Channel Modelling For Underwater Wireless

Communication System

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the Requirements for the

degree of

Master of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Specialization: Communication and networks

By
PRATHAMESH VIVEK KITTUR
ROLL NO: - 213EC5243

Department of Electronics and Communication engineering

National Institute Of Technology,
Rourkela
Odisha 769008
June 2015
 Channel Modelling For Underwater Wireless
Communication System

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the Requirements for the

degree of

Master of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Specialization: Communication and networks

By
PRATHAMESH VIVEK KITTUR
ROLL NO: - 213EC5243
Under guidance of
Prof. Sarat K. Patra

Department of Electronics and Communication engineering

National Institute Of Technology,
Rourkela
Odisha 769008
June 2015
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ROURKELA
ODISHA, INDIA – 769008

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Channel Modelling For Underwater Wireless
Communication System” submitted by Mr. Prathamesh Vivek Kittur bearing roll no.
213EC5243 in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of Master Of Technology
in Electronics and Communication engineering with specialization in “Communication
and Networks” during session 2013-15 at National Institute Of Technology, Rourkela
is an authentic work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance.

To best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been submitted
to any other University/Institute for the award of any other Degree/Diploma

Date: - 25 May, 2015 Prof. Sarat K. Patra

Place: - Rourkela Dept. of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
National Institute Of Technology, Rourkela
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like to express my deep sense of respect and gratitude
towards my guide Prof. Sarat K. Patra who is the guiding force behind my project
work. I am indebted to him for his constant encouragement and advice in my
academics. I consider myself very lucky to work with such a great mentor and
great personality who has had a profound effect on my career and my outlook
towards future.

Next, I want to thank Prof. Siddharth Deshmukh for his constant help and
advice. Also I want to express my respect to Prof.S K Behera, Prof. S K Das,
Prof.S Maiti and Prof.S Hiremath for their support and for teaching me and
helping me how to learn.

My sincere thanks to PhD sir Mr. Pallab Majhi for his constant encouragements,
help and suggestions. Also I would like to thank and appreciate for constant
support of my best friends Pritam, Pankaj, Sourabh, Kaustubh, Gauresh and
Gaurav who helped me in my testing time and helped me to become a better
person.

Finally I would like to thank my family for their sacrifice, love and support. They
have been always my role model and will be forever. Thank you for your help to
study, to work, to teach me how to live and to become a good person by heart.

Prathamesh Vivek Kittur

Roll No:-213EC5243
Date: - 25 May, 2015
Dept. of Electronics and Comm.Engg
Place: - Rourkela
National Institute Of Technology,
Rourkela

IV
Dedicated to my family, my respected
teachers and my friends

V
ABSTRACT

Now a days, underwater wireless communication is getting lot of popularity. Few years
before it was related only to military and defense applications. But now it is used in
commercial field also.

Design of Underwater wireless communication is very difficult as behavior of water is

completely different than air. We have to take lot of parameters into consideration at
the time of design. Also, the losses and noise are comparatively very high in
underwater than that of in air. Hence long distance communication is practically very
difficult to design.

The Electromagnetic waves (EM), Magnetic Induction (MI), Optical waves or acoustic
waves are the choices for underwater wireless communication systems. Out of these,
acoustics are proven to be best underwater although they are limited with bandwidth
due to thermal noise. But still acoustics provide communication at large distance
comparing to other due to its special property of low attenuation of sound underwater.
The currently favorable technology for underwater communication is upon acoustics.

In this thesis we present the parameters of acoustic channel, characteristics of

acoustics, its mathematics and analysis. Also, we take a look at modulation technique
that can be used in transmitter and receiver.

VI
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................. IV
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ VI
List of Figures ............................................................................................. IX
List of Tables............................................................................................... XI
ACRONYMS .............................................................................................. XII

1 Introduction to underwater wireless communication system .............. 1

1.1 Background .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Applications of Underwater wireless acoustic networks ........................ 3
1.3 Overview of underwater wireless communication ................................. 3
1.4 Data Range for underwater acoustic communication [19] ..................... 5
1.5 Thesis organization............................................................................... 5

2 Comparison of EM, MI and acoustic waves.......................................... 7

2.1 EM Waves............................................................................................... 8
2.1.1 Attenuation........................................................................................ 8
2.1.2 Wavelength ....................................................................................... 9
2.2 Magnetic Induction (MI) waves ........................................................... 12
2.3 Optical Waves .................................................................................... 12
2.4 Acoustic Waves .................................................................................. 13

3 ocean acoustics and its characteristics ........................................... 14

