuclei, ωU and ωRn their
decay constants, the condition of secular equilibrium can be written as

NU ωU = NRn ωRn .

ωRn is related to the specific activity measurement as

A NRn ωRn NU ωU
a= = =
V V V

where V is the volume of the basement (60 m3 ). NU can be expressed as the 238
U
concentration ρU times the volume from which the Radon gas diffuses

ρU S d ωU
a= ,
V

where S is the surface of the walls (94 m2 ) and d is the thickness (0.02 m) of the
layer from which the gas diffuses. Hence we have
1/2
aV a V TU 100 × 60 × 4.5 109 × 3.15 107
ρU = =   6.5 × 1020 m−3
S d ωU S d ln 2 94 × 0.02 × 0.693 m3

Exercise 1.4.11
The Q α -value of the decay can be obtained from the alpha decay energy

A 239
Qα = Tα = 5.144  5.232 MeV.
A−4 235
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 73

The measured power is equal to the intensity of the alpha decays multiplied by the
released energy (Q α ). Hence we get

W 0.231 Joule/s 0.231 Joule/s

I =    2.76 1011 s−1 .
Qα 5.232 106 eV 5.232 106 1.6 10−19 Joule

The half-life is then

N (239 Pu) ln 2 N A m(239 Pu) ln 2

T1/2 = = 
I AI

6.02 1023 × 120 × 0.693

  7.57 1011 s−1  24000 yr.
239 × 2.76 1011

1.5 Nuclear Models

Exercise 1.5.1
The Saxon-Woods potential has the following expression

−V0
V (r ) = ,
1 + exp r −R
d

where −V0 , R and d are the three potential parameters, representing respectively the
minimum depth, the nuclear radius and the thickness of region where nuclear matter
vanishes.
Taken any spherical potential well, a larger radius generates eigenfunctions which
are contained in larger volumes. As a consequence the energy levels (i.e. the eigen-
values) decrease. Hence for a nucleus with larger radius we expect lower energy
levels.
A more quantitative result cannot be obtained, as the radial Schödinger equation
for a Saxon-Woods potential is not analytically integrable. However using the Fermi
gas model we can estimate the relative effect. The Fermi energy is:
 2  2/3
1  9π
EF =  33MeV, (1.14)
2m r0 8

where m is the nucleon mass and r0  1.2 fm is the coefficient of the nuclear radius
A-dependence (R  r0 A1/3 ). This energy represents the maximum kinetic energy
of nucleons in the nucleus. The energy of the ground state is obtained as E GS =
−V0 + E F , with V0 ≈ 41 MeV to agree with a binding energy per nucleon of about
8 MeV. From (1.14) increasing by 50% the nuclear radius one gets

E GS = −V0 + E F (1.5 r0 )  −41 + 15  −26 MeV,

74 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

which has to be compared with -8 MeV for the standard radius.

The binding energy is related to the ground state energy (about equal to its absolute
value), hence it increases with the nuclear radius.

Exercise 1.5.2
The carbon isotopes have 6 protons. These are all contained in fully closed shells
according to the configuration (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 . Hence they do not contribute to the
spin-parities of the nuclei. These are instead determined by the last neutron shells.
The configurations of the carbon isotopes are
11
C : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )3
12
C : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4
13
C : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )1
14
C : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2
In all cases the last shell has l = 1. We then have for odd-N isotopes
11
C : J = 3/2, P = (−1)1 = − ⇒ J P = 3/2−
13
C : J = 1/2, P = (−1) = − 1
⇒ J P = 1/2− .
Instead for even-N isotopes, all neutrons are paired and then
12
C, 14 C : J = 0, P = + ⇒ J P = 0+

Exercise 1.5.3
The first two nuclei are odd-A. Hence their spin and parity is determined by the last
unpaired nucleon. The shell configurations are
16 S n : (1s1/2 ) (1 p3/2 ) (1 p1/2 ) (1d5/2 ) (2s1/2 ) (1d3/2 )
33 2 4 2 6 2 1
39
19 K p : (1s 1/2 ) 2
(1 p 3/2 ) 4
(1 p 1/2 ) 2
(1d5/2 ) 6
(2s 1/2 ) 2
(1d3/2 ) 3

Both nucleons have l = 2. Their spin and parity are

16 S n : J = 3/2, P = (−1) = +
33 2
⇒ J P = 3/2+
39
19 K p : J = 3/2, P = (−1) 2
= + ⇒ J P = 3/2+
+
28 Ni is an even-even nucleus, all nucleons are paired and then J = 0 .
64 P

Exercise 1.5.4
Using the Fermi gas distribution we have
 pF p2 3 p
d p 4π 0 F p 4 dp 3 p 2F

E k  =  p F2M
0
=  pF =
3 2M 0 4π p 2 dp 5 2M
0 d p

where p F = 2r0 (9π )1/3 is the Fermi momentum (r0 = 1.2 fm) and M is the nucleon
mass (can be assumed equal for the purpose). Multiplying and dividing by c2 , we
obtain
3(c)2 (9π )2/3 3 × 1972 × 28.272/3

E k  =   20 MeV.
40 r02 Mc2 40 × 1.22 × 940

This expression does not depend on the content of protons (Z ) and neutrons (N ).
Therefore the mean kinetic energy is the same for all nuclei.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 75

Exercise 1.5.5
The nuclear shells involved and the spin-parity of the ground states are
1−
7 N odd-A nucleus, p : (1s1/2 ) (1 p3/2 ) (1 p1/2 ) ⇒ J = 2
15 2 4 1 P
–
1+
12 Mg odd-A nucleus, n : (1s1/2 ) (1 p3/2 ) (1 p1/2 ) (1d5/2 ) (2s1/2 ) ⇒ J = 2
27 2 4 2 6 1 P
–
+
28 Ni even-even nucleus ⇒ J = 0
60 P
–
– 87
38 Sr odd-A nucleus, n : (1s 1/2 ) 2
(1 p 3/2 ) (1 p1/2 ) (1d5/2 ) (2s1/2 ) (1d3/2 ) (1 f 7/2 )
4 2 6 2 4 8
9+
(2 p3/2 ) (1 f 5/2 ) (2 p1/2 ) (1g9/2 ) ⇒ J = 2
4 6 2 9 P

Exercise 1.5.6
All these isotopes can be unstable because of beta decay. Gamma decay is not possible
because they are in the ground states. Alpha decay is kinematically forbidden for
A  200. To establish if they are stable it is then necessary to evaluate their Q β
values.
− +
8 O nuclide. We have to calculate Q − , Q + and Q EC respectively for β , β
15

decays and electron capture (EC). We have

Q − = − B− + 0.782 MeV

Q + = − B+ − 1.804 MeV

Q EC = Q + + 1.022 MeV

where B∓ = B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z ± 1), the difference between the binding ener-
gies of the parent and daughter nuclei, can be derived from the SEMF.
We obtain Q − < 0, instead Q + = 2.44 MeV and Q EC = 3.46 MeV. 15 8 O is then
unstable and can decay by both β + -decay and EC.
This isotope is odd-A, so the spin and parity are determined by the unpaired
neutron of the last shell. The neutron shell configuration and spin-parity are
n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )1 ⇒ J P = 1/2− .
In the shell model the magnetic moment is μ = g J J . We have an unpaired
neutron (gl = 0, gs = − 3.83 n.m.) and g J is given by

j ( j + 1) − l(l + 1) + s(s + 1)
g J = gs (1.15)
2 j ( j + 1)

which for 15 8 O turns out to be g J = 1.28 corresponding to a magnetic moment

μ  0.64 n.m.
16
8 O nuclide. This nucleus is even-even. Furthermore it is the well-known stable
and most abundant oxygen isotope. Hence we have J P = 0+ and μ = 0.
17
8 O nuclide. Evaluating Q − , Q + e Q EC as for the first nuclide we obtain negative
values for all of them. Hence 17 8 O is stable.
The same nuclide is odd-A. Again the spin and parity are determined by the
unpaired neutron of the last shell. The shell configuration and spin-parity are
n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )1 ⇒ J P = 5/2+ .
76 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Using Eq. (1.15) we now get g J = −0.77 corresponding to a magnetic moment

μ  −1.92 n.m.

Exercise 1.5.7
We have odd-A nuclei and so the spin and parity of the ground states are that of
the unpaired nucleon. The maximum occupation is 15, corresponding to the neutron
number for 29
14 Si. The shell sequence up to 20 in the standard shell model, that is with
inverse spin-orbit coupling, is

(a) (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )4 .

If instead the spin-orbit coupling were direct (case b) the shell sequence proceeds
with increasing J values as

(b) (1s1/2 )2 (1 p1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1d3/2 )4 (2s1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 .

For 73 Li, whose unpaired nucleon is a proton, we have

(a) p : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )1 J P = 3/2−

(b) p : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p1/2 )1 J P = 1/2− .

For 29
14 Si a neutron is unpaired and we have

(a) n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )1 J P = 1/2+

(b) n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1d3/2 )4 (2s1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )1 J P = 5/2+

Exercise 1.5.8
52
Cr is even-even and then spin-parity is J P = 0+ . The other Cr isotopes are odd-A
and J P is that of the unpaired nucleon. The proton number is even, hence only the
neutron shell configuration is relevant. We have
51
Cr 27 n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )4 (1 f 7/2 )7
55
Cr 31 n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )4 (1 f 7/2 )8 (2 p3/2 )3 .
Therefore spin and parity of the ground states are
51
Cr J = 7/2, P = (−1)3 ⇒ J P = 7/2−
55
Cr J = 3/2, P = (−1)1 ⇒ J P = 3/2−
These two isotopes ate unstable because of β decay. To find the possible decay
modes we calculate Q − , Q + e Q EC respectively for β − , β + and electronic capture
(EC). These are
Q − = − B− + 0.782 MeV

Q + = − B+ − 1.804 MeV

Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 77

Q EC = Q + + 1.022 MeV,

where B∓ = B(A, Z ) − B(A, Z ± 1) is the binding energy difference corre-

sponding to each decay. To get B∓ we use the SEMF.
24 Cr isotope, Q + and Q − are both negative, yet we find Q EC  1.52 −
For the 51
1.804 + 1.022  0.74 MeV. This means that 51 51
24 Cr transmutes to 23 V by electron
capture.
24 Cr, Q + and Q EC are both negative, but Q −  1.19 + 0.782  1.97 MeV.
For 55
−
Hence this nucleus decays to 5525 Mn by β -decay.

Exercise 1.5.9
(a) 57 Cu e 57 Ni are mirror nuclei with a single nucleon (valence nucleon) out of
complete shells. The valence nucleon is a proton for 57 Cu and a neutron for 57 Ni.
The shell sequence is

1s1/2 1 p3/2 1 p1/2 1d5/2 2s1/2 1d3/2 1 f 7/2 2 p3/2 1 f 5/2 ...

The shell configuration up to the valence nucleon (occupancy no. 29) is

(1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )4 (1 f 7/2 )8 (2 p3/2 )1

and the first excited level corresponds to the following shell, 1 f 5/2 .
Hence we have for spin and parity

3 3− 5 5−
GS : l = 1, j = ⇒ JP = ; 1st Exc : l = 3, j = ⇒ JP = .
2 2 2 2
(b) The magnetic moment is μ = g j j, where

j ( j + 1) + l(l + 1) − s(s + 1) j ( j + 1) − l(l + 1) + s(s + 1)

g j = gl + gs
2 j ( j + 1) 2 j ( j + 1)

For j = l + 1/2, which holds for both nuclei since the valence nucleus is in p3/2 ,
the previous equation simplifies to

jg j = gl l + gs /2

For 57 Cu, substituting the orbital and spin g-factors for a proton, gl = 1,
gs = +5.6 n.m., we obtain

μ(57 Cu) = jg j = 1 × 1 + 5.6/2 = 3.8 n.m.

For 57 Ni, having a valence neutron, the g-factors are gl = 0, gs = −3.8 n.m. and we
have
μ(57 Ni) = jg j = 0 × 1 − 3.8/2 = −1.9 n.m.
78 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

(c) Q β + is given by [M(A, Z ) − M(A, Z − 1) − 2m]c2 , where M denotes the

atomic mass and m the electron mass. Since the parent (57 Cu) and daughter (57 Ni)
nuclei are mirror nuclei, the binding energy difference is only due to the difference in
the Coulomb energies. To write the atomic mass difference we have only to subtract3
the mass difference because a proton is exchanged into a neutron after the decay.
Hence we can write

Mc2 ≈ E c (Z ) − E c (Z − 1) + (M p − Mn )c2 

3 e2 3 αc 2Z + 1
 [Z 2 − (Z − 1)2 ] + (M p − Mn )c2  + (M p − Mn )c2 
5 4π 0 R 5 r0 A1/3

3 197 59
 + 938.27 − 939.57  9.72 MeV
5 137 × 1.2 571/3

The maximum positron energy is equal to Q β + and then we have

Tmax = Q β + = (M − 2m)c2 ≈ 9.72 − 2 × 0.511  8.7 MeV.

It is worth to notice that using the SEMF the result is 8.5 MeV.

Exercise 1.5.10
The shell sequence up to 14 is 1s1/2 1 p3/2 1 p1/2 1d5/2 .
The spin and parity of 178 O is that of the uncomplete neutron shell:
+
− 8 O, n : (1d5/2 )1 l = 2, j = 25 ⇒ J P = 25 .
17
18
In the case of 9 F, there are valence nucleons in both proton and neutron shells. Hence
the shell model prediction is not unique. The valence shell is the same 1d5/2 . The
resulting spin comes from the angular momentum composition 25 ⊕ 25 , whereas the
parity is the product (−1)2 × (−1)2 = +1. So we have
+ + + + + +
9 F, p : (1d5/2 ) , n: (1d5/2 ) ⇒ J = 0 , 1 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 .
− 18 1 1 P
+
(From measurements we have J = 1 ).P

For the last nucleus we need to extend the shell sequence. The two last shells up to
an occupation 82 are 2d3/2 3s1/2 , instead up to 126 are 1i 13/2 3 p1/2 . 207
82 Pb125 has a
valence neutron in the 3 p1/2 shell. Hence we find
1−
− 207
82 Pb, n : (3 p1/2 ) l = 1, j = 2 ⇒ J = 2 .
1 1 P

3 In the SEMF the energy term and the mass term have opposite signs.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 79

A.2 Solutions of Particle Physics (Chapter 2)

2.1 Fundamental Interactions

Exercise 2.1.1

Exercise 2.1.2
Let us first convert the cross section from √
natural to CGS units. In natural units
G F = 1.2 × 10−5 GeV−2 ; then expressing s in GeV, we obtain G 2F s = 1.44 ×
 √ 2
10−10 1 GeVs
GeV−2 . To perform the conversion we use the relationship
c  197 MeV·fm  1.97 × 10−14 GeV·cm, which allows to get 1/GeV = 1.97 ×
10−14 cm. Hence  √ 2
−38 s
G F s = 5.6 × 10
2
cm2 .
1 GeV

The CMS square total energy of the ν-nucleon is given by the invariant ( pν + p p )2 ,
where pν and p p are the 4-momenta of the neutrino and proton respectively. There-
fore s = M 2p + Mν2 + 2M p E ν : substituting Mν = 0 and neglecting M 2p (M p = 0.94
GeV/c2 ) in the high energy limit, we get
 
Eν
s  2M p E ν  1.88 GeV2
1 GeV

and for the cross section

   
2 × 5.6 10−38 × 1.88 Eν Eν
σ   7.4 × 10−39 cm2 .
28.27 1 GeV 1 GeV

The number of scatterers (nucleons) per unit volume is n = ρ/M p = N A ρ  1.3 ×

1024 cm−3 and hence the interaction length is
80 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems
 −1
1 Eν
λ=  1.0 × 1014 cm.
σn 1 GeV

An estimate of the ν energy above which the Earth becomes opaque is obtained
equating such length to the Earth diameter D = 1.2 × 109 cm. This energy turns out
to be E ν > 8.3 × 104 GeV.

