BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

Understanding Image Restoration Strategies

from a Stakeholder Approach
Chutima Kessadayurat

ABSTRACT
This article focuses on image restoration strategies, a practice in public relations. Specifically,
this article proposes two major theoretical frameworks; theory of social construction of reality and
stakeholder analysis approach in studying image restoration in parallel with Benoit’s image
restoration theory (1995). Besides focusing to the limited message strategies of Benoit’s image
restoration from the traditional perspective, as providing the practitioners merely ‘what’ strategies
to be selected as to respond to the crisis, it is possible that deeper understanding on ‘how’ image
restoration messages works and to design message tailored each group of stakeholders should be
obtained. Most importantly, this article provides both scholars and practitioners an understanding
and fine-tuning restoration messages with specific group of stakeholder in order to regain positive
organization image.

Keywords: Image Restoration Strategies, Social Construction of Reality, A Stakeholder Approach,

Multiple Interpretations and Organization Image

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Introduction different expectations among stakeholders in Thailand.

The research of image restoration is scarce The theory might need to be adapted to applicable in
(Benoit, 2001), and, moreover, most of the image Thai context. Moreover, the theory allows merely the
restoration studies are based on western theory, identification of typology, not the process of how the
which may be or may be not wholly applicable to strategy is communicated. By incorporating the theory
Thai context, particularly the current topic of of social construction of reality in understanding the
political crisis. This is mainly due to the cultural image restoration message, it is hoped that it will
differences between western and eastern contexts offer a more complete picture. That is, it helps explain
which influence the practice of image restoration. how an organization’s image restoration strategies
Thai culture, as a context, influences different function in constructing its image, as social reality,
beliefs, values, attitudes, and creates potentially for people. In addition, it will provide an understanding

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of how the social interaction encourages people to possible outcomes and responses before having a
enact with each particular reality. chance to assess the severity of the problem.
Most importantly, since most of the image The second characteristic of crisis is short
restoration studies rarely incorporated the stakeholder response time. When a crisis occurs, the availability
theory, this limits the growth of the field. This article, and efficacy of an organization’s response is needed.
as highlighting the significance of stakeholders in Time constraint is the critical factor in dealing with
designing image restoration message, should extend crisis. The crisis manager should provide a complete
the body of knowledge of the image restoration. That and honest explanation of the crisis to media and
is, the article goes beyond describing general strategies third party in time so that it will not create additional
as, in particular, the content management of the image threat and uncertainty that damages the organization’s
restoration strategy tailoring different group of credibility and image.
stakeholders effectively will be discussed. Realizing The third characteristic of crisis is surprise.
of the situation, it is hoped that new insights into both Surprise is a consequence of being suddenly
theoretical and practical level regarding studying confronted with circumstances seen as unlikely and
image restoration in Thai context should be obtained. inconsistent with routine, familiar activities (Seeger,
Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998, 233). Decision makers
Crisis Communication and Organization Image faced with crisis are confronted with nonroutine
Crisis communication is regarded as an important decision situations, unanticipated sources of uncertainty,
area in the study of corporate communication. It is confusing and incomplete message, and participants
possible to say that every public and private organization who do not share the organization’s values and
has been encountered with a crisis. Crisis is typically assumptions (Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998).
viewed as a threat to an organizational image and an Generally, crisis is categorized in terms of public
organization attempts to find ways to respond to the perception, marketing shift, product failure, top
crisis and to regain public trust. Corporate management succession and financial crisis. Recently,
communication, therefore, is considered as a significant another type of crisis was studied. Racially oriented
means to communicate organizational crisis response crisis is considered another type of crisis that is not
strategies to its various publics perceived as important in typical studies (Williams &
Concern with the importance of organizational Olaniran, 2002).
crisis has developed various studies for organization Effective crisis management needs to consider
crisis management. These studies provide different the importance of public. Different publics possess
perspectives on managing organizational crisis. The different characteristics, then, to manage crisis
corporate communication field also has developed effectively, different rhetorical strategies to communicate
organizational crisis studies and various definitions with each public is required. Ice (1991), in his study
of organizational crisis based on the role of “Corporate publics and rhetorical strategy: The case
communication in crisis. For organizational of union carbide’s Bhopal crisis” emphasized the
communication study, an inclusive definition of managing rhetorical strategy as a determinant to the
organizational crisis is “a specific, unexpected and effectiveness of public relations practitioners to
nonroutine event or series of events that create high manage crisis. By categorizing public, crisis manager
levels of uncertainty and threaten or are perceived to can implement appropriate rhetorical strategy with
threaten an organization’s high-priority goal” (Seeger, each public.
Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998, 233). Organization can manage crisis by taking both
Crisis can be viewed through its shared variables preventive and restorative approaches. In preventive
that are normally found in the examination of a crisis approach, issue management by an organization
and the organization’s response. These variables are allows two-way communication between organization
threat, short response time and surprise (Hermann, and public to create mutual understanding (Heath,
1963). These three components also appeared in most 1997). Issue management may help by reducing the
organizational crisis definitions, such as Kathleen potential of any trigger event to become a crisis.
Fearn-Banks (2001); Williams and Olaniran (2002); Public relations, handling with crisis, are responsible
Pauchant and Mitroff (1992); Seeger, Sellnow and for developing of a crisis management team, identifying
Ulmer; Weick (1988); Gouran (1982); Billing et al. the high risk area to be encountered by organization,
(1980); Seeger and Bolz (1996) and Sellnow and and structuring, implementation and maintenance of
Ulmer (1995). an overall crisis communication plan (Seeger,
Threat arises from the extreme discrepancy Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998). Though organizations can
between the desired status of an organization, and the take preventive approach to manage crisis, it can be
status under which it is being, or potentially will be, said that they are not able to prevent all issues all the
viewed. Most of the time, managers are notified of time. When an organization fails to detect some
some trigger events that might lead to crisis by issues and it becomes a crisis, they need the
subordinates or someone outside the organization. A restorative approach to deal with a crisis.
crisis manager, thus, needs to monitor various