3.1 Acoustic waves underwater ................................................................ 15
3.1.1 Sound Velocity ................................................................................ 15
3.1.2 Absorption and path loss................................................................. 17
3.1.3 Attenuation...................................................................................... 19
3.2 Attenuation due to bottom reflection ................................................... 21
3.3 Ambient Noise .................................................................................... 21
3.3.1 Thermal Noise ................................................................................ 22
3.3.2 Turbulence Noise ............................................................................ 23
3.3.3 Shipping Noise ................................................................................ 23

VII
 3.3.4 Sea state/wind noise ....................................................................... 24
3.3.5 Total Noise...................................................................................... 25
3.4 Parameter table for design .................................................................... 26

4 modulation techniques of communication ......................................... 27

4.1 Digital Modulation Techniques ............................................................ 28
4.2 Different modulation techniques ......................................................... 28
4.2.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) ......................................................... 29
4.2.2 Frequency shift keying (FSK) .......................................................... 30
4.2.3 Phase shift keying (PSK) ................................................................ 32
4.3 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) ................................................. 33

5 simulation model for underwater wireless communication ............... 36

5.1 Simulation Model ................................................................................ 37
5.2 QPSK Transmitter............................................................................... 38
5.3 Communication Channel..................................................................... 39
5.4 Rayleigh Fading .................................................................................. 40
5.5 QPSK Receiver .................................................................................. 42
5.6 BER calculation ..................................................................................... 42
5.6 Final Result......................................................................................... 43

6 conclusion and future work ................................................................. 46

6.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 47
6.2 Future scope....................................................................................... 47
Bibliography .............................................................................................. 48

VIII
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 : Overview of underwater wireless communication…………….... 4

Figure 2.1 : attenuation due to EM waves under water……………………….9

Figure 2.2 : wavelength of EM waves under water…………………………… 11

Figure 3.1 : Sound velocity under water……………………………………….. 16

Figure 3.2 : Frequency vs. Sound absorption in water………………………..18

Figure 3.3 : Attenuation coefficients in underwater according

To Francois and Garrison formula……………………………….. 20

Figure 3.4 : Thermal Noise Underwater……………………………………….. 22

Figure 3.5 : Turbulence Noise under water……………………………………. 23

Figure 3.6 : Shipping Noise under water………………………………………. 24

Figure 3.7 : Sea state/wind noise under water……………………………….. 25

Figure 3.8 : Total Noise calculation under water……………………………… 25

Figure 4.1 : Constellation diagram of ASK…………………………………….. 29

Figure 4.2 : Signal representation of ASK……………………………………... 30

Figure 4.3 : Constellation diagram of FSK…………………………………….. 31

Figure 4.4 : Signal representation of FSK……………………………………... 31

Figure 4.5 : Constellation diagram of BPSK……………………………………32

Figure 4.6 : Signal representation of BPSK…………………………………… 33

Figure 4.7 : Constellation diagram of QPSK………………............................ 35

Figure 5.1 : Simulation model for underwater wireless communication……. 37

Figure 5.2 : QPSK Transmitter…………………………………………… ……..38

Figure 5.3 : Communication channel……………………………………. ……..39

IX
Figure 5.4 : Rayleigh fading channel model…………………………………... 40

Figure 5.5 : QPSK Receiver…………………………………………………….. 42

Figure 5.6 : Constellation Plot of designed system…………………………... 43

Figure 5.7 : BER Plot of QPSK Rayleigh fading channel for underwater

Wireless communication system…………………………………. 45

X
List of Tables

TABLE 1.1 : Applications of Underwater sensor networks…………………….3

TABLE 1.2: Data Range for underwater acoustic communication…………… 5

TABLE 2.1 : EM Range and Data Rate………………………………………….12

TABLE 3.1 : Conditions for underwater wireless communication……………. 16

TABLE 3.2 : Sand types and its corresponding values……………………….. 21

TABLE 3.3 : Parameter Table…………………………………………………….26

XI
ACRONYMS
ASK Amplitude shift keying
AUV Automotive underwater vehicle
BER Bit error rate
BT Bottom type
EM Electromagnetic
FSK Frequency shift keying
LOS Line of sight
MI Magnetic Induction
PSK Phase shift keying
QPSK Quadrature phase shift keying
SNR Signal to Noise ration
Turbo Turbulence
UWCN Underwater wireless communication

XII
 1 Introduction
to underwater
wireless
communication
system

Contents:-
 Background
 Applications of UWCN
 Overview of UWCN
 Thesis organization

1
1.1 Background

Around 70% of the surface of earth is covered with water. It contains large amount of energy
and natural resources and hence for exploring these resources, development of effective
underwater wireless communication system became very important. Due to number of
applications like scientific marine exploring, pollution controlling, voice and data
communications between divers, mine reconnaissance, study of disasters, military projects,
etc. the field of underwater wireless communication is rapidly increasing. Also, shipbuilding
and offshore engineering is taking lot of interest in it. So, obviously it is one of the important
communication media for communication researchers.