Exercise 2.1.3
• e+ + e− → μ+ + μ− : γ + Z 0
• n → p + e− + ν̄e : W
• μ− → e− + ν̄e + νμ : W
• νe + e− → νe + e− : W + Z 0
• νμ + e− → νμ + e− : Z 0

Exercise 2.1.4
All the processes are allowed, except p + p → K + + p, which is forbidden because
of baryon conservation (Bini = 2 = Bfin = 1) and strangeness conservation (Sini =
0 = Sfin = +1). The first two processes

γ + γ → γ + γ , e+ + e− → 4γ

are due to electromagnetic interaction, the third and the fifth ones

p + p̄ → W − + X, νμ + e− → νμ + e−

to weak interaction. The Feynman diagrams of the allowed reactions are shown
below.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 81

Exercise 2.1.5

• e+ + e− → γ + γ : allowed—e.m. interaction
• π − + n → K − + : forbidden—strangeness not conserved (K − = s ū,  = uds
⇒ Sini = 0 = Sfin = −2).
•  + → n + e+ + νe : forbidden—weak interaction but two flavors changed ( + =
uus, n = udd).
•  + →  + e+ + νe : allowed—weak interaction(u → d + W + ).
• ρ 0 → K + + K − : forbidden—kinematics (m fin > m ini ).
• ν̄e + e− → ν̄e + e− : allowed—weak interaction (W − + Z 0 )
• νe + e− → νe + e− : allowed—weak interaction (W − + Z 0 ).

The Feynman diagrams for the allowed processes are shown below.

Exercise 2.1.6
a. π − + p →  0 + K 0 : it is a strong interaction process. X must have Q = 0,
B = 0 and strangeness S = +1 (s̄) (because  0 = uds and then S = −1). K 0 = d s̄
possesses all these features.
b. e+ + n → p + ν̄e : it is a weak process. X must have Q = 0 and electron lepton
number L e = −1. Hence it is an ν̄e . The same result can be obtained using the neutron
beta decay, n → p + e− + ν̄e , and moving the electron to the initial state.
82 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

c. 0 →  + X . The missing particle must be a meson. Looking at the particles

involved (all hadrons) the decay can be either strong or weak.4
If the decay were strong, the meson should have Q = 0 and strangeness S = −1.
It might be a K̄ 0 , but the system  + K̄ 0 is too heavy for the 0 decay. So a strong
decay is excluded.
The decay is weak and the strangeness conservation is not holding any more, being
replaced by S = ±1: a neutral pion is the right answer. Hence it is 0 →  + π 0 .
Exercise 2.1.7
The figure below shows the Feynman diagrams for all the processes. It has to be
noticed that (a) and (b) can also occur as neutral current processes (Z 0 instead of γ ).
This concurrence is more and more important as energy increases.

Exercise 2.1.8
Hereafter is the list of reactions (A for allowed, F for forbidden, “conservation” is
implicit):
1. μ+ → e+ + γ : F, violates L e and L μ .
2. e− → νe + γ : F, violates charge.
3. p + p →  + + K + : F, violates B.
4. e+ + e− → γ : F, violates energy.
5. νμ + p → μ+ + n: F, violates L μ .
6. νμ + n → μ− + p: A, see figure.

the moment we disregard the knowledge that all the J P = (1/2)+ baryons, except p and  0 ,
4 For

decay weakly.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 83

7. e+ + n → p + νe : F, violates L e
8. e− + p → n + νe : A, see figure.
9. π + → π 0 + e+ + νe : A, see figure for one of the possible graphs
10. p + p̄ → Z 0 + X : A, a possible case is shown, with q q̄ fragmentations
omitted.

2.2 Hadrons

Exercise 2.2.1
(1) K 0 -mesons as in (2.1) are produced in a strong interaction process. The following
quantities are then conserved: electric charge Q, baryon number B, lepton number
L, strangeness S. Considering the initial state and the K 0 in the final state, the
requirements for X are Q = +2, B = +2, L = 0, S = −1. No known particle exists
with such numbers. The minimum number of particles composing X is two because
two baryons can realize a system with B = +2. Hereafter a few processes fulfilling
these requirements are listed:
• p+ p → K 0 + p + +
• p+ p → K 0 + + +  +
• p+ p → K 0 +  0 + ++
• p+ p → K 0 + K¯ 0 + p + p
• p+ p → K 0 + K¯ 0 + p + n + π +
• p+ p → K 0 + K 0 + + + +
• p+ p → K 0 + 0 +  + + π +
• p+ p → K 0 + K 0 + 0 + 0 + π + + π +
We further notice that the minimum energy (threshold energy) is different for each
of the listed processes.
(2) Several experimental set-ups can be used to study reaction (2.1), depending on
the quantities to be measured and the particle identification required.
84 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Let us assume that the experimental configuration consists in a beam of protons

hitting a fixed target. Since we want to select events including K 0 -mesons, the obser-
vation of their decays is mandatory. As K 0 is neutral, its decay is detected through
the observation of the decay particles. One can use various types of detectors posi-
tioned downstream of the target (e.g., wire or drift chambers) or imaging detectors
acting as target as well (e.g., bubble chamber). With such detectors it is possible to
observe the decay into π + π − from their tracks. To measure charge and momentum
of the pions a suitable magnetic field is the best solution. The detection of the decay
into neutral pions is much more challenging, because it requires the observation of
the two photons emerging from the quasi immediate π 0 decay. This can be achieved
with a downstream electromagnetic calorimeter or, in the case of a bubble chamber,
using a heavy liquid filling (e.g. freon).
The K 0 decay follows the exponential decay law N (t) = N0 e−t/τ , where N (t)
(N0 ) is the number of particles at time t (time 0) and τ is the mean lifetime. It can
be reasonable to require that 99% of the neutral kaons decay in the detector. This
requirement determines the size of the experimental set-up. We have
 T
dt N (t)
0.99 = = 1 − e T /τ
0 τ N0

hence T  4.6 τ . Therefore the minimum length of the experimental set-up is

p
L  4.6 βγ cτ = 4.6 cτ  0.74 m.
m
Exercise 2.2.2
All the reactions are strong interaction processes. Considering the particles involved
we need to check the conservation of the following quantities: electric charge Q,
baryon number B and strangeness S.

• K − + p → − + K + + K 0 : allowed;
• ψ → π + + π 0 + π − : allowed;
• π − + p →  + + K − : forbidden for S non conservation;
• π − + p → π 0 + π 0 : forbidden for B non conservation;
• p + p → n + ++ + p + p̄: allowed.

Exercise 2.2.3
The answers about the decays and the interaction type are
• φ → ρ 0 + π 0 : allowed, strong interaction;
• π 0 → e+ + e− + γ : allowed, e.m. interaction;
• − →  0 + μ− + ν¯e : forbidden, violates the electron and muon numbers con-
servations;
•  − → n + π − : allowed, weak interaction;
• − → π 0 + π − : forbidden, violates the baryon number conservation.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 85

Exercise 2.2.4
To get the e+ + e− → μ+ + μ− cross section in cm2 we simply multiply it by (c)2 :
 2  
+ − 4π α 2 4 3.14 0.197 GeV · fm GeV2
σ (μ μ ) = (c)2  ×  86.6 nb
3s 3s 137 s

Neglecting strong interaction effects, the cross section into hadrons can be estimated
from the ratio R
σ (hadrons) 
R= = C Q q2
σ (μ+ μ− ) q

where C is the number of quark colors (3), Q q is the charge√of the quark q (in e
units) and the sum includes those quarks for which m(q q̄) < s. At 2 GeV u, d e s
fulfill such condition and then
   
1 4 1 GeV2
σ (hadrons) = 3 × + + × 86.6 nb  43.3 nb
9 9 9 4 GeV2

Exercise 2.2.5
We have
 c 197 MeV fm
τ J/ψ = =   7.2 × 10−21 s
(J/ψ) (J/ψ)c 0.091 MeV 3 1023 fm/s

The decay time corresponds to a strong interaction decay.

Exercise 2.2.6
The beam energy is above the energy threshold for the production of strange particles,
but below that for producing particles with heavier quarks. Therefore the simplest
hypothesis for the event is the associated production of  and K 0 observed through
their respective decays into p + π − and π + + π − . Having in mind also the two
charged tracks, the simplest interpretation for the event is

π+ + p → π+ + π+ +  + K 0

To verify the correctness of the interpretation and to assign a specific particle to each
V0 , we assume that the negative track is a π − , whereas the positive one can be either
p (-hypothesis) or π + (K 0 -hypothesis).
Let us call V01 the first vertex. If it is a  decay, we have
 
M 2 = m 2p + m 2π + 2 p1+
2
+ m 2p p1−
2
+ m 2π − 2 p1+ p1− cos θ1 =

= 0.9382 + 0.1392 + 2 × 1.02 × 1.905 − 2 × 0.4 × 1.9 × cos 24.5◦  3.40 GeV2
86 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

hence M  1.84 GeV, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis, since it differs by
more than 5% from the  mass (1.116 GeV/c2 ).
If V01 is a K 0 decay, we have
 
M 2 = m 2π + m 2π + 2 p1+
2
+ m 2π p1−
2
+ m 2π − 2 p1+ p1− cos θ1 =

= 0.1392 + 0.1392 + 2 × 0.423 × 1.905 − 2 × 0.4 × 1.9 × cos 24.5◦  0.267 GeV2

hence M  0.517 GeV, which is consistent with the hypothesis, being within 5%
from the K 0 mass (0.498 GeV/c2 ).
V02 is the second vertex. If it is a  decay, we have
 
M 2 = m 2p + m 2π + 2 p2+
2
+ m 2p p2−
2
+ m 2π − 2 p2+ p2− cos θ2 =

= 0.9382 + 0.1392 + 2 × 1.20 × 0.286 − 2 × 0.75 × 0.25 × cos 22◦  1.24 GeV2

hence M  1.11 GeV, which differs from the  mass by less than 5%.
To further confirm the -hypothesis for V02 , we calculate the invariant mass for a
0
K as
 
M 2 = m 2π + m 2π + 2 p2+
2
+ m 2π p2− 2
+ m 2π − 2 p2+ p2− cos θ2 =

= 0.1392 + 0.1392 + 2×0.76 × 0.286 − 2 × 0.75 × 0.25 × cos 22◦  0.126 GeV2

M  0.354 GeV is inconsistent with the K 0 mass.

As a conclusion V01 is a K 0 , V02 is a .
The lifetime of each particle is
l l m
t= = ×
βγ c c p

where m and p are mass and momentum of the decaying particle. We have

pK 0 = 2
p1+ + p1−
2
+ 2 p1+ p1− cos θ1 

 0.42 + 1.92 + 2 × 0.4 × 1.9 × cos 24.5◦  2.27 GeV/c

p = 2
p2+ + p2−
2
+ 2 p2+ p2− cos θ2 

 0.752 + 0.252 + 2 × 0.75 × 0.25 × cos 22◦  0.99 GeV/c

and the lifetimes are

Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 87

37 cm 0.498
tK 0  ×  2.7 10−10 s
3 × 10 cm/s
10 2.27

11 cm 1.116
t  ×  4.1 10−10 s
3 × 10 cm/s
10 0.99

Exercise 2.2.7
a. Forbidden: strangeness is not conserved.
b. Forbidden: electric charge is not conserved.
c. Allowed.
d. Forbidden: energy is not conserved.
e. Forbidden: strangeness is not conserved.
f. Allowed.

Exercise 2.2.8
a.  0 decays by electromagnetic interaction. For this interaction the quark flavor is
conserved as for the strong interaction. The strangeness conserving decay is possible
because a lighter baryon with the same strangeness does exist. The  0 →  decay
would be also possible by strong interaction if accompanied by π 0 , but there is not
enough energy [M( 0 ) < M() + M(π 0 )]. The electromagnetic decay is instead
possible with the emission of a photon, which is kinematically allowed. The mean
lifetime reflects the nature of the interaction.
b.  + cannot decay by strong interaction for the same reason as above [M( + ) <
M() + M(π + )]. Nor can decay by e.m. interaction because there is no lighter
charged baryon with S = −1. Hence it decays by weak interaction as shown by the
mean lifetime.
c. Any diagram with a quark (among u, d and s) emitting a photon, because the quark
contents of  0 and  are the same and there is no flavor change.

Exercise 2.2.9
(a) Denoting by σ and p the  spin and momentum, and by p K the K 0 momentum,
the vector product t = σ × ( p × p K ) is parallel to the scattering plane and propor-
tional to the  spin value. Hence it is proportional to the component of the spin in this
plane. t is an axial vector and then must be zero if parity is conserved (t → −t under
parity transformation). This is the case for the strong reaction π − + p →  + K 0 .
Being null the spin component in the scattering plane, the  spin can only be normal
to this plane.
(b) Using the star superscript for center-of-momentum system (CMS) kinematic
variables, we have the following relations
 
π = p2π + m 2π = pπ2 + m 2π  1.01 GeV/c

E ∗ = π∗ +  ∗p = m 2π + m 2p + 2m p π  1.67 GeV
88 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

βCM = | pπ |/(π +  p ) = pπ /(π + m p )  0.513

γCM = (π +  p )/E ∗  1.16

∗ ∗ [E ∗ 2 − (m  + m K )2 ][E ∗ 2 − (m  − m K )2 ]
p = |p | =  0.203 GeV/c
2E ∗

∗
 = p ∗ 2 + m 2  1.13 GeV.

θ = 0 in the Laboratory system (LS) corresponds to θ ∗ = 0 in the CMS. Hence the

 momentum in the LS is

p = γCM ( p ∗ + βCM · 
∗
)  0.915 GeV/c

The mean decay path of the -particle is

p
λ = cτ · β γ = cτ ·  6.47 cm
m

and the probability that it decays before reaching the detector is

 L
1
P(< L) = exp(−l/λ ) dl  1 − exp(−10/6.47)  79%
λ 0

(c) The precession angle at distance L from the target is

L L
φ = ωt = ω =ω ,
v β c

where ω is the Larmor angular frequency

μ B
ω= .