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Benoit’s Image Restoration Strategies entity, except the scientific truth, is socially
Image restoration is considered as a crisis constructed. As explained by Gordon and Pellegrin
c o mmu n i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h i n r e c o v e r i n g a n (2008), “social reality is not a social fact in its own
organization’s image. Benoit’s theory of image right, but is something produced and communicated,
restoration discourse (1995) explained that “when [a its meaning derived in and through these systems of
person or organization] image is threatened, it is often communication” (p. 105).
considered essential to take action to repair that image” In explaining how language constructs the social
(Benoit & Pang, 2008). Particularly, communication reality, reviewing the original concept of social
is considered as the essential means to restore a construction of reality would provide a better
person’s or organization’s image after the crisis. By understanding of how the theory may be applicable
using communication, an entity allows others to to the study of image restoration. Particularly, how
understand and influence its image through the communication influences and maintains one’s
formation of people’s experience leading to their perception towards a subjective fact towards an
interpretations regarding the organization/ corporation. organization, socially-created reality, image or how
Benoit’s image repair theory (1995) offers five image is considered as socially constructed reality
image restoration strategies to understand the image through communication.
repair message. The strategies included 1) Denial, According to Berger and Luckmann (1966),
2) Evasion of responsibility: 3) Reduce the “reality is socially constructed … as a quality
offensiveness of the act: 4) Corrective action: pertaining to phenomena that we recognize as having
5) Mortification. a being independent of our own (we cannot “wish
Denial occurs when an organization flat out them away”) …“knowledge” as the certainty that
denies that the problem exits or that if it does, it not phenomena are real and that they possess specific
hurting anyone. There are two tactics of denial characteristics” (p. 1).
strategy. These are simple denial and shift the blame. From the statement, it is appropriate to consider
Evasion of responsibility allows an entity to manipulate reality as socially constructed through knowledge
public perception and relinquish responsibility for what we generally take for granted as a priori or
their actions. There are four tactics of evasion. These objective fact. As Gergen (1991) notes, truth or fact
are provocation, defeasibility, accident, and good is socially constructed, not essentially existing.
intention. Reduce the offensiveness of the act is the Accordingly, the truth about the essence of an
strategy seeking to offer an alternative perspective to organization’s image is socially constructed.
the problem. There are six tactics of reduce Moreover, Berger and Luckmann further
offensiveness strategy. These are bolster (stress good explain how language is used to influence one’s
traits), minimize, differentiate, transcend, attack accuser, understanding and perception towards an
and compensate. Corrective action concerns the organization’s image. They asserted that “Language
organization attempts to repair the damage by taking is capable of transcending the reality of everyday life
action to solve or prevent recurrence. Mortification, altogether. It can refer to experiences pertaining to
finally, occurs when the offender apologizes and asks finite provinces of meaning, and it can span discrete
for forgiveness (Benoit, Blaney, & Brazeal, 2001). sphere of reality” (p. 40).
Since the image restoration strategy focuses In understanding social reality as constructed
primarily on the message factor, as explained by through social interaction, Berger and Luckmann
Benoit (1995), it is clear that image restoration deals (1966) explained three central tenets of social
with the process of communication. Accordingly, constructionism. As highlighted in Gordon and
communication is considered as the essential means Pellegrin (2008), “One tenet is that conceptions of
to restore a person’s or organization’s image. By reality (including of ourselves) are created through
using communication, an entity allows others to social interaction. A second tenet is that human
understand and influence its image through the institutions are created through social interactions
formation of people’s experience leading to their and cannot exist independently of human agreement.
interpretations regarding the organization/ corporation. Finally, a third tenet, the constructed world of
One way to understand the image restoration everyday life is itself an important element in the
message as communication process is through the maintenance and reconstruction of social reality,
perspective of social construction; particularly, the human institutions and ourselves” (p. 105). Through
theory of social construction of reality. interaction, communication plays an important role in
assigning, reinforcing and maintaining the social
Theory of Social Construction of Reality meaning for each individual based on common
Berger and Luckmann (1966) argued that “the knowledge.
world of everyday life is not only taken for granted Moreover, Gordon and Pellegrin (2008) also
as reality by the ordinary members of society in the highlight the significance of social interaction in
subjectively meaningful conduct of the lives” (p. 19). producing and reproducing meaning as reality which
From this statement, the fact or truth regarding an rests on four basic assumptions:

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1) Reality "does not present itself objectively" At this point, the theory of social construction of
to the viewer, it is understood through human reality as the theory can provide a clear understanding
experience; of how communication influences and maintains
2) Categories of language are determined by one’s perception towards a subjective fact towards an
"social interactions" in force at a particular time; organization, socially-created reality, image or how
3) How reality is defined is determined by the image is considered as socially constructed reality
"conventions of communication"; through communication.
4) Communication behavior constitutes the social According to Berger and Luckmann’s three
construction of reality tenets, it can be said that the way an organization
To this point, based on the theory of social communicates its restoring image represents the
construction of reality, it is possible to link the theory reconstruction of reality. By communicating information
of social construction of reality to the study of image regarding an organization’s practice to handle the
restoration. Image is socially constructed through situation through various media, different groups of
communication. Also, in restoring the image, it needs stakeholder start to learn new reality involving the
communication in to construct another set of social r e c o v e r in g . I n a tte mp tin g to u n d e r s ta n d a n
reality among different groups of stakeholders. That organization’s image restoration message, it is also
is, the theory of social construction of reality will important to recognize the existence of multiple
provide a clear understanding of how strategic image stakeholders in this issue. Since an organization’s
restoration messages are communicated to different image restoration message is constructed with an aim
group of stakeholder as to restore its image. to communicate its new image to public and each
Particularly, how language was produced and message is tailored to different public groups to
communicated as the image restoration message to persuade them to accept its new image, by focusing
construct/reconstruct the image. only on the ‘sender’ side, it might now allow
better understanding. To better provide a deep
Image as socially constructed: A stakeholder’s understanding on this issue, the recognition of
interpretation various stakeholders of the issue also needs to be
Benoit and Pang (2008) defined image as “a addressed. Accordingly, to obtain a deep understanding
subjective impression of an organization formed towards how significant of image restoration message in
through one’s experience with that organization and constructing and/ or reconstruct the organization image,
interpretation is based on other past experiences” (p. the stakeholder theory will be incorporated.
245). Based on this description, it reflects the This article goes beyond merely identifying
significance of communication as influencing one’s ‘what strategies’ an organization employed to restore
perception towards an organization/ institution. A image. Based on Benoit’s image restoration’s
person will develop his or her understanding towards strategies, this study aiming at providing deeper
an organization through interaction with direct insight regarding ‘which strategy’ is tailored/directed
experience of corporate information and/or socially to which stakeholders. Due to the fact that
interact with others in society. individual’s perception is different depending upon
The above statement implicated that an image their background and experiences, it is also important
is formed or constructed through any form of for an organization to concern that each group of
communication. This is also applicable to the image stake will also interpret and its restoration message
restoration. That is, image can be constructed and/or differently.
reconstructed through communication. An organization
can influence a person’s perception towards an Stakeholder Theory: Following the Stakeholder
organization after the crisis by using communication. Grid to discover how image restoration messages
To be more precise, the image restoration message are directed to specific groups of stakeholders
can influence one’s perception towards an organization. Understanding stakeholders’ interpretations
This resonates with the Benoit and Pang (2008)’s in constructing their reality towards the image
description of significance of communication in restoration message is important. However, most of
managing image; “so image and image repair both the crisis communication studies provide merely
arise from reality but must be shaped through general knowledge demonstrating their significance
communication. Reality clearly influences images, Gand, Acquier & Szpirglas (2005); Carpenter, Holt,
but rarely do people have a complete knowledge of & Ware (2006).
the facts, and what they do know is filtered or The final theory providing a complete picture of
interpreted by their personal attitudes and experiences” literature review for studying how image restoration
(p. 245). It can be said that when people interact, strategic message are designed and directed to
they do so with the understanding that their different stakeholders is Stakeholder theory. One of
respective perceptions of reality are related, and as the most widely studied definitions of stakeholder is
they act upon this understanding their common Freeman’s (1984) definition of a stakeholder as
knowledge of reality becomes reinforced. “any group or individual who is affected by the

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achievement of the organization’s objectives” (as message function. That is how communication is
cited in Phillips, Robert & Freeman, 2003, p.46). used to create reality. That is language as reality--
Based on this definition, Illia and Laurati (2005) image-- construction. Also, the knowledge of
describe three perspectives in studying stakeholder stakeholder approach when incorporating with the
including; broad, narrow a priori and narrow image restoration strategies enables the practitioners
situational approach. i n b e i n g a w a r e o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f mu l t i p l e
The main characteristics of each group of interpretations influencing an individual perception
stakeholder are worth discussion here. Broad regarding an organization’s image. Therefore,
perspective focuses on the stakeholder in terms of the practitioners should be strategically design the
mass of public opinion. According to Windson restoration message based upon the framework of
(1992) and Mitchell, Agle and Wood (1997) as cited socially construction of reality and the
in Illia and Laurati (2005), broad stakeholder is multiinterpretations to successfully communicate with
“almost anyone can be a stakeholder since every its stakeholders.
entity with a stake in the organization may be
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