Underwater wireless communication is an enabling technology for oceanography and its

applications. It consists of number of vehicles with attached sensors for monitoring the given
area.

But, development of underwater wireless communication system is not that much easy as it
is totally different from terrestrial radio environment both in terms of energy, cost and channel
propagation.

Major challenges encountered in the design of underwater acoustic networks are as follows
[16]

 The available bandwidth is very limited which causes reduction in transmission range
 The underwater channel is mainly impaired due to multipath and fading
 Propagation delay in underwater wireless communication is five times higher than RF
terrestrial channel
 Underwater sensors are very costly. And very high protection is required for these
sensors. Also most of the times they fail due to corrosion
 Battery power is very limited and it can’t be charged as solar energy can’t be exploited.

Out of EM, MI and acoustic waves most of the applications are done by using acoustics as
they are proven to be excellent in underwater compare to others as they provide wide range
up to 10 km with very small antenna size nearly about 0.1m. Also, power loss in underwater
acoustics are very small compare to EM and optical waves in sea environment.

The basic problems in front of underwater acoustic communication are limited sound velocity,
absorption of a sound in water, multipath propagation, ambient noise, Doppler’s spread, etc.

2
Small change in sound velocity also causes lot of effects on underwater communication
system. Multipath propagation is due to the surface reflection and bottom reflection and
mainly present in shallow water. Attenuation is introduced in a system when acoustic energy
is partially transform into heat and lost due to scattering. If transmitter and receiver both are
moving then Doppler spread occurs which is mainly present in AUV’s. These parameters
highly affect communication signal and reduces data rate significantly but still underwater
wireless communication is very important field and an interest of researchers due to following
applications.

1.2 Applications of Underwater wireless acoustic networks

The applications of underwater wireless communication are given in terms of

environmental, marine, scientific and military system. Table 1.2 gives applications of
UWCN. [16]

Environmental Marine Scientific Military

Pollution Finding natural resources Oceanography Bottom imaging

Finding oil and gas Detection of

To study marine life Geo sciences
sources underwater objects
Finding resources in deep
Protection of ships Marine biology Threat detection
sea

Weather study Pollution controlling Seismic study AUV controlling

Table 1.1 Applications of wireless communication

1.3 Overview of underwater wireless communication

Underwater wireless acoustic communication system is a two way communication system in

which digital data is converted into special underwater sound signals [1]. Then these signals
are received by another transreceiver and then converted back to digital data. This
communication is done in multipath propagation of acoustic/sound signal.

Figure 1.1 gives brief idea about underwater wireless acoustic communication.

3
 Figure 1.1: Overview of Underwater wireless communication

The underwater wireless communication is come in to picture in 1940 when Leonardo Da

Vinci said, “If you cause your ship to stop and place the head of long tube into water and
place extremity to your ear you will hear sound of ships standing at a long distance from you”.
In 1912, after incidence of Titanic, systems for detection of icebergs are developed which are
also used in World War.

As shown in figure 1.1, underwater wireless communication consists of a transreceiver with

antennas and sensors attached to them. As discussed above underwater sensors are coated
very carefully to protect them from corrosion. We can transmit EM or acoustic wave but
acoustics is a main choice as it gives better result and better range.

Due to attenuation, the transmitted signal transmits in a form of multipath. At receiver every
multipath signal must be recovered to get original signal back. The reflection of these
multipath signals is of two types a surface reflection and bottom reflection. Surface reflection
depends upon surface properties while bottom reflection depends on bottom type and sand
properties. As, some multipath signals become long path signals and some signals become

4
short path signals hence propagation delay for every multipath signal is different which
increases overall propagation delay of a transmission signal.

If we use acoustic waves for transmission then it mainly affects due to thermal noise and
converts into heat which reduces system efficiency hence, usually 20 KHz to 100 KHz
frequency band is selected for acoustics.

1.4 Data Range for underwater acoustic communication [19]

Range Frequency

1000 Km Less than 1 KHz

Up to 100 Km 2 to 5 KHz

Up to 10 Km Nearly 10 KHz

Up to 1 Km 20 to 50 KHz

Table 1.2: Data Range for underwater wireless acoustic communication

1.5 Thesis organization

This thesis is organized into 6 chapters. The current chapter begins with background of
underwater wireless communication. The objective of thesis is framed after overview and
chapter ends with outline of thesis.

Chapter 2:-Chapter 2 deals with comparison of EM, MI, Optical and acoustic waves. It
gives brief idea about advantages of acoustic waves over electromagnetic waves for
underwater wireless communication.

5
Chapter 3:-

Chapter 3 discuss about all acoustic properties under water. It gives brief idea about
calculation of acoustic velocity under water and its effects. It also discuss about important
parameters like attenuation, absorption and noise.