Hence we have

μ B L E  0.61 × 3.15 10−14 MeV/T × 20 T × 10 cm 0.9152 + 1.1162
φ=  × 
c p 197 10−13 MeV cm 0.915

 0.308 rad  17.6◦

(d) The decay asymmetry is defined as

1
N (cos θ ∗ ) d cos θ ∗ (x − αx 2 /2)|10 1 α
f + =  01 = = 1 − .
∗ ∗ (x − αx 2 /2)|1−1
−1 N (cos θ ) d cos θ
2 2
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 89

Thus we have for the asymmetry parameter α:

α = 2(1 − 2 f + )  0.72

(e) The decay asymmetry is a consequence of the parity non conservation in weak
interactions, as for the decay  → π − + p. In fact we have N (θ ∗ ) = N (π − θ ∗ ).

Exercise 2.2.10
The event in the text is interpreted as π − + p →  + K 0 . From momentum conser-
vation, pπ = p + p K , we derive the  momentum
p = pπ − p K

whose absolute value is


p = p2π + p2K − 2| pπ || p K | cos θ K 

 1.52 + 0.522 − 2 × 1.5 × 0.52 × cos 58◦  1.3 GeV/c

a. Assuming that the particles decayed from the second V0 are a proton (with momen-
tum p+ ) and a negative pion (with momentum p− ), the square of the invariant mass
is  
M 2 = m 2p + m 2π + 2 p+ 2
+ m 2p p−2
+ m 2π − 2 p+ p− cos(θ+ + θ− ) =

= 0.9382 + 0.1402 + 2 × 1.31 × 0.25 − 2 × 0.92 × 0.21 × cos 18◦  1.195 GeV2
√
Hence the invariant mass is 1.195  1.09 GeV which does not correspond to a
-particle. The invariant mass is smaller: this implies that (at least) a neutral particle
is not observed in the decay (as hypothesized in b.). This fact can be put in evidence
using the momentum conservation in the longitudinal direction (i.e. along the 
momentum). The total longitudinal momentum of the decay products is

p+ cos θ+ + p− cos θ− = 0.92 cos 4◦ + 0.21 cos 14◦  1.12 GeV/c

√
which is smaller than the  momentum (1.3 GeV/c) by more than 5% 2.
Finally we notice that the text did not provide the azimuthal angles of the decay
products. Having these angles it would have been possible to evaluate the momentum
vectors of these particles. The best way to verify the presence of unobserved neutrals
is showing that p , p+ and p− are not lying in the same plane or equivalently the
sum of the proton and pion transverse momenta is not zero.
b. If a neutrino is the missing neutral particle, its longitudinal momentum is

( pν ) L = p − ( p+ cos θ+ + p− cos θ− )  1.3 − 1.12 = 0.18 GeV/c

c. The  lifetime is
90 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

l l m 10 cm 1.116
t= =   2.04 10−10 s.
βγ c c p 3 1010 cm/s 1.3

Exercise 2.2.11
(a) In the quark model baryons are 3-quark systems. Since quarks are fermions with
spin 1/2, baryons must have a half-integer spin.
(b) An antibaryon is constituted of 3 antiquarks whose charges are either −2/3 or
+1/3. Hence the maximum charge is +1 [= 3 ×(+1/3)].
(c) A meson is a quark-antiquark system. To get S = −1, the quark must be s whose
charge is Q q = −1/3. It follows that the charge of the meson can be either −1
(Q q̄ = −2/3) or 0 (Q q̄ = +1/3).
Exercise 2.2.12
(a) Mesons are q q̄, the charges are +2/3 and −1/3 for q and −2/3 and +1/3 for q̄.
Combining the four possible cases, one finds that the charges for mesons are −1, 0
and +1.
(b) Antibaryons are q̄ q̄ q̄. Again there are four possible cases which are −2, −1, 0,
+1.

2.3 Weak and Electro-Weak Interactions

Exercise 2.3.1
The neutrino mean free path in Iron is

1
λ=
n p σν

where n p = ρ Fe /m p is the number of nucleons per unit volume. We have

7.9 g/cm3
np   4.7 × 1024 cm−3 λ = 7.1 × 1010 cm
1.67 10−24 g

Then, if f = 1/109 is the fraction of interacting neutrinos, the corresponding thick-

ness is
L = f λ = 71 cm

Exercise 2.3.2
For an estimate of the branching ratios we assume that they are simply proportional
to the transition rates as given by the Fermi golden rule. Hence we have

B R(D 0 → K − e+ νe ) |M(D 0 → K − e+ νe )|2 ρ(D 0 → K − e+ νe )

 × ,
B R(D 0 → π − e+ νe ) |M(D 0 → π − e+ νe )|2 ρ(D 0 → π − e+ νe )
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 91

where M denotes the transition amplitude and ρ the phase space factor. In the first
ratio all the terms cancel but the effective coupling constants. These are gw cos θC
for D 0 → K − (c → s + W + ) and gw sin θC for D 0 → π − , (c → d + W + ), where
gw is the weak coupling constant and θC is the Cabibbo angle (sin θC  0.22).
The phase space terms can be estimated using the so called Sargent rule, originally
established for the beta decay, taking into account the kinematic analogy of the
present decays with the beta case. Following this rule we have w ∝ E 05 , where w is
the transition rate and E 0 is the energy available in the decay (= m n − m p − m e ,
for the beta decay n → p + e− + ν¯e ). We also recall that in the Fermi theory the
beta decay is only ‘kinematical’, that means that the energy dependence is only
due to phase space. Therefore for the phase space we can write ρ ∝ E 05 . Under this
assumption we have
 5
B R(D 0 → K − e+ νe ) cos2 θC m D − m K − me
= ×  20 × 0.32  6.4
B R(D 0 → π − e+ νe ) sin2 θC m D − mπ − me

Despite the crudeness of the estimate, this results differs from the experimental value
by only 40%.
Exercise 2.3.3
The Feynman diagrams are reported below

Exercise 2.3.4
 The beta decay rate in the limit of the Sargent rule, i.e. assuming E  mc2 and
substituting E 0 with Tmax ( 0.782 MeV) is

G 2F Tmax 5
ω= . (2.1)
2π 3 7 c6 30

The squared Fermi constant (divided by (c)3 , as it is usually expressed) is

  1
GF 2
=
ω 2π 3 (c) 30
= 886 s × 62 × 197 MeV fm × 30  4.7 10−21 MeV−4 ,
(c)3 5
c Tmax 3 · 1023 fm s−1 × (0.782 MeV)5
92 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

hence we have
GF
 6.9 10−11 MeV−2 = 6.9 10−5 GeV−2 .
(c)3

The value is different from the one reported in the literature (1.17 10−5 GeV−2 )
because of the spectrum integration inaccuracy implicit in the Sargent rule and other
aspects of Fermi theory not included in Eq. (2.1), e.g. the V − A feature of weak
interaction and the quark structure of the neutron.
−
 Using the Sargent rule we have for the 3516 S →17 Cl + e + ν̄e decay
35

 5  5
ω[35 S] Q[35 S] 0.168
= =  0.00046,
ω[n] Q[n] 0.782

and then
886 s
τ [35 S] =  1.9 106 s  22 d.
0.00046
 Both the parent and daughter nuclei are odd- A, hence the spin-parity is determined
by the unpaired nucleon. The shell occupation of this nucleon is

– 35
16 S n : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )3
– 35
17 Cl p : (1s1/2 )2 (1 p3/2 )4 (1 p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (2s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )1

The unpaired nucleons have l = 2: both 35

16 S and 17 Cl have J = 3/2, P = (−1) = +
35 2
+
=⇒ J = 3/2 .
P

Exercise 2.3.5
(1) Charged current νμ -interactions on nucleon valence quarks can be either

νμ + d → μ− + u

or the ones associated to charm production

νμ + d → μ− + c.

In these processes, the leptonic vertex is the same whereas the hadronic one is
gW cos θC in the former and gW sin θC in the latter case, where θC is the Cabibbo
angle (sin θC  0.22). The fraction of charm events in CC interactions can be
estimated as

σ (νμ + d → μ− + c) sin2 θC
= =
σ (νμ + d → μ− + u) + σ (νμ + d → μ− + c) cos2 θC + sin2 θC

= sin2 θC  0.05
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 93

(2) The probability for muon neutrinos to be detected as tau neutrinos is Pμτ whereas
1 − Pμτ is the probability to survive in the initial state. The signal-to-noise ratio is
then

N (ντ → τ − ) Pμτ 1 0.015 1

r = −
 ×  ×  0.31.
N (νμ + d → μ + c) 1 − Pμτ sin θC
2 0.985 0.222

(3) The τ − decay modes are of type τ − → W − + ντ . A few cases are given below
• τ − → μ− + ν̄μ + ντ [W − → μ− + ν̄μ ]
• τ − → e− + ν̄e + ντ [W − → e− + ν̄e ]
• τ − → π − + ντ [W − → d + ū]
• etc.
The Feynman graphs for these decays are shown below.

Exercise 2.3.6
Following the Fermi golden rule, the branching ratio is proportional to the absolute
square of the transition amplitude times the phase space factor. In the decays of the
text we have

B R( − → n + e− + ν̄e ) |M( − → n + e− + ν̄e )|2 ρ( − → n + e− + ν̄e )

− −
 − −
×
B R( →  + e + ν̄e ) |M( →  + e + ν̄e )| 2 ρ( − →  + e− + ν̄e )

For  − → n we have an effective coupling constant gw sin θC (dds → ddu involves

s → u + W − ), with θC the Cabibbo angle. Instead for  − →  we have gw cos θC
(dds → uds involves d → u + W − ).
The phase space factors (ρ) can be estimated using the Sargent rule. It is written
as w ∝ E 05 , where w is the decay rate and E 0 is the energy available in the decay
94 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

(= m n − m p − m e , in the case of the neutron decay n → p + e− + ν¯e ). In the Fermi

theory of beta decay the transition rate is entirely due to kinematics. Therefore we
can use the same expression for the phase space factor. So we have
 5
B R( − → n + e− + ν̄e ) sin2 θC m − mn − me
 ×
B R( − →  + e− + ν̄e ) cos2 θC m − m − me

and then
 5
B R( − → n + e− + ν̄e ) m − m − me
tan2 θC  × 
B R( − →  + e− + ν̄e ) m − mn − me
 5
10.2 1197 − 1116
 ×  0.056
0.57 1197 − 940

Hence sinθC  0.23, which is in good agreement with the known value (sinθC 
0.22).

Exercise 2.3.7
Considering the transition amplitudes, for D + → K̄ 0 + e+ + νe we have c → s +
W + and an effective coupling constant gW cos θC ; for μ+ → e+ + νe + ν̄μ we have
a pure leptonic vertex μ+ → ν̄μ + W + and thus only gW . Making use of the Sargent
rule for the phase space factors we get

(D + → K̄ 0 + e+ + νe ) |M(D + → K̄ 0 + e+ + νe )|2 ρ(D + → K̄ 0 + e+ + νe )

+ + = ×
(μ → e + νe + ν̄μ ) |M(μ+ → e+ + νe + ν̄μ ))|2 ρ(μ+ → e+ + νe + ν̄μ )

   
m D+ − m K̄ 0 − m e 5 1870 − 498 − 0.5 5
= cos θC ×
2
 0.95 ×
2
 3.5 × 105
mμ − me 106 − 0.5

The experimental value is 1.5 × 105 .

Exercise 2.3.8
Pions produced in the atmospheric showers decay as π − → μ− + ν̄μ and π + →
μ+ + νμ . The muons produced in this way decay as μ− → e− + ν̄e + νμ and μ+ →
e+ + νe + ν̄μ . All the charges have the same probability.
The pions produced in the hadronic interactions with atmosphere nuclei have
energies higher than the ones observed for the atmospheric neutrinos. Let us assume
that the pion energy is at most 1 GeV. The pion mean free path is

pπ 1
lπ = βγ cτπ = cτπ < 3 108 × 2.6 10−8 m  55 m.
mπ 0.140

Since their production height is around 10 km, all the pions decay before reaching the
ground, unless they interact with the atmosphere again. Under the same assumption,
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 95

the produced muons have a mean free path

pμ 1
lμ = βγ cτμ = cτμ < 3 105 × 2.2 10−6 km  6 km
mμ 0.106

and also muons preferentially decay. Counting all the types of neutrinos appearing
in the decays we obtain a flavor ratio

νμ + ν̄μ
 2
νe + ν̄e

Exercise 2.3.9
The Feynman graphs for μ− → e− + ν̄e + νμ and τ − → e− + ν̄e + ντ are identical
apart the masses involved. Recalling the Sargent rule, one gets:
 5  5
(τ − → e− + ν̄e + ντ ) mτ − me mτ
R= =   1.32 × 106
(μ− → e− + ν̄e + νμ ) mμ − me mμ

Denoting with B(τ − → e− + ν̄e + ντ ) the branching ratio of this mode, the tau mean
lifetime is then

τμ 2.2 × 10−6
ττ = × B(τ − → e− + ν̄e + ντ )  × 0.18  3 × 10−13 s
R 1.32 × 106

A.3 Solutions of Experiments and Detection Methods (Chapter 3)

3.1 Kinematics

Exercise 3.1.1
Here we
write a few kinematical
relations useful for the solution:
π = p2π + m 2π =
 p 2 + m 2  20 GeV
π π
E ∗ = π∗ +  ∗p = m 2π + m 2p + 2m p π  6.199 GeV
βCM = | pπ |/(π +  p ) = pπ /(π + m p )  0.955165
∗
γCM = (π +  √ p )/E  3.3775
[E ∗ 2 −(m +m )2 ][E ∗ 2 −(m −m )2 ]
p ∗ = | p∗ | =  K
2E ∗
 K
 2.965 GeV/c
1. Neglecting the thickness of the target, detectable tracks are produced by ionising
particles emitted between 0◦ and 90◦ in the Laboratory system (LS). To answer the
first question we have to establish if  + ’s produced in the experiment do exhibit a
maximum angle. We have

∗ = p ∗ 2 + m 2  3.194 GeV
96 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

β∗ = p ∗ /∗  0.9281

β∗ < βCM is the condition to have such limiting angle and hence all  + ’s can be
detected.5
2. Assuming that all  + ’s decay within 3 mean lifetimes, the maximum distance for
the decay point is
p p
D = 3 · cτ · β γ = 3 · cτ ·  6.05 × cm,
m GeV/c

along the direction p / p . From this expression we desume that the minimum
length for the tracker corresponds to the maximum longitudinal momentum ( p ) L .
This occurs for ( p ∗  ) L = p ∗ . Hence we have

( p )max
L = γCM ( p ∗ + βCM · ∗ )  20.3 GeV/c =⇒

L = 6.05 × 20.3 cm  122.8 cm

3. As in the previous case, the minimum radius corresponds to the maximum ( p )T ,

that is for ( p ∗  )T = p ∗

( p )max
R = 6.05 × T
= 6.05 × 2.965 cm  17.9 cm
GeV/c

4. To establish if there is a maximum angle for K + , we calculate its velocity in the

CMS 
 K∗ = p ∗ 2 + m 2K  3.006 GeV

β K∗ = p ∗ / K∗  0.9864

We have β K∗ > βCM , so there is no limiting angle. Hence kaons can escape from the
tracker.

