A Discourse on Synergy of Rail & Wheel

SYNOPSIS
Rail wheel interaction is an intricate and complex phenomenon. The intricacy is more
prominent and critical for negotiating the curves by Rly vehicle. The intrinsic feature
of the curve linear motion, together with the complexity of rail wheel interaction entail
and warrant deeper insight to assimilate the various factors related with the safety
and comfort of travel of railway vehicles on curves. The above fact is equally
important for the serviceability and maintainability factors.

The radial acceleration-the inseparable constituent of motion along the curved track-
is directly proportional to the square of the traveling speed. Hence higher the speed
of travel, higher and profound is the criticality of factors effecting the safety and
comfort for the Rly vehicle traveling along the curved track. Conspicuously the
intrinsic features of curvilinear motion and the related issues assume greater
significance and importance for high speed Rly lines /projects. As such this brief is
meant to discuss about the various elements and aspects of rail wheel interaction
and the kinematics of curve linear motion of Rly vehicle.
RAILWAY WHEEL SET AND DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Railway wheel set basically described as two conical-nearly cylindrical- wheels
linked together with a rigid axle and each of the wheel equipped with a flange to
refrain the wheel from climbing over the rail.
If the track is considered to be rigid, then the railway wheelset has two main
degrees of freedom:
1)The lateral displacement, or shift or play- (y)
2) The yaw angle (α)

CONICITY

y
TRACK
α

R
o
The lateral displacement and the yaw angle must be considered as two small
displacements relative to the track. The play will be the limit of the lateral
displacement between the two flange contacts
Considering standard gauge-(1435mm) without gauge widening the play
approximately is 17mm, taking wheel gauge as 1360mm and average flange
thickness as 29mm.The total play of 17mm permits the wheel set to shift 8.5mm on
either direction from the central position. Actual play shall vary under service with the
gauge widening (as well as tight gauge), rail and wheel flange wear etc. The lateral
displacement of the wheel set also result in differential rolling diameter between the
LH and RH wheel of the same wheel set. The shift is generally and approximately
taken as 8 mm. The other degrees of freedom are constrained.
SELF EXCITED OSCILLATION AND WHEEL CONICITY.
When the wheel set is placed central to the track-that is the midpoint of the axle is
placed vertically above the centre line of the track, due to symmetry of the wheels
the rolling diameter of the both RH and LH wheels will be equal. Wheel treads are
machined at an angle γ to the rotational axis of the axle, or to a more complex profile
which constitute for the conicity of the wheel. The wheel thread in fact is in the form
of a truncated cone which rest on the rail top which has a flatter curved profile to
major extend. The interface between the wheel and the rail is a small horizontal
contact patch and the contact surface is generally elliptical in shape. Rolling
diameter is the diameter of the wheel measured at the midpoint of the contact patch.

Rail, wheel and contact Patch–Conceptual Frame.

The conicity of the wheel and the play available, may entail the wheel to shift
laterally. Whenever the wheel moves laterally the rolling diameter of the wheel
changes due to wheel tread conicity. When a wheel shift, say to the left of the track
centre, left rolling diameter becomes larger than the right one.
Obviously wheel with larger rolling diameter has to travel longer distance than the
wheel with the smaller diameter which can happen only in curve-But in straight and
flatter alignment the wheel shifts back to equalise the distance travelled by the both
wheels and crosses the centre line of track to the other side under its momentum.
The fact is that, when the wheelset is displaced laterally with respect to the track, a
rolling radius differential is generated between the two wheels of the wheelset which
result in the wheel set to move sinusoidal.