Chapter 4:-

Chapter 4 discuss about different modulation techniques with its advantages and
disadvantages. Also it discuss about the reason to use QPSK transmitter and receiver for
current system.

Chapter 5:-

Chapter 5 deals with simulation model for underwater wireless communication. In this chapter
we focus on QPSK transmitter and receiver blocks and its working functionality. Also, this
chapter gives brief idea about Rayleigh fading channel for UWCN. In this chapter bit error
rate determination is done and constellation diagram and BER plot is presented.

6
 2 Comparison
of EM, MI and
acoustic waves

Contents:-
 EM Waves
 Magnetic induction waves
 Optical waves
 Acoustic waves

7
2.1 EM Waves

EM waves are the waves with frequency between 400 MHz to 300 GHz. They are very good
for short distances and proven better in shallow water but for deep underwater and salt water
it fails.

Following parameters and simulations will give brief idea about EM waves.

2.1.1 Attenuation

We know that, EM waves are highly influenced with conduction. If the conductivity of water
is very high then attenuation also increases to high because during transmission lot of energy
is generated in a form of heat which leads to attenuation [2] [3].

If attenuation is high, then it affects system very badly and data rate becomes very low.
Hence, attenuation should be as small as possible. The attenuation of EM waves on terrestrial
ground and in underwater are completely different. Calculation of attenuation for EM waves
is given in equation 1.1.

Generally, average conductivity of saltwater is 4 s/m

While 0.01 s/m for freshwater [3] [4].

Attenuation of an EM wave is calculated using a formula [4],

∝= 0.0173√𝑓. 𝜎………. (1.1)

Where,

α = attenuation in dB/m

f = operating signal frequency in Hz

σ= conductivity in S/m

Hence, from simulation we got the following result shown in figure 2.1.

8
 Frequency VS attenuation in saltwater and pure water
30
seawater
freshwater
25

20
attenuation in dB/Hz

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency in Hz 5
x 10

Figure 2.1: Attenuation due to EM waves under water

From figure 2.1, we can say attenuation in seawater is extremely high in comparison with
freshwater.

At 100 KHz the attenuation is up to 10dB/Hz for saltwater which is very high in comparison
with 1dB/Hz in pure water.

As frequency increases the attenuation also increases which degrades system. Hence,
transmission with high frequency is impossible.

2.1.2 Wavelength

Now let’s consider in terms of wavelength. We know that the wavelength in air can be
calculated by formula,

9
 𝑐
λ = ………. (2.1)
𝑓

Where, c = 3 X108, that is velocity of light

f= 10 KHz = 10.103 Hz

Hence, λ = 30 Km

Now, for underwater wavelength can be calculated by formula [3],

10
λ = 1000√
𝑓.𝜎
………. (2.2)

Considering sea water conductivity is given as,

𝜎 = 4 𝑆/𝑚

Hence, after calculations

10
λ = 1000√
10KHz x 4

λ = 15.81 m

Which shows that for salt water the transmission range of EM waves is extremely low. For
10 KHz in air we can transmit data up to 30 Km but in salt water its range become nearly 15
m.

Where, for shallow water

𝜎 = 0.01 𝑆/𝑚

Hence,

10
λ = 1000√
10KHz x 0.01

λ = 316.2278 m

It shows that transmission range of EM waves in shallow water is better than that of salt
water but still not good enough compare to terrestrial ground.

10
 Frequency VS wavelength in saltwater and pure water
350
seawater
freshwater
300

250
wavelength in meter

200

150

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency in KHz 4
x 10

Figure 2.2: Wavelength of EM waves under water

Hence, from figure 2.1 and figure 2.2 we can say that we can use EM waves for
freshwater but not for saltwater due to large effect of conductivity on wavelength and
attenuation.

Following table gives brief idea about EM range and data rate. [5]

Medium <10 m 50 m 200 m >1 Km

Sea water Up to 8 Kbps 300 bps 25 bps 1 bps

Fresh water Up to 3 Mbps 150 Kbps 9 Kbps Up to 300 bps

Table 2.1: EM Range and Data Rates

11
2.2 Magnetic Induction (MI) waves

MI waves came into a picture of underwater wireless communication design to reduce a path
loss. Basically, MI waves are tolerant to losses and they usually don’t impact on marine life.
Even they are very immune to acoustic noise which is a better property of MI waves. It can’t
be affected by multipath propagation or fading. Also Magnetic Induction waves provide
superior bit error rate in fresh water.

Magnetic induction can give important applications like diver-to-diver communication, voice
and text telecommunication, real time data transfer between AUV’s. Telemetry and remote
control from underwater or surface equipment is also possible.

The performance that researcher got by using MI waves underwater is fair enough but still
they can’t use for long distance communication due to following reasons [6].