5 It can be useful, though not necessary, to calculate the maximum angle and its corresponding angle

in the CMS. They are


∗ 2 − β ∗ 2 )  1.217 =⇒ θ ◦
tan θmax = β / (γCM βCM  max  50.6

cos θ ∗ (θmax ) = − β
∗
/ βCM  − 0.9717 =⇒ θ ∗ (θmax )  166◦
At the maximum angle the longitudinal, transverse and total  + -momenta are respectively

( p ) L = γCM ( p ∗ · cos θ ∗ (θmax ) + βCM · 

∗
)  0.573 GeV/c
∗
( p ) T = ( p )T = p ∗ · sin θ ∗ (θmax )  0.700 GeV/c
p  0.905 GeV/c.
.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 97

5. The detectable kaons are those produced in the forward direction in the LS (0◦ <
θ < 90◦ ). The CMS angle corresponding to θ = 90◦ can be obtained from the Lorentz
transformation of the kaon longitudinal momentum ( p K ) L = γCM [( p ∗K ) L + βCM ·
 K∗ ] by setting ( p K ) L = 0. Hence we have

( p ∗K ) L = p ∗ cos θ ∗ (90◦ ) = − βCM  K∗ =⇒

 K∗ βCM
cos θ ∗ (90◦ ) = − βCM · = − ∗  − 0.9683,
p∗ βK

corresponding to angle of about 165.5◦ .

In the CMS frame the kaon angular distribution is isotropic so it is given by
d N /d = 1/4π (normalized to unity). The fraction of detectable kaons is then
 
1 2π 1
1 − cos θ ∗ (90◦ ) 1.9683
r= dφ d cos θ ∗ =   98.4%
4π 0 θ ∗ (90◦ ) 2 2

Exercise 3.1.2
(1) To have a limiting production angle, particle 1 must fulfill the condition βCM ≥ β1∗ .
The maximum limiting angle, corresponding to 90◦ , is obtained for the equality in
the previous relation. The CMS energy is the mass of the resonance, E ∗ = M. Hence
we have

p ∗ = | p∗ | = [M 2 − (m 1 + m 2 )2 ][M 2 − (m 1 − m 2 )2 ] / 2M

1∗ = (M 2 + m 21 − m 22 ) / 2M

and then
p∗ [M 2 − (m 1 + m 2 )2 ][M 2 − (m 1 − m 2 )2 ]
β1∗ = ∗ =
1 M 2 + m 21 − m 22

Since m 2 is negligible with respect to m 1 , we get

M 2 − m 21 2.582 − 1
β1∗ = =  0.7388
M 2 + m 21 2.582 + 1

We can get the pion beam energy E π , solving the equation βCM = β1∗

| pπ | E π2 − m 2π
βCM = = = β1∗ .
Eπ + m p Eπ + m p

Solving it in E π we have
98 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

β1∗2 m p + (β1∗2 m p )2 + (1 − β1∗2 )(m 2π + β1∗2 m 2p )
Eπ =  2.65 GeV.
1 − β1∗2

For higher E π values particle 1 is produced up to angles less than 90◦ .

(2) Considering the decay (2420) →  + K , for a fixed CMS angle θ ∗ = 120◦
and βCM = 0.7388, we have

∗ ∗ [M 2 − (m  + m K )2 ][M 2 − (m  − m K )2 ]
p = |p | =  0.833 GeV/c
2M

∗ = p ∗ 2 + m 2  1.452 GeV

( p ) L = γCM ( p ∗ cos θ ∗ + βCM · ∗ )  0.974 GeV/c

( p )T = p ∗ sin θ ∗  0.721 GeV/c.

From the last expressions we can get the momentum and angle of the  in the
Laboratory system

p = ( p )2L + ( p )2T  1.21 GeV/c

( p ) L
θ = arccos  36.5◦
p

(3) The -decay mean pathlength is cτ · β γ = cτ · p /m  . The length of

the detector is determined by the ’s decaying in the forward direction, for which
the momentum is maximum. This is
max
p = γCM ( p ∗ + βCM · ∗ )  2.83 GeV/c

The designed length corresponds to the requirement that 99% of the decay points are
contained in the detector. This occurs for a proper time T so that we have
 T  ∞    
1 1 t T
0.99 = N (t)dt = 1 − exp − dt = 1 − exp −
0 τ N0 T τ τ τ

=⇒ T = − ln(0.01) · τ  4.6 · τ

Hence the length of the detector must be

max
p p max
L = cT·  4.6 c τ · 
m m
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 99

Solving this equation in τ , we finally get

L m 0.26 × 1.189
τ = max   0.79 × 10−10 s
4.6 c p 4.6 × 3 · 108 × 2.83

Exercise 3.1.3
1. The minimum energy for a reaction is its threshold energy (E th ). It corresponds to
the production of the final particles at rest in the CMS. Equating the 4-momentum
invariants in the LS for the initial state and in the CMS for the final state, we have

Mπ2 + M 2p + 2E th M p = (M + M K )2

and then
(M + M K )2 − Mπ2 − M 2p
E th =  0.91 GeV
2M p

2. A maximum production angle is possible provided that β ∗ < βCM , where β ∗ is the
CMS velocity of the particle and βCM is the velocity of the CMS with respect to the
LS. For E π = 2 GeV, we have
pπ
βCM =  0.68
Eπ + M p

To get the  velocity in the CMS, we first calculate the total CMS energy (Pπ and
Pp are the 4-momenta of the pion and proton respectively)
 
E∗ = (Pπ + Pp )2 = M 2p + Mπ2 + 2E π M p  2.16 GeV

The momentum in the CMS is

∗ ∗ [E ∗2 − (M + M K )2 ][E ∗2 − (M − M K )2 ]
p = |p | =  0.69 GeV/c
2 E∗
Hence we have for the -velocity in the CMS

p∗
β∗ =   0.52.
p ∗2 + M2

The condition β ∗ < βCM is fulfilled so that there is a maximum production angle for
the ’s. This angle turns out to be
⎧⎡  ⎤−1 ⎫
⎨ 2 ⎬
βCM
θmax = arctan ⎣γCM − 1⎦  0.73 rad  42◦
⎩ β ∗ ⎭
100 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Exercise 3.1.4
The invariant mass of the two-pion system is the mass M X of the observed neutral
particle

M X2 = (Pπ + + Pπ − )2 = 2Mπ2 + 2E π + E π − − 2 pπ + pπ − cos θ.

The minimum opening angle corresponds to the case in which the two pions have
the same energy E π + = E π − (= E X /2). Imposing this condition and having in mind
that E π  Mπ we get

MX = E 2X sin2 θ/2 + 2 Mπ2  0.495 GeV/c2

Exercise 3.1.5
Denoting by Pi the 4-momentum of electron i, the total CMS energy is written as

E∗ = (P1 + P2 )2 = (E 1 + E 2 )2 − ( p1 + p2 )2 =

E 12 + E 22 + 2E 1 E 2 − p12 − p22 + 2 p1 p2 = 2m 2 + 2E 1 E 2 + 2 p1 p2  4E 1 E 2

where, in the last step, we have neglected the electron masses with respect to their
energies. Therefore we have E ∗ = 15.5 GeV.
In the CMS the two electron momenta are opposite. Neglecting the masses we
have
E∗
p∗ =  7.74 GeV/c.
2
The CMS velocity (in c units) in the LS is given by
 
| p1 + p2 | E 12 − m 2 − E 22 − m 2 E1 − E2
βCM = =   0.4 (3.1)
E1 + E2 E1 + E2 E1 + E2

and the Lorentz factor is

γCM = (1 − βCM
2
)−1/2  1.1.

If E 1 = E 2 and p1 = − p2 , from Eq. (3.1) we get βCM = 0. Hence the center-of-

momentum and laboratory systems are coincident.

Exercise 3.1.6
The minimum electron energy is its rest mass ( 0.511 MeV), corresponding to the
emission of an electron at rest.
To evaluate the maximum energy in a three-body decay M → m 1 + m 2 + m 3 , it
is convenient to re-write it as a two-body decay M → M12 + m 3 , where M12 is the
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 101

invariant mass of particles 1 and 2. It then turns out that the maximum energy for 3
is obtained when M12 is minimum, that is when it is equal to the m 1 + m 2 . Hence
we have
M 2 + m 23 − (m 1 + m 2 )2
(E 3 )max = .
2M
In our case M = M0 , m 3 = Me− , m 1 = M + and m 2 = Mν = 0 and we have

13152 + 0.5112 − 11892

(E e− )max   120 MeV
2 × 1315

Exercise 3.1.7
The minimum opening angle for a decay into two equal (ultra-relativistic) particles
is obtained for
ED
Eπ + = Eπ − = .
2
Hence for the minimum opening angle between the pions we have
⎛ ⎞ ⎛  ⎞
M D2 − 2Mπ2 M D2 − 2Mπ2
θmin = arcsin ⎝ ⎠ = arcsin ⎝2 ⎠ (3.2)
Eπ ED

To get the D̄ 0 energy, we make use of the knowledge that this particle is produced
at the maximum angle θmax . The corresponding angle in the CMS is given by the
equation
β∗
cos θ̄ ∗ = cos θ ∗ (θmax ) = − D ,
βCM

where β D∗ is the D̄ 0 velocity in the CMS and βCM is the CMS velocity in the LS.
Denoting by E ∗D and p ∗ the energy and momentum of the D̄ 0 -particle in the CMS,
using the Lorentz transformation for the energy, we get

E D = γCM (E ∗D + βCM p ∗ cos θ̄ ∗ ) = γCM (E ∗D − β D∗ p ∗ ). (3.3)

The total energy in the CMS is

 
E∗ = (Pπ + Pp )2 = 2E π M p + Mπ2 + M 2p = 6.21 GeV.

Hence the D̄ 0 -momentum in the CMS is

∗ [E ∗ 2 − (M − M D )2 ][E ∗ 2 − (M + M D )2 ]
p =  2.22 GeV/c
2E ∗
102 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

and the corresponding energy is p ∗ 2 + M D2  2.90 GeV.
For the quantities appearing in Eq. (3.3) we get

p∗ Eπ + M p
β D∗ =  = 0.767 γCM = = 3.37,
p∗ 2 + M D2 E∗

and hence we have E D = 4.0 GeV. Using (3.2), we finally get for the minimum
opening angle
# √ $
1.862 − 2 × 0.1402
θmin = arcsin 2 ×  1.18 rad  67.6◦
4

Exercise 3.1.8
Equating the 4-momentum invariants in the LS for the initial state and in the CMS
for the final state, we have at the threshold

E 2p + E γ2 + 2E p E γ − p 2p − pγ2 − 2 p p · pγ = (M p + Mπ )2

In the UHE regime we assume E p ≈ p p and then we get

2E p E γ (1 − cos θ ) = (M p + Mπ )2 − M 2p

The threshold energy as a function of the scattering angle is then

(M p + Mπ )2 − M 2p
E th (θ ) = .
2E γ (1 − cos θ )

The minimum value is obtained in the case of head-on scattering, θ = π

(M p + Mπ )2 − M 2p
E thmin =  6.8 × 1019 eV.
4E γ

Exercise 3.1.9
Using the relativistic invariants we have

(M p + Mn )2 = (E d + E γ )2 − ( pd + pγ )2 = Md2 + 2E γ E d − 2 pd · pγ .

From the momentum conservation we can write pd = − pγ and then

(M p + Mn )2 = Md2 + 2E γ (E d − pd )  Md2 + 2E γ Md  (Md + E γ )2 ,

Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 103

where, in the last two steps, we have considered that both the deuteron recoil momen-
tum the photon energy (both O(MeV)) are negligible with respect to the deuteron
mass. Hence we can write

Md  M p + Mn − E γ .

Assuming that the proton and neutron masses have negligible errors, it follows that
Md = E γ , and finally we get

Md = 1875.607 ± 0.005 MeV/c2

Exercise 3.1.10
1. The total CMS energy is

E∗ = 2M 2p + 2M p E p̄  2.08 GeV


were we used E p̄ = p 2p̄ + M 2p = 1.37 GeV. The kaons in final state are produced
back-to-back at 90◦ in the CMS. Their energies are E K∗ = E ∗ /2 and the momenta
are 
p ∗K = (E ∗ /2)2 − M K2  0.92 GeV/c.

Therefore in the CMS pT∗ = p ∗K and p ∗L = 0. Using the Lorentz transformation to

the LS we get
( p K )T = pT∗  0.92 GeV/c

p p̄
( p K ) L = γCM [ p ∗L + βCM E K∗ ] = 0 + ( p ∗K )2 + M K2  0.50 GeV/c
E∗
The kaon energy in the LS is then

EK = [( p K )2T + ( p K )2L ] + M K2  1.16 GeV

and the production angle is

 
( p K )T
θ K = arctan  61.5◦
( pK )L

The kaons we are detecting have  βγ = p K /M K = 2.1 and we can then assume that
their energy loss in the gas is ddEx ion = 2 gMeV
cm−2
. The number of electron-ion pairs
in each detector turns out to be
 
1 dE 2 106
n= ρ d  p c  × 2 10−3 × 10 × 0.20 × 0.30  160.
I d x ion 15
104 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Exercise 3.1.11
The mass of the particle is obtained from the invariant mass of the two muons. Their
energies in the LS are

E1 = p12 + m 2μ  452 + 1062  115 MeV

E2 = p22 + m 2μ  p2 = 30 GeV.

The square of the total 4-momentum is the invariant mass of the system. The total
energy and momentum are

E t = E 1 + E 2  0.115 + 30  30.12 GeV

| pt | = | p1 + p2 | = | p2 | − | p1 | = 30 − 0.045 = 29.96 GeV/c

Hence for the mass we have


M = E t2 − pt2 = 30.122 − 29.962 = 3.10 GeV/c2 .

The particle is the J/ψ-meson.

Exercise 3.1.12
At the threshold we have

E 2p + E γ2 + 2E p E γ − p 2p − pγ2 − 2 p p · pγ = (M p + 2m e )2 ,

and for E p  p p :

2E p E γ (1 − cos θ ) = (M p + 2m e )2 − M 2p  4M p m e .