The wheel conicity entice and causes the wheel set to come back whenever it tries
to shift from the track centre providing a built in guidance system. Only when the
lateral shift is excessive the wheel flange comes in contact with the gauge face of the
rail mostly in case of sharp curves. Due to the above aspects the wheel set assumes
a sinusoidal motion in tangent track.
The characteristics of the sinusoidal motion are:-
1) It is periodic and repetitive motion
2) The time interval of repeating of this motion is called as Period of Oscillation-T
3) The distance of motion pertaining to this period is called as Wave length. -
λ
If ‘v’ is the speed of the vehicle, λ =V*T
Or time T =- λ/v
4) Maximum lateral displacement is called as amplitude ‘a’ which is equal to the
half play.
5) Frequency of oscillation(f) is the number of times a periodic motion repeats in
one unit of Time-Unit of time adopted is Second. Hence ‘f” is the number of
times the periodic motion is repeated in one second expressed as cycles per
second or Hertz, then f is the frequency. That is, f =1/T where T is the duration
in seconds for completing a cycle.
6) The distance travelled in T second is equal to the wavelength, that is -λ
 7) Angular frequency/Angular velocity “ω” is a measure of angular displacement
per unit time(second). The angular velocity is larger than the regular
frequency by 2π.
Hence ω=2*π*f - that is 2*π/T since T=1/f. But T= λ/v.
Hence the angular velocity = 2*π/T=2*π*v/ λ
8) Instantaneous lateral displacement of sinusoidal motion at the duration ‘t’ is
provided by the equation –
Y=a*sin ωt.
By differentiating the equation to displacement, the instantaneous lateral
velocity shall be worked out. Then by further differentiating the velocity,
instantaneous lateral acceleration also shall be worked out.
9) And the maximum lateral acceleration shall be ‘a ω 2’
Where ‘ ω’ is the angular velocity and ‘ a ‘ is amplitude.
Which is equal to = a*4*π2*v2/ λ2
From the above it is obvious that the lateral acceleration increases with the linear
velocity as well as the amplitude which is equal to half the play.
KLINGEL’S FORMULA –FREQUENCY OF OSCILATION AND WHEEL CONICITY.
The conical profile of Railway wheel set is one of the oldest and important invention.
It provides effective guidance of the vehicle on a curved track by varying rolling
diameter. The conicity of wheel set as explained above causes the wheel set to sway
from side to side which is called as kinematic or self-excited or parasitic oscillation.
The first analytical study of this phenomenon was done by KLINGEL in 1883 and the
KLINGEL’s classic formula for the kinematic oscillation of wheel set was accordingly
derived which is furnished below.

λ = 2πf =2π* √(r∗G)/(2∗γ )

Where λ=Wave length.
ϒ=Conicity of the wheel.
r=Dynamic wheel radius.
G=Dynamic wheel gauge.

Obviously, λ α 1/( √ γ )

Frequency ‘ f ‘ = ( v/ λ )

And, Frequency α √γ
Hence when the conicity increases, the frequency increases and correspondingly the
lateral acceleration also.
So, the lateral acceleration is directly proportional to -1) Linear velocity/speed.
2)Amplitude/Play.
3)Conicity of the wheel.
Predominantly the conicity is a critical aspect effecting the frequency as well as
magnitude of lateral acceleration. Hence for higher speeds it is desirable to have
flatter conicity. Conicity of 1in20 is generally adopted. However flatter conicity of
1in30 to 1in40 is more desirable, provided that the horizontal curves need to be
much flatter. The differential in the rolling diameter is an important element for
negotiation of the curve, flatter the conicity lesser shall be the difference in rolling
diameter and may not be advisable if the sharper horizontal curves are adopted.
WHEEL SLIP AND THEORY OF CONING.
On a tangent track as soon as the wheel set move toward one rail the diameter of
wheel tread over the rail increases while it decreases on the other rail. This prevent
further movement/shift and the wheel set retreated back to its original position.
On curved path due to the rigidity of the wheel base either the wheel must slip by an
amount equal to the difference in length of the outer and inner arc or the axle must
move outward to provide tread of longer diameter over the outer rail and smaller
diameter over the inner rail or the combination of both.
If the tread diameter over the both rails are the same as in the case of a cylindrical
wheel without conicity, the amount of slip shall be worked out as follows.
Slip =ϴ(R1-R2)
where R1=(R+G/2) And R2=(R-G/2) and
ϴ=The intercepted/subtended angle in Radians
R is the Radius of the curve & G is the Dynamic wheel gauge.
Hence, Slip = G*ϴ
(Note-Ignoring conicity)

G=1.505m for standard gauge.