 The basic operating frequency of Magnetic Induction waves is started with 500 Hz
which is very low compare to EM and acoustics.
 The magnetic antennas work finely in salt water at low frequencies only.
 As frequency increases, the introduction of eddy current due to conductivity also
increases which increases attenuation and affects system badly.
 Eddy current generated due to MI waves waste lot of energy which reduces efficiency
of communication system.

Hence, MI waves are also not used in Underwater for long distance communication.

2.3 Optical Waves

Optical waves are known for extremely high bandwidth. Also, they are usually come in low
cost but still they are not an option for underwater wireless communication either due to
following reasons [7].

 Optical waves require a line of sight communication which is practically impossible for
underwater
 Optical waves can’t be useful in direct communication underwater because they can’t
cross water boundary over large distance.

12
  The impact of marine life on optical waves is extremely high compare to EM, MI and
acoustic waves which reduces its strength considerably.

The range of optical waves is extremely low due to these reasons. Hence, optical
communication is not a good option for underwater wireless communication.

2.4 Acoustic Waves

Acoustic waves are proven and now a days mostly preferable technology due to its long
transmission capability at small frequencies. It can travel up to 200 Km. They provide stable
characteristic properties at long distance. Also Acoustics have excellent proven
characteristics for both transmitter and receiver as in terms of transmission the results
through acoustics under saltwater are far better than EM waves.

In next chapter details about ocean acoustics are given.

13
 3 ocean
acoustics and its
characteristics

Contents:-
 Acoustic waves underwater
 Absorption and path loss
 attenuation
 Noise
 Parameter table of design

14
3.1 Acoustic waves underwater

The frequencies between 0 KHz to 100 KHz are generally chosen for underwater acoustic
communication [8] [9]. In case of acoustics we have to consider attenuation, absorption and
ambient noise which are key parameters for characterization and modelling of channel. The
main problem during design of a channel is, all these parameters increase with increase in
frequency and affect communication system badly. Hence, proper selection of a frequency
for underwater is a key thing for good system design.

Also we have to consider sound velocity under water as small change in sound velocity affect
system very badly.

3.1.1 Sound Velocity

Generally, changes in sound velocity are smaller but small changes in sound velocity reduces
strength of system.

Sound velocity underwater mainly depends upon three main parameters temperature, salinity
and underwater depth.

The sound velocity underwater is calculated by the formula [10],

C = 1449.2 + 4.6.T – 0.055.T2 +0.00029. T3 + (1.34 - 0.01.T). (S-35)+0.016.Z... (3.1)

Where,

C = sound velocity underwater

T= Temperature underwater

S= Salinity of water

Z= underwater depth

In case of deep sea, salinity is generally considered as constant 35 Ppm because in deep
underwater the effect of salinity on sound velocity is negligible.

Generally, the parameters are chosen between following range [10]

15
 Temperature 0 to 35 degree

Salinity 0 to 35 Ppm

Depth 0 to 1000 m

Table 3.1: Conditions for underwater wireless communication

1600
velocity of sound VS Depth
1580

1560

1540
Sound velocity in m/s

1520

1500

1480

1460

1440

1420

1400
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
depth of water

Figure 3.1: Sound velocity under water

The sound velocity in air is generally 340 m/s-400 m/s but in underwater it is around 1400m/s
which is far better than that of air as shown in figure 3.1. Hence, it proves why acoustics are
chosen in underwater.

Generally, sound velocity under sea level is within the range of 1400 m/s to 1600 m/s.

16
3.1.2 Absorption and path loss

We know that, due to thermal generation heat is produced under water which become the
reason for absorption and path loss. Hence, it degrades amplitude of a system.

Calculation of absorption coefficient is extremely important to calculate overall path loss and
also we have to consider cylindrical loss or spreading loss to calculate overall path loss.

During the transmission of sound signal from acoustic source to the reception, the signal
energy is one of the important factors that which affects signal-to-noise ratio of receiver. The
absorption loss of sound energy is the main part of the attenuation loss, and the absorptions
are usually seawater medium absorption and interface medium (such as the benthal)
absorption. For acoustic frequencies more than 1 kHz, seawater acoustic absorption is the
main factor which causes acoustic wave attenuation and is proportional to the square of the
wave frequency. The formula for calculation of absorption coefficient is given by Thorp.

According to Thorp’s formula [10],

𝑓2 𝑓2
𝛼 = 0.11. 2
+ 44. 2
+ 2.75. 10−4 . 𝑓 2 + 0.003 … … . (3.2)
1+𝑓 4100 + 𝑓

Where,

α = absorption coefficient in dB/Km

f = signal frequency in Hz.

This formula shows that the absorption coefficient is directly dependent upon signaling
frequency. So increase in frequency leads to increase in absorption. Hence, careful
choosing of frequency is very important

Figure 3.2 shows relationship between absorption coefficient and frequency.