Substituting E γCMB to E γ , the threshold energy as a function of θ turns out to be

2M p m e
E th (θ )  .
E γCMB (1 − cos θ )

The minimum value is obtained for θ = π (head on scattering) and is

M pme
E thmin =  0.5 × 1018 eV.
E γCMB

Exercise 3.1.13
(a) Denoting by s the square of the total energy at LHC and with E Lab the energy in
fixed target pp interactions, we require
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 105

s = 2 m E Lab

where m is the proton mass. Here we have assumed that protons are ultra-relativistic.
Hence we get

s (13 1012 )2 eV2

E Lab =   9 × 1016 eV
2m 2 × 0.94 109 eV

(b) Denoting by v the insect velocity we have

1
Mv2 = E Lab ,
2
since in the ultra-relativistic limit the proton kinetic energy is almost equal to its total
energy. Then we get
% 
2 E Lab 2 × 9 1016 × 1.6 10−19 J
v=   11 m/s  39 km/h
M 0.25 10−3 kg

Exercise 3.1.14
(a) Consider the Lorentz transformation between the reference systems K’ and K.
Denoting by β the velocity of K’ with respect to K, we have

E = γ (E + βp ) , p = γ ( p + β E ).

Hence we get
E ± p = γ (1 ± β)(E ± p ),

E + p 1+β E + p
= ×
E − p 1−β E − p

Using the definition of rapidity we finally obtain


1+β
y = y + ln
1−β

(b) The maximum (minimum) rapidity is obtained for the elastic scattering, pp →
pp, at θ = 0◦ (θ = 180◦ ). The maximum value is then for p = p and p equal to the
beam momentum (6.5 TeV)

1 E+p 1 (E + p)2 E+p 6500 + 6500

ymax = ln = ln 2 = ln = ln  9.5
2 E−p 2 E − p2 m 0.94

and ymin = −ymax .

106 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

(c) If θ is the scattering angle, we have p = p cosθ . In the ultra-relativistic limit

E  p and we get

1 E(1 + cos θ ) 1 cos2 θ/2 θ

y ln = ln = − ln tan = η
2 E(1 − cos θ ) 2 sin θ/2
2 2

(d) At 90◦ rapidity and pseudorapidity are identical: y = η = 0. At 1◦ we have

√
1 p 2 + m 2 + p cos 1◦ 1 65002 + 0.942 + 6500 cos 1◦
y = ln = ln √  4.74123
2 p 2 + m 2 − p cos 1◦ 2 65002 + 0.942 − 6500 cos 1◦

η = − ln tan 0.5◦  4.74134.

Therefore the difference is of the order of 1 over 105 .

Exercise 3.1.15
For a particle moving along the x direction and emitting a decay particle at angle θ
after a (proper) time t, we have
p
 = ctβγ sin θ = ct sin θ
m
Denoting CMS quantities with * and with no index the ones in the LS, we obtain
from the Lorentz transformations

p y = p ∗y ,  = γ ( ∗ + βpx∗ )

p sin θ = p ∗ sin θ ∗ ,  = γ  ∗ (1 + ββ ∗ cos θ ∗ ),

where β ∗ is the velocity of the emitted particle in the CMS (= p ∗ / ∗ ). From their
ratio we get
β ∗ sin θ ∗
βγ sin θ =
1 + ββ ∗ cos θ ∗

In the ultra-relativistic limit for both particles (β → 1, β ∗ → 1) we have

sin θ ∗ θ∗
βγ sin θ → = tan
1 + cos θ ∗ 2

and finally obtain

θ∗
 → ct tan
2
which proves that the impact parameter is independent from the particle momentum.
The mean value of the impact parameter for t = τ is
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 107
 π
θ ∗ sin θ ∗ dθ ∗ (x − sin x)|π0 π

 = cτ tan = cτ = cτ
0 2 2 2 2

For the D + decay we get

  1.57 × 3 108 m/s × 1.04 10−12 s  490 µm

For a CMS angle θ ∗ = 90◦ we obtain

  3 108 m/s × 1.04 10−12 s × tan 45◦  312 µm

Exercise 3.1.16
The mass of the parent particle is the invariant mass of the two muons. We have

M 2 = P 2 = ( p1 + p2 )2 = m 21 + m 22 + 2E 1 E 2 − 2| p1 || p2 | cos θ,

where pi and pi are respectively the 4-momentum and the momentum of particle i
(=1, 2). In the ultra-relativistic limit, holding for both muons, we get

θ
M 2 = m 21 + m 22 + 4E 1 E 2 sin2 . (3.4)
2
Substituting m 1 = m 2 = m μ and considering that the muon mass is negligible with
respect to the energies of both muons, we get
%
θ θ
M= 2m 2μ + 4E 1 E 2 sin2  2 E 1 E 2 sin 
2 2
√ 42◦
 2 7.4 × 2.6 sin  3.1 GeV/c2
2
The mass value corresponds to the one of J/ψ.
The momentum of the particle can be obtained from the Carnot theorem

p= p12 + p22 + 2 p1 p2 cos θ = 7.42 + 2.62 + 2 × 7.4 × 2.6 cos 42◦  9.5 GeV/c

and its energy is then E = p 2 + M 2  10 GeV.
Substituting E 2 = E − E 1 in (3.4), we can express the opening angle as a function
of E and E 1 : 
θ M 2 − m 21 − m 22
sin =
2 4E 1 (E − E 1 )

This expression is minimum for E 1 = E/2

108 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

  M 2 − m 21 − m 22
θ M 3.1
sin =   = 0.31
2 min E E 10

which corresponds to an opening angle of 36◦ . The energy of the muons is then 10/2
= 5 GeV.
Exercise 3.1.17
(a) The CMS energy of a particle emitted in a two-bosy decay is (M = m π )

m 2π + m 2ν − m 2μ m 2π − m 2μ 0.1402 − 0.1062
ν∗ = =   30 MeV
2m π 2m π 2 × 0.140

(b) For a 200 GeV pion the Lorentz factor and the velocity are γ = p/m π 
200/0.140  1429 and β ≈ 1 respectively. Transforming the neutrino energy to the
LS we get
E ν = γ (ν∗ + βpν∗ cos θ ∗ ) = γ ν∗ (1 + β cos θ ∗ )

where θ ∗ is the neutrino emission angle in the rest frame. The maximum energy is
obtained for θ ∗ = 0 and is

E ν (max) = γ ν∗ (1 + β)  2γ ν∗  2 × 1429 × 30 MeV  85.7 GeV

(c) Consider neutrinos emitted at θ ∗ = 90◦ in the CMS. Their energy in the LS is

E ν (max)
E ν (θ ∗ = 90◦ ) = γ ν∗ (1 + β cos 90◦ ) = γ ν∗ =  42.9 GeV.
2
Therefore forward emitted neutrinos have energies larger than this value.
(d) Using the relationship between angles under a Lorentz transformation we have

sin θ ∗
tan θ =
γ (cos θ ∗ + β)

For neutrinos in the forward hemisphere in the CMS the maximum angle corresponds
to θ ∗ = 90◦
1 1
tan θmax =   0.00070
γβ γ

which is an angle of 0.04◦ .

Exercise 3.1.18
If p and m are respectively the momentum and mass of the neutron, the distance it
has to cover in a mean lifetime is
p cT1/2
L = γβ c τ = ,
m ln 2
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 109

Fig. 3.1 Feynman diagram

for γ + γ → e+ + e−

where L( 5000 × 365 × 24 × 60 c × minutes) is the distance of the source. Hence
we get

L × ln 2 2.6 109 min × 0.693

p ×m  × m  1.8 108 × 0.940 GeV  1.7 1017 eV/c
T1/2 10 min

Neutrons with such momentum are ultra-relativistic and thus also their energy has
the same value.

Exercise 3.1.19
(a) The lowest order Feynman diagram is shown in Fig. 3.1. The amplitude is pro-
portional to α and the cross section to α 2 .
(b) Let us write (E, K ) the 4-momentum of the photon from the source and (, k)
the one of the CMB photon, in the LAB system. K and k are opposite (head-on) and,
considering also that they are massless, their sum is E − . At the threshold we have:

P 2 = (E + )2 − (K + k)2 = (E + )2 − (E − )2 = (2m e )2

4E = 4m 2e ,

and therefore the minimum photon energy is

m 2e (0.511 × 106 )2
E=   2.6 × 1014 eV
 10−3
(c) Denoting by M the invariant mass, at the threshold the Lorentz factor of the CMS
system is
E + E +
γ = =  2.5 × 108
M 2m e
110 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

3.2 Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Exercise 3.2.1
The number of photons as a function of the matter thickness x is
N (x) = N0 e−μx

where μ = 0.04 cm2 /g for lead and x is expressed in g/cm2 . To halve the number
of photons we require
N0 ln 2
= N0 e−μx1/2 =⇒ x1/2 =  17.33 g/cm2 .
2 μ
x1/2
Using ρ = 11.3 g/cm3 , we have l1/2 = ρ
= 1.53 cm.
For a 5% photon survival we have
1
0.05 N0 = N0 e−μx =⇒ x =− ln(0.05)  75 g/cm2 ,
μ

and then l5% = 6.63 cm.

Exercise 3.2.2
In the high energy limit (E γ  m e ) the absorption coefficient for pair production is
 
7
μ= X 0−1  1.4 cm−1
9

The cross section can be obtained from the absorption coefficient μ using the rela-
tionship
ρ NA
μ = nσ, where n = .
A

Using A = 207, ρ = 11.3 g/cm3 and the Avogadro number N A = 6.02 · 1023 mole−1
we get
A μ
σ =  4.2 · 10−23 cm2 = 42 b
NA ρ

Exercise 3.2.3
Neglecting the momentum loss in the slab (see below), the radius of curvature of the
muon is p
R=  33.3 m,
0.3 B
where, in this equation, B, R and p are given in Tesla, meter and GeV/c respectively.
The muon deflection angle θ is equal to the angle of the radius at the exit with respect
to the slab. For small angles the circular segment can be approximated to the slab
thickness (see figure) and then we can write
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 111
 
L
θ  arcsin  0.015 rad  0.86◦
R

Considering its initial energy

 themuon energy loss rate corresponds to the one of
a minimum ionising particle, − ddEx  1.4 MeV cm2 /g. The energy loss is then
 
dE
E = − × ρl  550 MeV.
dx

where l = Rθ  L  50 cm. Since E

E
= p
p
, it follows that the muon momentum
after the slab is
p = p − p  p − E  19.5 GeV/c.

The multiple scattering dispersion in the plane of the figure is given by


 Es l

θs2  = √  4 mrad  0.23◦
2 p̄β X0
√
where E s  20 MeV is the multiple√ scattering constant and p̄= pp 19.75 GeV/c
(see Exercise 3.2.8). The factor 2 at denominator converts the spatial dispersion
2
angle to the plane angle (θproj = θspace
2
/2).

Exercise 3.2.4
The Compton scattering cross section in the low energy limit, E γ  m e c2 , is given
by the Thomson cross section
8
σ = πr02 ,
3

where r0 is classical electron radius [= e2 /(4π 0 mc2 )  2.8 fm]. Hence we have
112 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

1 1
λ= = 8 2  4.52 cm
σn 3
πr0 N A ZA ρ

Exercise 3.2.5
Using the equation p[GeV/c] = 0.3 × B[T] × R[m] and writing the sagitta as s 
L 2 /(8R), valid for R  s, the electron momentum is

L2 0.032
p = 0.3 B  0.3 × 0.1  1.7 MeV/c.
8s 8 × 0.002

The kinetic energy of the electron is T = p 2 + m 2 − m  1.3 MeV.
The 4-momentum conservation in the Compton scattering can be written as

E γ + m = E γ + E k = k + p,

being (E γ , k) and (m, 0) the initial 4-momenta of the photon and electron, and
(E γ , k ) and (E, p) the final ones. Squaring k − p = k and solving in E γ , we get
for the initial photon energy6
p2 − T 2
Eγ =  1.6 MeV.
2( p cosφ − T )

The scattered photon energy is

E γ = E γ − T  0.3 MeV

Exercise 3.2.6
The mean number of pairs created by a single pion is
 
− ddEx ρd
n= ion
.

I 

In this exercise, as in many others in this book, the value of the ionization loss
rate is not given for the specific case (particle, material, etc.). Most of the cases refer
to relativistic singly charged particles. To help making a correct estimate one should
have in mind the main features of (−d E/d x)ion that can be easily deduced from a
figure of this function, e.g., as reported in the PDG Review of Particle Physics [1].
These features can be summarized as follows:
• the minimum of (−d E/d x)ion is at βγ ≈ 3. The differences in the minimum
ionization loss rate among the different materials is modest, because it is mainly
determined by the ratio Z /A: they change from ≈1.2 MeV g−1 cm2 for Pb up to

6 It
should not surprise that the scattered electron has a momentum larger than the initial photon
energy. In fact the photon is scattered backward at an angle of about 108◦ .
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 113

≈2 MeV g−1 cm2 for He. The only exception is hydrogen, whose Z /A is 2 and
about twice w.r.t all the other elements, which has a minimum ionization energy
loss rate of ≈4 MeV g−1 cm2 .
• In the relativistic and ultra-relativistic regimes, the increase of (−d E/d x)ion with
βγ is very small and in some case negligible. To have a reference number, there
is a factor of about 1.5 with respect to the minimum ionization in the βγ range
from 3 to 10,000.
• The previous consideration is actually true only for solid and liquid materials.
In these materials the energy loss is modified at increasing βγ by the so-called
“density effect”. Instead for gases this effect is negligible and the increase of
(−d E/d x)ion with βγ is somewhat larger (in the βγ range from 3 to 10,000 a
factor about 2).

20 GeV pions have βγ  140 and the medium in the counter is a gas (whose
composition is not given). Taking into account the fact that the typical gases used
in ionization counters have a minimum ionization of 1.5 ÷ 2 MeV g−1 cm2 and a
contribution due to the relativistic increase in gases, we can assume an energy loss
rate  
dE MeV cm2
− 2 .
d x ion g

Using d =1 cm, ρ = 1.8 × 10−3 g/cm3 and

I  = 15 eV, we get n = 240 pairs.
Hence we have for the current
Iout = I0 × n = 2.4 mA

Exercise 3.2.7
The velocity for protons and pions are
p p
βp =   0.983 βπ =  0.9996
p + M 2p
2 p2 + Mπ2

Hence they are related as

1
βπ > β p > = 0.952
n1

So the first Cherenkov detector is sensitive to both particle types. To get the beam
separation we then require a refractive index in the second detector allowing the
detection of the faster particle only

1
βπ > > βp
n2

from which we get

1.0004 < n 2 < 1.017.
114 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Exercise 3.2.8
500 MeV/c muons have βγ  4.7 and so they are close to the ionization minimum.
For the copper slab we can assume
 
dE MeV
− = 1.4 .
d x ion g cm−2

The thickness to stop the muon beam is the range for these muons. A simple estimate
can be done assuming that the energy loss is constant along the particle trajectory
 T
1 dT
R= 
ρ 0 (−d E/d x)ion

1 T p2 + M 2 − M 405 MeV
 =   32 cm,
ρ (−d E/d x)ion ρ (−d E/d x)ion 9 × 1.4 MeV/cm

where T and p are the initial muon kinetic energy and momentum respectively,
and M is their mass. A better value for the range can be obtained from the graph
R/M versus βγ shown in the figure below, taken from the PDG Review of Particle
Physics [1]. From this figure we deduce for an element (Fe) close to the copper
R/M  2300 g cm−2 /GeV. Substituting to M the muon mass we get R  27 cm.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 115

The kinetic energy lost in a 10 cm slab is

 
dE
T = − ρ d = 126 MeV.
d x ion

Hence the mean energy of the muons after the slab crossing is

T = T − T  279 MeV.