ϴ =1degree. Hence, 2*π/360 in radians.
Hence 2*π/360 radians per degree of intercepted angle.
So slip per degree of intercepted angle =1.505*2*π/360 =0.026m or 26mm per
degree of intercepted/subtended angle.
Hence on a curve of Radius 1750m (1 Degree curve) slip occurs over a length of
30.5m is 26mm.
By definition 1Degree curve is a curve where a segment of arc of 30.5m subtend an
angle of 1Degree.
SLIP OVER A LENGTH OF 30.5MT FOR VARIOUS CURVES IGNORING THE WHEEL CONICITY.

Sl Radius Degree of G for Slip in mm for G for Slip in mm for

No Curvature Standar Standard gauge Broad Broad gauge
d Gauge Over a length of gauge Over a length
30.5mts of 30.5mts
1 3500m 0.5 1.505 13 1.750 15.3
2 1750m 1 1.505 26 1.75. 30.5
3 875m 2 1.505 52 1.750 61
4 583.5m 3 1.505 78 1.750 91.5
5 437.5m 4 1.505 104 1.750 122

The aggregate value of wheel slip for travelling a length of 30.5mts over curves of
various degrees, by a wheel set Without conicity are furnished above. It is
conspicuous from the above the importance of the wheel conicity and the
consequential differential rolling diameter in negotiating curves by Rly vehicles. The
steeper the wheel conicity (More the value of ϒ) larger the differential rolling
diameter and sharper curves could be traversed without wheel slip. However higher
values of ‘ϒ’ contribute for higher frequency of the oscillations as well as higher
magnitude of lateral acceleration as discussed in the previous paragraph. Hence
Wheel conicity is to be decided taking in to account of the speed, sharpness of the
curvature of the track proposed and the acceptable limit of oscillations etc.
CURVATURE, GAUGE WIDENING AND LIMITING VALUE OF RADIUS OF
CURVE PERMITING PURE ROLLING WITH OUT SLIDING.
Deferential rolling diameter imparted by the wheel conicity facilitates the negotiation
of curves avoiding/minimising the wheel slip. The table below depicts the limiting
value of radius which permit a wheel set to negotiate the curve by pure rolling and
without wheel slip. The advantages of gauge widening for negotiating sharper curves
are also furnished in the tabulation.
The limiting value of Radius permitting pure Rolling of the wheel set is worked out
based on the following values.
Track gauge =1.435Mts.
Dynamic gauge of track =1.505Mts.
 Wheel conicity =1 in 20.
Wheel diameter =0.86Mts.
Flange Thickness of wheel =0.029Mt
LIMITING RADIOUS OF CURVE PERMITTING PURE ROLLING AND GAUGE
WIDENING EFFECT
Sl Wide Total Shift D1 D2 L1 L2 (L1-L2) ϴ R1 R2 LIMIT
N Gaug Play (half (Outer (Inner (Distan (Distan in Mts (Subten (Outer (Inner ING
o e in in play) Rolling Rolling ce ce ded radius) radius) RADI
Mts Mts in Diameter) Diameter travelle travelle angle =L1/ϴ =l2/ϴ US
Mts in Mts ) d in d in in in Mts in Mts OF
in Mts one one radians) CUR
rotation rotation VE
of outer of inner IN
wheel) wheel) MTS
in Mts in Mts
1 0 0.017 0.008 0.86085 0.85915 2.7031 2.6977 0.0053 0.00372 726.66 725.22 726
5
2 0.002 0.019 0.009 0.86095 0.85905 2.7034 2.6974 0.0060 0.00416 650.24 648.81 650
5
3 0.003 0.02 0.01 0.861 0.859 2.7035 2.6973 0.0063 0.00437 617.77 616.33 617
4 0.005 0.022 0.011 0.8611 0.8589 2.7042 2.6969 0.0069 0.00481 561.67 560.23 561
5 0.007 0.024 0.012 0.8612 0.8588 0.7045 2.6966 0.0075 0.00525 514.93 513.49 514
6 0.009 0.026 0.013 0.8613 0.8587 2.7048 2.6963 0.0082 0.00569 475.37 473.94 475
7 0.011 0.028 0.014 0.8614 0.8586 2.7048 2.6960 0.0088 0.00613 441.47 440.03 441
8 0.013 0.03 0.015 0.8615 0.8585 2.7051 2.6957 0.0094 0.00656 412.08 410.65 411