17
 Frequency VS sound absorption in water according to Thorps model
35
absorption in water

30

25
absorption[dB] in water

20

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency in KHz

Figure 3.2: Frequency vs. Sound absorption in water

From figure 3.2, we can say absorption underwater strictly depends upon the signal
frequency that we choose. By using absorption coefficient (α) we can calculate overall path
loss by using formula [10] [11],

𝐴(𝐿, 𝑓) = 𝐿𝑘 . 𝛼(𝑓)𝐿 ………… (3.3)

Where,

α = absorption coefficient

k = spreading loss

L= transmission distance

Generally, we choose value of spreading loss as 1.5 [11] and the value of spreading loss is
always between 1 and 2.

18
3.1.3 Attenuation

While calculation of attenuation, we have to consider attenuation due to saltwater, attenuation

due to sediment and attenuation due to surface. Out of these, attenuation due to surface is
very small and can be neglected. But attenuation due to bottom must be considered while
developing a system for shallow water. The attenuation due to bottom depends upon bottom
type.

According to Francois and Garrison formula [12],

𝐴1. 𝑃1. 𝑓1. 𝑓 2 𝐴2. 𝑃2. 𝑓2. 𝑓 2

𝛽= 2 2
+ 2 2
+ 𝐴3. 𝑃3. 𝑓 2 … … . (3.4)
𝑓1 + 𝑓 𝑓2 + 𝑓

Saltwater is a mixture of Boric acid, Magnesium sulphate and pure water. First term in a
formula denotes an attenuation for Boric acid while second term denotes attenuation for
magnesium sulphate and third term denotes attenuation in pure water [13].

For B (OH) 3,

8.686
𝐴1 = . 100.78.𝑃𝐻−5 … … . . (3.5)
𝑐

𝑃1 = 1

𝑠 1245
𝑓1 = 2.8√35. 10(4−𝑇+273) … … (3.6)

For MgSO4

𝑠
𝐴2 = 21.44. (1 + 0.025. 𝑇) … (3.7)
𝑐

𝑃2 = 1 − 1.37. 10−4 . 𝑍 + 6.2. 10−9 . 𝑧 2 … … (3.8)

19
 1990
8.17. 10(8−𝑇+273)
𝑓2 = … … . (3.9)
1 + 0.0018(𝑠 − 35)

At 15 O C,

For pure water,

𝐴3 = 4.973. 10−4 − 2.59. 10−5 . 𝑇 + 9.11 . 10−7 . 𝑇 2 − 1.5. 10−8 . 𝑇 3 … . . (3.10)

𝑃3 = 1 − 3.83. 10−5 . 𝑧 + 4.9. 10−10 . 𝑧 2 … … (3.11)

Where,

C= Calculated sound velocity underwater

T= Temperature in degree

Z= Depth underwater

S=salinity of water

PH= PH value of water generally taken as 8

Figure 3.3 indicates attenuation in saltwater due to Boric acid, Magnesium sulphate and in
pure water [13].

Figure 3.3: Attenuation coefficient in water from Francois and Garrison method

20
3.2 Attenuation due to bottom reflection

This parameter is also very important in terms of attenuation. Attenuation due to bottom
reflection mainly depends upon bottom type or sand type lie very fine slit sand, fine sand,
coarse sand or medium sand.

The calculation of sound attenuation due to bottom reflection is calculated by following

formula [14].

1 𝑓 1
𝑠= . 𝐾. ( )𝑛 . ( )……… (3.12)
8.686 1 𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝑚

Where,

Values of K and n are provided in following table.

Sediment type K n

Very fine slit 0.17 0.96

Fine sand 0.45 1.02

Medium sand 0.48 0.98

Coarse sand 0.53 0.96

Table 3.2: Sand types and its corresponding values

3.3 Ambient Noise

Ambient noise is one of the most important characteristics to be considered while channel
modelling. There are different types of noises like noise due to heavy traffic of ships, noise
due to rain, noise due to wind, noise due to earthquake or breaking of waves, etc.

Generally, we consider four noise as important during underwater communication design.

They are as follows:-

21
3.3.1 Thermal Noise

For the signal frequencies more than 100 KHz, a noise generated due to random motion of
water molecules is known as thermal noise.

It can be calculated as [15],

NL Thermal = -15+20.log (f)…. (3.13)

This is the most important parameter in noise to be considered as the design of a system
depends upon the value of thermal noise. Large thermal noise affects data rate very badly.
Frequency selection criteria mainly depends upon value of thermal noise as thermal noise
totally depends on signal frequency. And as frequency increases thermal noise also
increase as shown in simulation result.