The multiple scattering angle at the exit has to be calculated taking into account
the ionization energy loss in the slab, because this loss is not negligible T /T 
126/405  31%. The calculation has to be done as follows
 2  2
Es dx Es dpβ
dθ =
2
= .
pβ X0 pβ X 0 (−dpβ/d x)ion

where X 0 , converted to g/cm2 , is 1.4 × 9 = 12.6 g/cm2 and (−dpβ/d x)ion , the pβ
loss rate, can be obtained from the ionization energy loss rate as
   
dpβ dE dpβ
− = − .
d x ion d x ion dT

We can write
 
p2 (T + M)2 − M 2 M
pβ = = = T 1+ (3.5)
E T+M T+M

hence we get
    &  2 '  
dpβ dE M dE
− = − 1+ = − [1 + (T )]
d x ion d x ion T+M d x ion

The function (T ) is ∼4% for the entrance energy and ∼7.5% for the exit energy.
For an estimate of the scattering angle (within an accuracy of less than 10%) we can
neglect such function in the previous expression and calculate the r.m.s. scattering
angle as
 ( pβ) f  ( pβ) f
E s2 dpβ
θs2 =
θ 2  = dθ 2 = =
( pβ)i X 0 (−d E/d x)ion ( pβ)i ( pβ)2

E s2 ( pβ) f − ( pβ)i
= , (3.6)
X 0 (−d E/d x)ion ( pβ) f ( pβ)i
116 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where ( pβ)i  489 MeV/c and ( pβ) f  356 MeV/c are the pβ value corresponding
to the entrance and exit of the muons. In the previous expression we have assumed
constant the energy loss rate within the integration range. Hence we obtain

202 489 − 356

θs2 =  0.017
12.6 · 1.4 489 · 356
and
θs  0.132 rad  7.5◦ .

Equation (3.6) allows to get a simple rule to calculate the multiple scattering angle
to be used in case of sizeable energy loss. In fact, considering that we have ( pβ) f −
( pβ)i ≈ (−d E/d x)ion × d, the r.m.s. scattering angle can be written as in the case
of pβ constant
 
Es d
θs =
[ pβ] X0

replacing pβ with the geometric mean [ pβ] = ( pβ) f ( pβ)i  417 MeV/c.

Exercise 3.2.9
The energy of the photons which are incident on the silver foil is

hc 6.28 × 197 106 × 10−6 eV nm

Eγ =   6.2 eV.
λ 200 nm
To have the photoelectric effect the photon energy must fulfill the condition E γ > W .
With W = 4.73 eV the photoelectric process is allowed. The electron kinetic energy
is E K = E γ − W = 1.47 eV.

Exercise 3.2.10
According to the Heitler toy model, the depth T at which the shower reaches the
maximum development is given by the equation 2T = E 0 /E crit . Hence we have

log10 (E 0 /E crit ) log10 (100 GeV/80 MeV)

T = =  10.3
log10 2 log10 2

where T is given in units of radiation lengths. Hence the air thickness is

X max = T × X 0 = 10.3 × 37 g/cm2  380 g/cm2

Exercise 3.2.11
The photons emitted in the e+ e− annihilation at rest have energy E γ = M/2 = m e ,
being M = 2m e and m e the electron mass. In the Compton process the scattered
photons have energy
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 117

Eγ
E γ =
1 + E γ /m e (1 − cos θ )

from which it follows that the extremal electron kinetic energies are for cos θ = 1
and cos θ = −1
(Te )min = E γ − (E γ )max = E γ − E γ = 0

Eγ m e 2
(Te )max = E γ − (E γ )min = E γ − = m e  0.34 MeV
2E γ + m e 3

Exercise 3.2.12
Assuming an energy loss rate of 2 MeV/(g · cm−2 ), the minimum kinetic energy for
a vertical muon to reach ground7 is
 
dE MeV
Tmin  − × x  2 × 1030 g · cm−2  2.1 GeV
d x ion g · cm−2

The number of ionized electrons are

Tmin 2.1 × 109 eV

Ne =   108 .

I  10 eV

Exercise 3.2.13
We notice first that the plate thickness is much smaller than a radiation length so that
we can neglect the electron energy loss. In this condition the r.m.s. scattering angle
is simply %
Es x
θs =
θ  
2
E0 X 0

where E 0 is the electron energy, E s  20 MeV and x = X 0 /20. Considering the

electron bremsstrahlung the dispersion angle is about
me
θb 
E0

where m e is the electron mass. We have

%
20 1 0.5
θs =  4.5 mrad  θb =  0.5 mrad
1000 20 1000

and then the angular distribution is dominated by the multiple scattering.

7 The muon mean decay pathlength is cτ = 660 m. This value does not contrast with the total

pathlength (10 ÷ 15 km) from the muon production to the sea level. At the minimum energy the mean
decay pathlength in the Earth reference system is L μ = βγ cτ  E min /m μ × cτ  2100/106 ×
660 m  13 km. This means that most of the muons above the minimum energy reach the ground.
118 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Exercise 3.2.14
For muons (E = 3 GeV) in copper we can assume (see Exercise 3.2.6) a ionization
energy loss rate  
dE MeV
− = 1.8 .
d x ion g cm−2

In a d = 10 cm thick slab muons lose an energy

 
dE
E = − ρd = 0.16 GeV,
d x ion

and so we have E  E. The lateral beam broadening can be calculated assuming
that the muon energy is unaffected by the slab crossing and we can write
 xS  xS  2  2
x2 Es x3 Es

(ρr )  =
2
x dθ =
2 2
dx  S
0 0 X0 pβ 3X 0 pβ

where x S = dρ  90 g/cm2 is the slab mass thickness and E s = 20 MeV is the

scattering constant. Hence we have

%  
xS Es

(ρr )2   x S
3X 0 pβ

Since E  Mμ , we can write pβ ≈ E and finally get for the beam broadening
%  
90 20

r 2   10  0.1 cm.
3 × 13.3 3000

Exercise 3.2.15
The quantity z 2 R/M (where z is the charge in e units, R the range and M the mass of
the particle) is a universal function of βγ = p/M. As an example an α-particle having
a kinetic energy Tα has the same range of a proton with kinetic energy T p = Tα /4
(same βγ ), because z α2 /Mα = 1/M p .

Exercise 3.2.16
Electrons having E = 1 GeV loose energy by bremstrahlung as
 
dE E
− = .
d x brem X0

Therefore the mean electron energy after crossing a plate of thickness x is

 
x
E(x) = E 0 exp − . (3.7)
X0
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 119

X 0 is the aluminium radiation length whose inverse is

1 Z2
≈D ln(183 Z −1/3 )  3.8 × 10−2 cm2 /g.
X0 A

The radiated energy corresponds to the value of E(x) in Eq. (3.7) at x = ρd 

13.5 g/cm2 , and then is
  
x

E γ  = E = E 0 1 − exp −  0.40 × E 0 = 400 MeV.
X0

Exercise 3.2.17
(a) In vacuum muons travel along a circular orbit whose radius is

p[GeV/c]
R[m] =  16.7 m
0.3 B[T]

(b) Muons have an initial energy


E0 = p02 + m 2 = 511 MeV

and a βγ equal to p/m  4.7. Hence we can assume for the energy loss rate in the
gas a value close to that of a minimum ionizing particle
 
dE MeV
 2 .
dx ion g/cm2

The energy lost after a complete round is approximately8

 
dE
E  ρ × 2π R  42 MeV
dx ion

and the final energy is E 1 = E 0 − E  469 MeV. The corresponding muon

momentum is p1 = E 12 − m 2  457 MeV/c and so the radius of curvature after
one round is R1  15.2 m.
Exercise 3.2.18
The scattered photon energy as a function of the scattering angle θ is

Eγ
E γ =
1 +  (1 − cos θ )

8 For an estimate it is not necessary to consider the actual trajectory of the muon which slightly
differs from a circle.
120 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where  = E γ /m  1, for 0.5 MeV photons. If E, T and m are the energy, kinetic
energy and mass of the scattered electron, from the energy conservation we have

E γ + m = E γ + E

and then
 (1 − cos θ )
T = E − m = E γ − E γ = E γ
1 +  (1 − cos θ )

The maximum energy is obtained when the photon is scattered backward (θ = π )

and hence we obtain for the Compton edge energy

2 2
Tmax = E γ  E γ  0.33 MeV
1 + 2 3

Exercise 3.2.19
The energy of the Compton scattered photon as a function of θ is

Eγ
E γ =
1 + (1 − cos θ )

where  = E γ /m. The electron kinetic energy is then

 (1 − cos θ )
T = E − m = E γ − E γ = E γ
1 +  (1 − cos θ )

This energy is maximum for θ = π and this value corresponds to the co-called
‘Compton edge’
2 2E γ
Tmax = E γ = Eγ .
1 + 2 m + 2E γ

Solving the equation in E γ we have

√
Tmax + Tmax (Tmax + 2m)
Eγ = . (3.8)
2
The three Tmax values shown in the figure are about 0.22, 0.62 and 0.80 MeV. Knowing
that in γ -transitions, neglecting the nucleus recoil, Q γ = E γ , from (3.8) we get

Q γ (1)  0.37 MeV, Q γ (2)  0.81 MeV, Q γ (3)  1.0 MeV

Exercise 3.2.20
(a) The muon velocity is
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 121

p p 10
β= = =√  0.999944
E p2 + m 2 10 + 0.1062
2

Thus Cherenkov effect is done because we have

1 1
β  0.999944 > =  0.99971
n 1.00029
(b) The Cherenkov opening angle is given by

1 1
cos θC =   0.99977
nβ 1.00029 × 0.999944

corresponding to an angle of 1.2◦ .

(c) The number of Cherenkov photons per unit length in the visible bandwidth is
α
Nph /L ≈ z 2 ω sin2 θC ≈ z 2 750 sin2 θC cm−1 ,
c
where ω corresponds to the visible and near UV bandwidth, where Cherenkov
radiation is possible (ω ≈ 2 eV). 10 GeV muons produced at 10 km reach the sea
level since their mean decay length is (τμ  2.2 µs):

pμ 10
lμ = βγ cτμ = cτμ  3 105 2.2 10−6 km  62 km,
mμ 0.106

and then emit Cherenkov photons along their whole pathlengths. For muons hitting
normally the Earth surface (θ Z = 0) we have

Nph ≈ 750(1 − cos2 θC ) × L  750(1 − 0.999772 ) cm−1 × 106 cm  3.4 105 .

For angles θ Z > 0, the number of photons scales as sec θ Z .

Exercise 3.2.21
From the 4-momentum conservation in the Compton scattering we have

E γ + m = E γ + E k = k + p

where (E γ , k), (E γ , k ) and (E, p) are the 4-momenta of the incident photon, scat-
tered photon and scattered electron respectively. We need to calculate the relationship
between the initial photon and the scattered electron as a function of the electron angle
φ. To get this we write

k = (k − p)2 = k 2 + p 2 − 2kp cos φ = E γ2 + p 2 − 2E γ p cos φ

2

k = E γ 2 = (E γ + m − E)2 = (E γ − T )2
2
122 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where T is the electron kinetic energy. Hence we have

p2 − T 2
Eγ =
2( p cos φ − T )

(a) An electron having an angle φ within the fibre acceptance releases its whole
kinetic energy, because it has enough pathlength to come at rest. Thus the measured
energy release corresponds to the kinetic energy of the electron at φ = 30◦ and we
have for the source energy

2.462 − 22
Eγ   7.9 MeV,
2 · (2.46 · cos 30◦ − 2)

where we have used p = (T + m)2 − m 2  2.46 MeV/c.
(b) The Klein–Nishina cross section is
 2 & '
dσ r2 E γ E γ Eγ
= 0 + − sin2 θ (3.9)
d 2 Eγ Eγ Eγ

where θ is the photon scattering angle. To get this angle we equate the photon and
electron transverse momenta
p
p sin φ = E γ sin θ =⇒ sin θ = sin φ
E γ

The photon energy E γ , corresponding to the electron emitted at 30◦ , can be derived
from E γ = E γ − T . Hence we have E γ /E γ  0.75 and sin θ  0.21. Substituting
these values in (3.9) we get

dσ 2.8 fm2
 × 0.752 × (0.75 + 1/0.75 − 0.212 )  4.5 10−26 cm2 /sr.
d 2
The cross section for all the accepted electrons is this differential cross section mul-
tiplied by the acceptance solid angle
 15◦
 = 2π d cos θ = 2π(1 − cos 15◦ )  6.28 × (1 − 0.966)  0.21 sr
0

Hence we have
dσ
σacc    4.5 10−26 × 0.21  9.5 10−27 cm2 .
d
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 123

(c) The Compton absorption coefficient for the accepted electrons is

Z
μacc = N ρ σacc  6 1023 × 0.5 × 1 × 9.5 10−27  0.0029 cm−1
A
where we have taken into account that Z electrons per each atom contribute to the
scattering. The number of detected electrons per incident photon is then

Ne d 0.2
 ◦
μacc  × 0.0029  0.001.
Nγ sin 30 0.5

Exercise 3.2.22
By definition E(x) = E 0 exp(−x/ X 0 ), where X 0 is the radiation length. The mean
energy loss is then E = E 0 − E(X 0 ) = E 0 (1 − 1/e) = 0.63 GeV.

3.3 Detection Techniques and Experimental Methods

Exercise 3.3.1
(1) The inverse of β is given by

1 1
= .
β 1− 1
γ2

Since E  m, we have γ  1, so that can use the relationship, valid for x → 0

1 1
√  1 + x 2.
1 − x2 2

The difference between the time-of-flights of two particles having velocities β1 and
β2 is
   
L L L 1 1 L 1 1
T = −  1+ −1− = − 2 =
β1 c β2 c c 2γ12
2γ22 2c γ12
γ2
   
L m1 m2 L m 21 m2 L m 21 − m 22
= − 2  − 22 = ,
2c E 12 E2 2c 2
p1 p2 2c p2

having set p1 = p2 = p in the last step.