It is to be noted that an independent wheel set free of other restraints and influences
only could traverse the computed value of curvature by pure rolling without wheel
slip. From the above tabulation it is also conspicuous the importance and
advantages of gauge widening in the negotiation of sharper curves. With wheel
conicity of 1in20, a wheel set independent of other influence could negotiate a curve
of about 726m in radius (approximately a 2degree curve) with pure rolling and a
wheel conicity of 1in40 permit only negotiation of 1degree curve with pure rolling.
Obviously in a sharper curve, negotiation of which by pure rolling, facilitated by the
deferential rolling radius is not possible, sliding of the wheel invariably has to takes
place.
The extend of slip in a curve of radius 583.5m (3-degree curve) the aggregate of slip
over a length of 30.5mts neglecting the conicity is 78mm for SG track as computed in
the table above. But the rolling radius difference provided by wheel conicity of 1in20
could facilitate negotiation of a curve of radius 726m (1750/726 =2.41degree) by
pure rolling. The corresponding value of slip avoided by the conicity is
26mm*2.41degree, which is equal to 62.7mm.
Hence the balance/effective wheel slip over a length of 30.5mt in a curve of radius
583.5m(3-degree) is equal to (78mm-62.7mm)15. 3mm.The outer wheel may slip
back ward by an aggregate amount of 7.65mm and the inner wheel by an amount of
7.65mm forward over a length of 30.5mts.

The critical effect of higher value of ‘ϒ ‘-the wheel conicity -in augmenting the
frequency and magnitude of lateral acceleration at higher speed is more Prominent
than the negotiability of sharper curves with pure rolling. It is obvious that the
curvature adopted generally for high speed route are flatter and it is more desirable
for adopting flatter conicity for higher speed- Say 1in30/1in40 than 1in20

Curving and Tracking Ability:

As discussed in the above para longitudinal slippage of wheels is an inseparable part
of the railway vehicle negotiating sharp curves.

Figure-1.(Positive Steering) Figure-2(Pure Rolling) Figure-3(negative

steering)