50
Thermal Noise

40

30
Thermal Noise in dB

20

10

-10

-20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency in KHz

Figure 3.4: Thermal Noise Underwater

22
3.3.2 Turbulence Noise

For the frequencies from 50 Hz to 100 KHz, turbulence noise should be considered.
Turbulence noise is generated in a system due to internal motions underwater like breaking
of waves.

Formula for calculation of turbulence noise is [15],

NL Turbulence = 17- 30.log (f) …. (3.14)

30
Turbo Noise
20

10

0
Turbo Noise in dB

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency in KHz

Figure 3.5: Turbulence Noise Underwater

3.3.3 Shipping Noise

Shipping noise is due to heavy traffic of ships in water. This noise is dominant at very low
frequencies usually from 20 Hz to 500 Hz. As frequency increases, shipping noise decreases
rapidly.

It can be calculated as [15],

23
 NL shipping = 40 + 20 (s-0.5) + 26.log (f) -60. Log (f+0.03) …..(3.15)

60
Traffic Noise

40

20
Traffic Noise in dB

-20

-40

-60

-80
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency in KHz

Figure 3.6: Shipping Noise Underwater

From figure 3.6 we can see that the traffic or shipping noise is dominant up to very low
frequencies after certain 1 KHz it decreases below 0 dB and can be neglected

3.3.4 Sea state/wind noise

Sea state noise is typically dependent on wind speed. For frequencies more than 500 Hz it
can be avoided. Because as frequency increases, effect of wind noise decreases. Hence
domination of this noise on a system becomes negligible.

Formula for calculation of a wind noise is given as [15],

NL sea state = 50 + 7.5.w1.2 +20.log (f) – 40. Log (f+0.4)….. (3.16)

24
 30
Seastate Noise
20

10

Sea state Noise in dB

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency in KHz

Figure 3.7: Sea state Noise Underwater

3.3.5 Total Noise

Hence, total noise can be calculate as [15],

NL total = NL Thermal + NL Turbulence + NL shipping + NL sea state …….. (3.17)

200
Total Noise

150
Total Noise underwater in dB

100

50

-50

-100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency in KHz

Figure 3.8: Total Noise Underwater

25
The total noise in underwater wireless communication decreases with increase in frequency,
but as thermal noise is extremely dominant and it increases with increase in frequency.
Hence, overall selection criteria for acoustics is from 0 KHz to 100 KHz.

Table 3.4 gives brief idea about selected and calculated components

3.4 Parameter table for design

Parameter Selected/Calculated Value

Wind velocity 20 knots

Salinity 35 ppm

Temperature under water 15 degree Celsius

Underwater depth 1000 m

Signaling Frequency 35 KHz

Distance between transmitter and

100 m
receiver
( transmission distance)

Spreading loss 1.5

Sand Type Very fine slit

Sound Velocity underwater 1522 m/s

Absorption Coefficient 10.57

Total Path loss 0.04

Total Attenuation 7.3388

Total Noise 16 dB

Table 3.3 Parameter Table

26
 4 modulation
techniques of
communication

Contents:-
 Modulation and demodulation
 Amplitude shift keying
 Frequency shift keying
 Phase shift keying
 Quadrature phase shift keying

27
4.1 Digital Modulation Techniques

4.1.1 What is modulation?

Generally, the transmission of a message signal over a low frequency must be converted
into higher frequency range, then it reduces the antenna size. And after successful
transmission we can shift it back to original frequency range after reception. Consider one
example, suppose we have frequency of 1 KHz. Hence, wavelength can be given as,

𝑐
λ=
𝑓

That is λ = 300 Km

Design of an antenna for wavelength of 300 Km is practically impossible. Hence to reduce

λ we have to increase the frequency. For this modulation technique is used. In short we
can say modulation is defined as the process in which “carrier signal is varied in
accordance with message signal”. Generally, in modulation technique, the baseband
signal is a “modulating signal” while the carrier signal is a high frequency sinusoidal
signal.

4.1.2 What is Demodulation?

After the message is successfully received, it must be converted into its original format.
This process is done by demodulation of a signal which is exactly inverse of modulation
process.

4.2 Different modulation techniques

There are three basic modulation techniques also known as keying technique. These three
techniques are based on three different parameters namely amplitude, frequency and
phase. According to these parameters system performance can be analyzed. Each
technique has its own advantages and disadvantages. They are as follows

28
4.2.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Amplitude shift keying is a technique in which the digital bit ‘1’ is represented in the form of
amplitude. If a transmitted signal transmits bit ‘1’ then carrier is transmitted otherwise ‘0’ is
transmitted.

The demodulator at output side recovers the data in the form of amplitude keeping frequency
and phase constant. Generally ASK is used to transmit data through optical fiber.