(2) The difference in time-of-flight between pions and kaons is

L m 2 3 m 0.4932 − 0.1392 3 m × 0.224

T = =   1.12 ns
2c p 2 2c 1 2 × 3 × 108 m/s
124 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Using the time resolution requirement, T = 4σt , we obtain for the time resolution
needed for each counter
1.12 ns
σ  √  0.2 ns,
4 2

where we have used the relationship σt2 = σ 2 (T1 − T2 ) = σ 2 (T1 ) + σ 2 (T2 ) = 2σ 2 .

(3) When S1 and S2 are segmented and a third scintillator S3 is inserted in the middle,
the system can be used as a spectrometer. √
(a) The space resolution of each scintillator is σ y = 5 cm/ 12  1.44 cm (y is the
direction orthogonal to the beam in the figure). The lateral spread due to the multiple
scattering (see Exercise 3.2.14), in the same direction, is:
% %
x Es x 1 cm 14 MeV 1 0.013
σy  √ √ √  mm,
3 2 pβ X0 3 1000 MeV β 40 β

which turns out to be negligible for both particles (βπ  0.99, β K  0.90) with
respect to the resolution.
(b) The sagitta is

B L2 0.3 × 1 T × 9 m2
s = 0.3 =  0.337 m = 33.7 cm.
8p 8 × 1 GeV/c

The sagitta is measured as s  y3 − (y1 + y2 )/2 and the uncertainty on each yi is

σ y . Hence we have for the sagitta uncertainty
%
3
σs  σ y  1.76 cm.
2

The relative error on the momentum measurement is finally

p s 1.76 cm
 =  5%
p s 33.7 cm

Exercise 3.3.2
The radius R of the orbit at t = to is

p[GeV/c] 0.3
R[m] = = m  2 m.
0.3 B[T] 0.3 × 0.5

A 300 MeV/c muon (βγ  3) is at the minimum of the ionization loss rate. The
medium is not specified but it may be a gas, considering its density. Let assume to
be air for which the minimum ionization loss is ≈1.8 MeV g−1 cm2 . For the energy
loss in iron we use instead ≈1.5 MeV g−1 cm2 . Under this assumption we have
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 125

MeV MeV
E  1.5 −2
× ρFe × 2dFe + 1.8 × ρair × 2π R 
g cm g cm−2

= 1.5 × 7.87 × 2 × 0.2 + 1.8 × 10−3 × 2π × 200 = 6.98 MeV.

The initial muon energy is

E= p2 + m 2  3002 + 1062 MeV  318 MeV;

After one turn the energy becomes

E = E − E  318 − 6.98 MeV = 311 MeV.

and the momentum is

p = E 2 − m 2  3112 − 1062 = 292 MeV/c.

(a) The magnetic field needed to keep the muon in an orbit of radius R after one turn
is
p [GeV/c]
B =  0.486 T
0.3 R[m]

and hence we have B = B − B  0.486 − 0.5  −0.014 T.

(b) The muon mean decay pathlength is λ = βγ cτ , where βγ = p/m. Hence we
have
p 300 × 3 108 × 2.2 10−6
λ= cτ   1868 m.
m 106
The mean number of turns is then
λ 1868

n turns  =   149.
2π R 4π
Exercise 3.3.3
1. Muons come at rest in water loosing their kinetic energy by ionization. The energy
lost by Cherenkov effect is negligible (order of per mill). Muons with 1 GeV/c
momentum (m = 106 MeV/c2 ) are close to the ionization minimum and we can use
an energy loss rate of about 2 MeV/(g cm−2 ) (= 2 MeV/cm in water). A simple
estimate of the total pathlength can be done under the assumption that the changes
in energy loss rate along the muon path can be neglected
 T  T
dE dE 900 MeV
R(E)     4.5 m,
0 (−d E/dl)ion 0 2 MeV/cm 2 MeV/cm

where T = p 2 + m 2 − m  900 MeV is the initial kinetic energy of the muons.
126 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

A better estimate is made using the range-versus-energy plots reported in the PDG
Review of Particle Physics [1]. Here only a few elements are shown: in particular for
1 GeV/c muons we get R/m ≈ 2000 g cm−2 GeV−1 for H (Z /A = 1) and R/m ≈
4000 g cm−2 GeV−1 for C (Z /A = 0.5). In the mixtures, as water, one has to take
into account that the primary dependence of the ionization energy loss (is on the ratio
Z
( /A. Therefore
( −d E/d x of the mixture is proportional to
Z /A = w j Z j /A j =
n j Z j / n j A j , where w j (n j ) is the weight fraction (number of atoms) of the j-th
element in the compound. In water we have
Z /A = (2 × 1 + 8)/(2 × 1 + 16) 
0.56. Therefore the range in water is dominated by the energy loss in oxygen. If we
take the range in carbon as a reference we obtain R  4000 cm/GeV × 0.106 GeV
 4.2 m. We notice that the value obtained assuming a constant energy loss rate
overestimates the actual range, but is adequate for a rough estimate.
2. The condition to emit Cherenkov photons is β ≥ βmin = 1/n  0.75. Hence we
have for a particle mass m
pmin = βmin γmin m =⇒ pmin  1.134 m,

and then for a muon


Tmin = 2
pmin + m 2 − m  0.51 m  54 MeV.

The length of the path where the muon emits Cherenkov radiation is (for a constant
energy loss rate)
 
T
dE T
dE 900 − 54 MeV
LC =    4.23 m.
Tmin (−d E/dl)ion Tmin 2 MeV/cm 2 MeV/cm

Comparing this value with the one obtained under the same approximation we obtain
a fraction 4.23/4.5  94%.
3. The initial opening angle of the Cherenkov cone is obtained from

1 p2 + m 2 1.006
cos θC = =   0.756.
βn pn 1.33

The muon energy loss up to the exit from the detector is small enough (≈100 MeV)
so that the Cherenkov angle is almost constant. Hence the region illuminated on the
base is determined by the Cherenkov cone at the initial point and the radius of the
circle is

D 1 − cos2 θC
R = D tan θC =  0.865 D  43 cm.
cos θC
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 127

Exercise 3.3.4
Considering the distance and the size of the detector, electrons and positrons are
detected for angles between

θmin = arctan(6/200)  30 mrad

and
θmax = arctan(10/200)  50 mrad.
√
The energy of each beam is E e = s/2 = 45 GeV.
Integrating the given expression of the Bhabha cross section between θmin and
θmax we have
 θmax  
8π α 2 dθ 8π α 2 1 1
σ = (c)2 = (c)2 − =
E e2 θmin θ3 E e2 2 · θmin
2 2 · θmax
2

 
1 1
 2.57 · 10−8 fm2 −  0.91 · 10−5 fm2  9.1 · 10−32 cm2
2 · (0.030)2 2 · (0.050)2

For a rate of 1 ev/s we obtain a luminosity

n 1 s−1
L=   1.1 · 1031 cm−2 s−1
σ 9.1 · 10−32 cm2
Exercise 3.3.5
If τ is the mean lifetime, the number of particles surviving after a time t is

N (t) = N0 e−t/τ .

In our case we require to have at least one decay in t = 1 yr

 
t
N0 − 1 = N0 e−t/τ  N0 1 −
τ

hence N0 = τt . Since the number of nucleons in the detector mass M is N0 = N A M

(where N A  6.02 · 1023 mole−1 is the Avogadro number) we obtain for the required
mass
τ 1032
M=   1.7 · 108 g = 170 ton
t NA 6.02 · 1023 g−1

Exercise 3.3.6
The pion momentum in GeV/c is given by the relationship

p = 0.3 B R,
128 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

where R is the curvature radius in metres and B the magnetic field in Tesla. The
deflection angle in the magnetic field can be written to a good approximation as

L 0.3 B L
θ = .
R p

We notice that the approximation of using L equal to the length of the magnet (instead
of the length of the trajectory) is justified by the fact that the deflection angles are
small for all the momenta (130 mrad at 0.5 GeV/c down to 44 at 1.5 GeV/c).
The distance L and the width w of the slit allow to select the pion momentum and
its uncertainty. The angle subtended for a momentum p0 ± p is

w 0.3 B L
θ  = p.
d p02

Hence to select 1 GeV/c ± 5% charged pions we need a distance

p0 w 1 × 0.01
d=    1.5 m
p
0.3 B L p0 0.3 × 0.2 × 1.1 × 0.1

Exercise 3.3.7
The relationship for a particle of charge e among the curvature radius R in metres,
the uniform magnetic field B in Tesla and the momentum p in GeV/c is

p = 0.3 B R

hence the muon momentum is p  2.1 GeV/c.

For the revolution period we have

2π R
T = ,
βc

where the velocity is β = p/E = p/ p 2 + m 2μ ≈ 1. The revolution period is then
T  2.93 × 10−7 s.
The mean muon lifetime in the Lab system is
p
τLS = γ τ  τ  20 τ.
mμ

The number of muons surviving after one period is

N (T ) = N0 e−T /τLS ,
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 129

where N0 is the initial muon number. The fraction of muons decayed after one period
is then
 
N0 (1 − e−T /τLS ) T T
f = 1− 1− =  6.7 × 10−3 .
N0 τLS τLS

Exercise 3.3.8
1. The total energy of the particles involved in the proton decay is E 0 = m p . In
the considered decay channel the energies of the two particles are almost equal so
that e ≈ π 0 ≈ E 0 /2 (the correct calculation gives 0.46 GeV and 0.48 GeV for
the energies of the positron and pion respectively). Positrons and photons (from
π 0 decay) are produced back-to-back and, having energies above the water critical
energy and then produce e.m. cascades. Under the approximation of equal energies,
the maximum of the longitudinal development is (in units of X 0 )

ln[E 0 /(2E c )]
Tmax =  2.55.
ln 2
Hence most of the Cherenkov emitting particles are contained in a segment of length
L = 2 × Xρ0 × Tmax  1.8 m. This length determines the size of the detector (each
side  L).
2. To estimate the number of emitted Cherenkov photons, we need to evaluate the
total track length for the charged particles (e+ , e− ) contained each cascade. This total
length (called track length integral) is given by
 Tmax  
2 2 2 E0
Ttot = 2t dt = (2Tmax − 1) = − 1  4.7,
3 0 3 ln 2 3 ln 2 2E c

where the factor 2/3 is the average fraction of charged particles in the cascade. Hence
we have for the total number of Cherenkov photons

X 0 · Ttot
Nphot = 2 × I0  338 cm × 400 cm−1  1.4 × 105
ρ

Exercise 3.3.9
When a proton interacts with a residual air molecule it is thrown away from the
trajectory where the accumulated protons are kept by the magnetic field. Then at
each scattering a proton is lost. The absorption coefficient is given by

NA
μ = σn n=ρ ,
A
where σ is the total cross section, n is the number of scatterers per unit volume and
N A is the Avogadro number. In the proton ring (10−11 atm) we have
130 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

6 1023
μ = 300 × 10−27 × 1.25 10−14 ×  1.6 × 10−16 cm−1 .
14
The inverse of this value corresponds is the mean pathlength. 300 GeV protons are
ultra-relativistic and their velocity is ≈c. Hence the mean beam lifetime is

1
τ=  2.08 × 105 s  58 h
cμ

Exercise 3.3.10
The interactions occurs against the nuclei along the beam. These are

NA 6.02 × 1023
Nsc = ρdS= × 11.3 × 0.2 × π × 1  2 × 1022
A 207
The fraction of scattered particle is given by

Ns 2 × 1022
fs = σ = × 3 10−26  1.9 10−4
S 3.14
Exercise 3.3.11
The neutrino interaction rate is given by

wint = σ φ  7 × 10−44 cm2 × 106 cm−2 s−1  7 × 10−38 s−1 .

The number of scattering centres (electrons) per unit volume is

Z Z
n sc = ρ N A V = N A M = 0.5 × 6.02 · 1023 × 5 · 1010  1.5 × 1034 .
A A

Hence the number of interactions per year is (T = 1 yr  3.15 × 107 s )

Nyr = wint × n sc × T = 3.3 × 104

Exercise 3.3.12
(a) The maximum shower development is reached at a depth

log10 (E 0 /E c ) log10 (500 GeV/80 MeV)

T = =  12.6
log10 2 log10 2

where T is expressed in radiation length units. Therefore the actual depth in g/cm2 is

X max = T × X 0  470 g/cm2

corresponding to an optimal altitude (for vertical showers)

Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 131
 
X max
h = −h 0 ln  5300 m.
X v (0)

There are sites suitable for such observations, e.g. in the Andes or in Tibet.
(b) Electrons at the shower maximum have an energy equal to the critical energy
E cwater  E catm = 80 MeV. At this energy the Cherenkov condition is fulfilled

n 1.33
nβ = = > 1.
1+ (m/ p)2 1 + (0.511/80)2

Hence Cherenkov photons can be used to detect shower events.

(c) Shower particles (photons and electrons) at the critical energy have equal prob-
ability to loose energy by ionization and bremsstrahlung. Therefore they are not
energetic enough to produce e.m. cascades. The component of the shower which are
already electrons mostly loose energy by ionization. Instead those which are photons
have still enough energy for pair production (threshold energy  1 MeV) and can
generate electrons of both signs with lower energies. To make an estimate of the
path done by electron loosing energy in water we can calculate the residual range of
electrons at the critical energy
 E cwater
dE E cwater
x =  −d E   = 40 g/cm2
0 dx ion
2 MeV/(g cm−2 )

and then l  40 cm. Hence electrons loose their whole energies in the water tanks,
apart those which exit the tank and loose only a part of their energy.

Exercise 3.3.13
1. The reaction threshold for the proton kinetic energy is

(2m p + m J )2 − (2m p )2 m2
Tth = = 2m J + J  11.3 GeV
2m p 2m p

2. Denoting with M the total CMS energy for protons of 28 GeV energy against
target protons (at rest), we have

M  2m p E p  7.3 GeV.