When the lateral displacement is larger than the shift required for pure rolling
condition, the outer wheel of wheel set tries to move farther causing the wheel set to
rotate in the clockwise direction as depicted in Figure 1 causing the inner wheel to
slip backward and it is called as positive steering.
On the other hand, if the displacement is smaller than pure rolling condition the inner
wheel of the wheel set tries to move farther causing the wheel set to rotate in
anticlockwise direction as depicted in Figure 3 above causing the outer wheel to slip
forward and it is called negative steering.
Figure-2 indicates the pure rolling condition where in the wheel set assume radial
position. Unconstrained wheel set can curve freely along the equilibrium rolling line
where the rolling radius difference balances the difference in length of the inner and
outer rail
The actuality is that except for flatter curve pure rolling is seldom attained and the
and the rotation of the wheel set by positive and negative steering is persistently
associated with negotiation of curves by the Rly vehicles.
For sharper curves with smaller radius the wheel set need to rotate through larger
angle consequent to positive/negative steering as explained above. Similarly, larger
wheel base of the bogie also necessitates larger angle of rotation.
Unconstrained wheel set can curve freely by running along the equilibrium rolling line
where the rolling radius difference(RRD)balances the difference in length of the outer
and inner rail. Rotation of the wheel in to the radial alignment is also resisted by the
bogie stiffness inclusive of the stiffness of the primary suspension. Similarly, for
sharper curves with small radius wheel set has to rotate through a larger angle to
assume the radial position. Moreover, the bogie wheel base is also a major factor in
deciding the extend of angular rotation of the wheel set to be Radial-Wider the wheel
base larger the rotation angle of the wheel set to assume the radial position.
The factors discussed above are the governing factors effecting the rotation of the
wheel set. The adhesion between the rail and the wheel, and the clearance are other
are the main constituents which generate the steering forces. Once adequate
steering forces are not developed then it may not be possible for the wheel set to
rotate to the required extend to be in radial alignment. Then the wheel set will
assume a position with the wheel oriented inclined with the rail and shall be running
with an angle of attack. Then the wheel shall continue to run with continued flange
contact with the rail rather continuously biting the rail. It is not safe and the wheel
may climb over the rail causing derailment.
RADIAL STEERING INDEX(RSI)
Radial steering Index is defined as Re/R.
q =RSI=Re/R where,
Re =The radius of sharpest curve (Curve with smallest radius) which could be
negotiated without flange contact.
R =Actual radius of the curve.
If q(RSI) =/< 1, Then the radial steering is possible without flange contact.
And-
If q(RSI) > 1, Then the radial steering without flange contact is not possible.
RSI-Radial steering index was introduced in UIC leaf let –UIC518/2009.The objective
of RSI is to assess the steering capability of small radius /sharper curves.UIC leaflet
518/2009 states that low 4radius curves with RSI >1 shall not be greater than 30% of
the track section (track length). RSI of each of the curve shall be worked out and
aggregated to get an overview of the track length.
However as per EN14363/2016, RSI is indicated only as informative, and
requirement of RSI for the design is not specified.
One of the most important criteria over looked often in the proposal for high speed
project is that adoption of the smallest radius of curvature without considering the
negotiability of the curve without flange contact. Evaluation of the smallest radius
which could be negotiated is a function of many aspects related to the tracking ability
of the bogie/coach as well as parameters of track as track gauge etc.
Often it is the practice of fixing the Radius only taking into account of the speed,
cant, cant deficiency and similar other factors and out rightly overlooking the aspect
of negotiability without flange contact. The bogie parameters are subsequently
decided by the Rolling stock experts without any reference of track curvature already
decided. Most of the track expert overlook the interface requirement of negotiability
of the curve and the curving and tracking ability of the coaches proposed to be
deployed. Result of this is unsatisfactory performance under service.
Exorbitant maintenance expenditure, heavy wear and tear and damages for the
rolling stack as well as permanent way.
TO WRAP UP :-
Brief of the corrolory of the discussion above are listed down.
1) Tracking ability of rolling stock affects the stability of run, in turn affecting
safety as well as maintenance requirements of both rolling stock and track.
Increased vulnerability to derailment and excessive wear and damages to
track/ vehicle are critical issues associated with the curve negotiability of
rolling stock especially for high speed travel.
2) The negotiability of sharp curve by the bogie of the Railway vehicle is
governed and determined by the following factors.
a) Play
b) Wheel Gauge and Track Gauge gauge.
c)Bogie wheelbase-The centre to centre distance of wheel sets in the bogie.
d)Conicity of the wheel /Wheel profile.
e) Equivalent conicity
d)Bending and shear stiffness of bogie frame and the primary suspension
system.
3) Steeper the conicity of the wheel thread, higher the value of frequency and
magnitude of the lateral accelerations especially on the tangent track.
Adoption steeper conicity could provide higher value of RRD (Rolling Radius
Difference) and enable better negotiability of sharp curves. But the steeper
conicity will amplify the frequency and the magnitude of lateral acceleration
especially in tangent track causing heavy hunting by the bogie, detrimentally
effecting the stability and safety. In principle flatter conicity is preferable for
 stable running at higher speed, however the sharp curves need steeper
conicity for negotiation.

4) It is most important if not indispensable to take into account of curving and

tracking ability of the coaches and the related parameters for deciding the
proposed minimum radius in addition to the speed, maximum cant, cant
deficiency and other such related factors.
5) Synergy has to be the guiding principle for deciding the track geometry and
curvature and the various parameters of the railway coaches and the bogies
in view of the interaction and interface between the track and the Coaches.