The final state in the reaction (3.2) is a three body system. Then the maximum and
minimum energy of the J/ψ particle in the CMS are given by

min : E ∗J = m J  3.1 GeV

M 2 + m 2J − (2m p )2
max : E ∗J =  4.07 GeV.
2M
132 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

To obtain the maximum and minimum values in the Lab system we make a Lorentz
transformation with the following β and γ values

pp Ep + mp
β =  0.967, γ =  3.96
Ep + mp M

To calculate the minimum and maximum J/ψ energies in the Lab frame we consider
the following cases
min: E J = γ (E ∗J [min]+β · 0)  12.3 GeV
max/min: E J = γ (E ∗J [max]−β · p ∗J [max] )  6.0 GeV
max/max: E J = γ (E ∗J [max]]+β · p ∗J [max])  26.2 GeV
It follows that the minimum and maximum energies are 6 and 26.2 GeV respectively.
3. The minimum opening angle θmin of the e+ e− pair is obtained from

  m 2J − 2m 2e
θmin mJ
sin = 
2 EJ EJ

Therefore the minimum angle is obtained for the maximum J/ψ energy, 26.2 GeV,
and turns out to be θmin  13.6◦ .
4. Electrons are ultra-relativistic ( p  E): hence the e+ e− invariant mass is

θ
2
Mee  4 p + p − sin2
2

where p + ( p − ) is the e+ (e− ) momentum and θ is the opening angle of the observed
pair. Using for Mee the J/ψ mass we obtain
m 2J
p+ =  12.4 GeV/c.
4 p − sin2 θ
2

Exercise 3.3.14
(a) The collider system is the CMS, hence E τ = E 0 /2 = 14.5 GeV.
(b) Using the Sargent rue we have for the transition rates ( = 1/τ )
(τ + → e+ + νe + ν̄τ ) m 5τ
= .
(μ+ → e+ + νe + ν̄μ ) m 5μ

Taking into account the tau branching ratio into neutrinos we have

B R(τ + → e+ + νe + ν̄τ )
(τ + → e+ + νe + ν̄τ ) =
ττ

Hence the tau mean lifetime is

 5
B R(τ + → e+ + νe + ν̄τ ) mμ
ττ = = τμ × B R(τ + → e+ + νe + ν̄τ ) × 
(τ + → e+ + νe + ν̄τ ) mτ
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 133

 5
−6 106
 2.2 10 × 0.18 ×  3.0 × 10−13 s.
1777

(c) The τ mean pathlength is

pτ E τ2 − m 2τ

L = βγ cττ = cττ = cττ  8.1 × 3 1010 × 3 10−13  0.073 cm.

mτ mτ

For a cylindrical detector the minimum distance to observe a decay is given by

the internal radius r (the distance increases with the angle). Hence the maximum
detection probability is
 ∞
1
e−
L dl = e−
L  2 10−30
l r
f max (l > r ) =

L r

and is then negligible.

Exercise 3.3.15
Photon and electron beams of 5 GeV produce electromagnetic showers. For their
developments the relevant parameter is the number of radiation lengths. Each scin-
tillator layer has 1/42  0.02 radiation lengths, whereas the lead slabs have about 2
radiation lengths each. Therefore the scintillator layers have a negligible contribu-
tion. Upstream of the fourth scintillator there are 3 lead slabs, hence the total number
of radiation lengths is
3 × 1 cm
T =  5.4.
0.56 cm

Using the Heitler toy model the number of shower particles (e+ , e− and γ ) is 2T . The
scintillator detects charged particles via the ionization process whereas photons have
a very low probability to convert to electrons because of the low Z of the material.
In an e.m. showers charged particle are approximately 2/3 of the total content of
particles, they have an energy loss rate corresponding to minimum ionizing particles
( 2 MeV g−1 cm2 ) and then their total energy release is
 
2 dE
E = × 2T × − × ρd  0.67 × 42.2 × 2 × 1.03  58 MeV,
3 d x ion

where d is the scintillator thickness. This energy release is the same for incident
electron and photons.
Instead muons loose energy only by ionization. The energy lost before the fourth
scintillator is 2 MeV g−1 cm2 × 3 cm × 11 g/cm3  66 MeV, hence their energy is
almost unaffected. We can assume for them the same energy loss rate of  2 MeV
g−1 cm2 and then the energy release in the fourth scintillator is

E = 2 × 1.03  2 MeV.
134 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Finally to discriminate electrons from photons we can use the signal in the first
scintillator which can be detected only for electrons but is absent for photons.
Exercise 3.3.16
(a) The p-Cu interaction length is
1 1
pCu A A3 63.5 3
λint = = =  18.5 cm
N A ρ σ pCu N A ρ σ pp 6 10 8.96 40 10−27
23

(b) The initial state has baryon number B = +2, the two D-particles are mesons and
have B = 0. Hence X must have B = +2. The simplest case is

p + p → D+ + D− + p + p

The flavor flux diagram is shown in Fig. 3.2 (left).

(c) The quark flavor content of D + and D − is D + = cd̄ and D − = c̄d respectively.
D + decays into neutrinos via c → W + + s followed by W + → l + + νl . Hence D +
is associated to neutrinos. Similarly D − decays into W − and then anti-neutrinos are
produced. Examples of Feynman diagrams with ν̄e and νμ final states are shown in
Fig. 3.2 (right).
(d) The interaction length of D-particles is

σ pp 40
λ DCu = × λ pCu = × 18.5 cm  25 cm
σ Dp 30

The decay length is instead

p
λdec = βγ cτ (D ± ) = × cτ (D ± )
m D±

Therefore λdec  λ DCu is obtained for

λ DCu 25
p  m D± ×  1.87 × GeV/c  1500 GeV/c
cτ (D ± ) 3 1010 × 1.04 10−12

which is always fulfilled for 400 GeV incident protons.

(e) Taking into account the considerations at point (c) and the fact that B R(D ± →
νμ /ν̄μ ) = B R(D ± → νe /ν̄e ) we expect for the muon to electron neutrino ratio

νμ + ν̄μ
= 1.
νe + ν̄e

Exercise 3.3.17
The absorption coefficient for pair production, which is the dominant process at high
energies, is given by
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 135

Fig. 3.2 Flavor flux diagram for p + p → D + + D − + p + p (left). Feynman diagrams for two
D decays (right)

 
7
μ= X 0−1  1.38 cm−1
9

A photon hitting the lead plate has a probability exp(−μd) to escape from the lead
plate. Instead in case of pair production electrons emerge from the plate or induce
e.m. showers, depending on the first interaction point. If conversion occurs one or
more electrons will reach the downstream detector. The conversion probability is
then
Pc = 1 − exp(−μd)

Hence the π 0 detection efficiency is

 = Pc2 = [1 − exp(−μd)]2 = [1 − exp(−1.38)]2  56%

Exercise 3.3.18
(a) The process that makes electron antineutrino detectable is the same used in the
celebrated experiment by Reines and Cowan [2]

ν̄e + p → n + e+

The process, called also ‘inverse beta decay’, is a charged current weak interac-
tion (i.e. with W virtual boson). The detected particles are the positron through its
annihilation in two photons of 0.5 MeV and the delayed photons emitted by the
capture of the neutron. The process has the cross section given in the text. Instead
muon antineutrinos, originating from the oscillation phenomenon, are difficult to
detect. In fact the charged current process ν̄μ + p → n + μ+ is forbidden by kine-
matics (E thr  100 MeV) and the neutral current process (i.e. with Z 0 virtual boson)
ν̄μ + p/n → ν̄μ + p/n can be only detected from the nucleon recoil with very low
136 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

efficiency. Hence the oscillation phenomenon can be observed counting the number
of disappeared electron antineutrinos.
(b) If neutrinos do not oscillate the interaction rate is

Iν
r= × σν × Nn × ρl S
4π L 2
where Nn is the number of target nucleons per gram, ρ is the medium density, l and
S are the detector length and section respectively. The product ρl S is the detector
mass and we have
Iν
r= × σν × N A × M 
4π L 2

1018 s−1 −43 6 1023

 × 2 10 cm 2
× × 106 g  2.4 10−5 s−1
12.56 200002 cm2 g

Denoting with  the detection efficiency, the number of expected interactions per
year is
N = r ×  × T  2.4 10−5 × 0.70 × 3.15 107  529.

(c) For a detector at 200 m from the reactor core and 2 MeV electron antineutrinos
the probability to become muon antineutrinos is
   
L[m] −3 200
P(ν̄e → ν̄μ )  0.20 sin 10−3
2
 0.20 × sin 10
2
 0.002
E[MeV] 2

Hence the number of detectable electron antineutrinos is

Ne  N × [1 − P(ν̄e → ν̄μ )]  528

and the mean number of disappeared ν̄e is 1.1.

(d) The probability to have a null result is given by the poissonian probability to
observe no event out of an expectation of 1.1

1.10
P(0|2) = e−1.1 = e−1.1  33%
0!
It is worth to notice that this probability is not realistic, because it is based on the
assumption that the knowledge of the number of neutrino interactions is perfectly
known. In real experiments the uncertainty on the neutrino flux and detection effi-
ciency makes it impossible to observe a disappearance ratio (1/529) so small.

Exercise 3.3.19
(a) To get the mass of the particle we consider the region 2, after the slowing down,
where two measurements are available.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 137

From the time-of-flight we have β2 = v2

c
 2.8×108
3×108
 0.93 and β2 γ2 = √ β2 
1−β22
2.60.
From the curvature we have p2 = 0.3 B R2 = 0.3 × 1 × 1.21  0.363 GeV/c.
The rest mass of the particle is

p2 0.363
m=   0.140 GeV/c2 .
β2 γ2 2.60

It is a charged pion whose momentum before the slowing down is

l12 0.802
p1 = 0.3 B  0.3 × 1 ×  0.80 GeV/c,
8s1 8 × 0.03

and the kinetic energy is


T1 = p12 + m 2 − m  0.670 GeV.

(b) The energy lost in the medium is

 
E = T1 − T2 = T1 − p22 + m2 −m  0.670 − 0.250  0.420 GeV.

(c) The mean half-time is T1/2 = L 1/2 /(cβ2 γ2 ). Then the mean lifetime is

L 1/2 14
τ=   2.6 × 10−8 s.
cβ2 γ2 ln 2 3 × 108 × 2.6 × 0.69

Exercise 3.3.20
(a) Neglecting energy losses, the momentum of the electron (positron) is

p B R
= 0.3 (3.10)
GeV/c Tesla m

 0.3 × 0.8 × 0.40  0.096.

The photon energy is the sum of the two momenta E γ = 2 p  192 MeV. In this cal-
culation the opening angle of the pair has not been considered: in fact it is negligible,
θ ≈ m e /E γ  2.7 × 10−3 .
(b) To make a rough estimate of the energy loss along the electron (positron) track,
we assume that the track length is the same as in the previous case (though the track
actually changes). This energy loss is due to ionization, because the bremsstrahlung
is negligible for E < E crit (≈300 MeV in LH2 )
138 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

Liquid H2

e+ e-

R1 R2

Fig. 3.3 Solid line: no energy losses; dashed line: with energy losses
 
dE
E  − ρ πR
d x ion

Since the electron (positron) has p/m e of few hundreds, we can assume9 that
(−d E/d x)ion ≈ (−d E/d x)min  4.1 MeV g−1 cm2 . Therefore we have

E  4.1 × 0.071 × 125.6  36.6 MeV.

The electron (positron) momentum at the entrance of the chamber can be estimated
using the following arguments (see Fig. 3.3):

• the track is not a semi-circle: its radius at entrance R1 (at exit R2 ) is larger (smaller)
than the circle radius in the case of no energy losses R;
• the sum of these two radii can be approximated to 2R (the measured diameter).

Since R ∝ p, denoting with pin and pout respectively the momentum at entrance and
exit of the chamber, from 2R = R1 + R2 we obtain
pin + pout 2 pin − p
p= = .
2 2
Therefore we have:
p E 37
pin  p +  p+  96 +  114.5 MeV
2 2 2
and the photon energy is E γcorr = 2 pin  229 MeV.
A more accurate calculation can be done as follows.
   
dE dE
dp  − ρdl  − ρ Rdα.
d x ion d x ion

9 Thisvalue can be obtained from either the table “Atomic and nuclear properties of materials” in
the PDG Review of Particle Physics [1] or simply from a standard value (for light materials) of
2 MeV g−1 cm2 multiplied by 2 because of the Z /A ratio for the Hydrogen.
Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems 139

In this expression we have assumed that the arc element is centered as in the case of
no losses: it is not actually true, but it is a sensible approximation for an estimate.
Substituting here Eq. (3.10) one gets
 
dp dE 3
= − ρ dα = −k dα,
p d x ion B

with k = 4.1 × 0.071 × 3/0.8  0.121. Integrating we have

p(α) = pin exp(−kα).

Therefore
p = pin − pout = pin [1 − exp(−kπ )]

p 37
pin =   117 MeV
1 − exp(−kπ ) 1 − exp(−0.121π )

from which we get E γcorr = 2 pin  234 MeV.

Exercise 3.3.21
(a) The dominating process at this energy is Compton scattering by which photons
transfer part of their energies to electrons. Iterating this process the whole energy
of the photons is deposited and the measurement is possible through the ionization
energy loss of the electrons. The characteristic length which is relevant to determine
the sizes of the detector is the Compton mean free path

A 1
λC = ,
Z N A σC

where σC is the Compton cross section, N A is the Avogadro number and A, Z refer
to the detector material. To make a rough estimate one can assume A/Z ≈ 2 and use
the Thomson cross section, σT , for the Compton scattering

1
λC ≈ 2 ×  5 g cm−2 .
6 × 1023 × 6.6 × 10−25

A more accurate calculation would give a larger λC (by about a factor 2), being the
Thomson cross section the low energy limit of Compton scattering.
(b) In the antineutrino scattering ν̄e + p → e+ + n, the outgoing particles have
momenta of the same order of the momentum of the incident neutrino. Assuming
that pn ≈ E ν , the neutron is non-relativistic and we get for the its kinetic energy

E ν2
Tn ≈  2 keV
2 mn
140 Appendix: Solutions of Exercises and Problems

which means that the recoil energy is negligible with respect to the other energies.10
(c) Denoting by E + the positron energy, from energy conservation in the process
ν̄e + p → e+ + n, neglecting the neutron recoil energy, we get

Eν = E+ + m n − m p .

Energy conservation applied to the positron annihilation gives

E vis = E + + m e . (3.11)

Then the asked relationship is

E ν = E vis + m n − m p − m e  E vis + 0.78 MeV

(d) Since E vis ≥ 2m e because of Eq. (3.11), the detected neutrinos must have

E ν ≥ 2m e + 0.78 MeV  1.78 MeV.

This corresponds to the energy threshold of the process.

References

1. Tanabashi, M., et al.: (Particle data group). Phys. Rev. D 98, 030001 (2018). http://pdg.lbl.gov/
2. Reines, F., Cowan, Jr., C.L.: Free anti neutrino absorption cross section. I. Measurement of the
free anti neutrino absorption cross section by protons. Phys. Rev. 113, 273 (1959)

10 The accurate calculation can be done in a specific case, e.g. the maximum kinetic energy: it is
obtained for a neutron emitted in the forward direction. In this case we have all momenta along
the same direction. Note that the calculation requires to use accurate mass values for the three
particles: m p = 938.272, m n = 939.565, m e = 0.511, all in MeV/c2 . The invariant mass squared
is M 2 = m 2p + 2 m p E ν and then M  940.27 MeV. The neutron energy in the CMS is

M 2 + m 2n
E n∗ =  939.565 MeV,
2M
and the corresponding momentum is p ∗  0.48 MeV/c. The β of the CM is β = E ν /(E ν + m p ) 
0.021 and then the Lorentz factor is 1. The neutron momentum in the Lab is

pn = γ ( p ∗ + β E n∗ )  0.48 + 0.0021 × 939.565  2.5 MeV/c,

which corresponds to a neutron kinetic energy 3.2 keV.