Constellation Diagram of ASK

Figure 4.1: Constellation Diagram of Amplitude shift keying

Advantages

 Significant reduction in transmission energy

 Simplicity
 Easy to generate and detect

Disadvantages

 Easily influenced to noise interference

 It is used at very low data bit rates (usually 100 b/s)

29
 Signal representation of ASK

Carrier
5

Amplitude
0

-5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
Square Pulses
4
Amplitude

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
ASK Signal
10
Amplitude

-10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time

Figure 4.2: Signal representation of Amplitude shift keying

4.2.2 Frequency shift keying (FSK)

In frequency shift keying, sine wave is shifted in accordance with change in frequency. Bits
‘1’ and ‘0’ shows compression and expansion of a signal at output. The higher frequency
given to bit ’1’ known as Mark Frequency where the frequency representing ‘0’ known as
Space Frequency. A modem converts binary data into FSK signal for transmission through
telephone lines or wireless media. It is in a format of low and high state which is known by
system.

Generally at the transmission input signal given is a NRZ signal.

Mathematically it is represented as,

𝐴𝑐. cos(2𝜋𝑓1𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚(𝑡) = 1

𝑠(𝑡) = { ……… (4.1)
𝐴𝑐. cos(2𝜋𝑓2𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚(𝑡) = 0

Where, f1 and f2 are mark and space frequencies representing ‘1’ and ‘0’.

30
Constellation Diagram of FSK

Figure 4.3: Constellation diagram of Frequency shift keying

Advantages

 Reduction in noise as amplitude is constant

 High data rate and greater signal strength

Disadvantages

 Requires very high bandwidth

 High complexity in circuitry

Signal representation of FSK

Carrier 1 Wave
Amplitude

1
0
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
Carrier 2 Wave
Amplitude

1
0
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
Binary Message Pulses
Amplitude

2
1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
Modulated Wave
Amplitude

1
0
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time

Figure 4.4: Signal Representation of Frequency shift keying

31
4.2.3 Phase shift keying (PSK)

Phase shift keying is a technique in which phase of a message signal is varied while
transmission of a signal. The simplest technique of phase shifting in digital communication is
Binary phase shift keying which is dependent on two phase angles 0 degree and 180 degree.

The digital transmission signal is divided into two parts and next bit is determined by taking
a reference of a previous bit. For 0 degree the transmission of a bit is normal but when phase
changes from 0 degree to 180 degree, transmission also changes from ‘0’ to ‘1’ or ‘1’ to ‘0’.

Mathematically it is represented as,

𝐴𝑐. cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚(𝑡) = 1

𝑠(𝑡) = { …….. (4.2)
𝐴𝑐. cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 180) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚(𝑡) = 0

Constellation Diagram of BPSK

Figure 4.5: Constellation diagram of binary phase shift keying

Advantages of PSK

 High power efficiency

 Simple design
 Work very effectively at low transmission frequencies

32
Disadvantages of PSK

 Very low speed communication

 Low bandwidth efficiency
 Very low transmission power

Signal Representation of PSK

Carrier
5
Amplitude

-5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
Message Signal
1
Amplitude

-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
PSK
5

0
y

-5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t

Figure 4.6: Signal Representation of phase shift keying

4.3 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)

Digital modulation techniques need a set of basis function and they are chosen according to
modulation scheme. Generally basis functions are orthogonal to each other.

“QPSK is a quadrature phase shift keying technique in which two sinusoids are taken
as basic functions”. Modulation can be done with the help of varying phase angles of the
basis function which is dependent on message symbols. In QPSK every symbol is made up
of two bits hence we can say that QPSK is a technique containing both phase and quadrature
technique. The equation for QPSK is given as,

33
 2.𝐸𝑏 п
𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ . cos(2п𝑓𝑐𝑡 + (2𝑛 − 1) …….. (4.3)
𝑇 4

Where,

n=1, 2, 3….……

Hence, for QPSK

2.𝐸𝑏 п
 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ . cos(2п𝑓𝑐𝑡) + For bits ‘00’
𝑇 4

2.𝐸𝑏 3п
 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ . cos(2п𝑓𝑐𝑡) + For bits ‘10’
𝑇 4

2.𝐸𝑏 п
 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ . cos(2п𝑓𝑐𝑡) − For bits ‘01’
𝑇 4

2.𝐸𝑏 3п
 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡) = √ . cos(2п𝑓𝑐𝑡) − For bits ‘01’
𝑇 4

And constellation diagram can be shown as,

Figure 4.7: Constellation diagram of quadrature phase shift keying

34
Advantages of QPSK

 As QPSK requires half transmission bandwidth than BPSK, the bit error rate (BER) is
also minimized twice of BPSK.
 The data rate is doubled that of BPSK
 Phase shift is not related to reference signal, it is related to phase of previously
transmitted bits
 BPSK highly suffer with a phase shift problem but in QPSK signal is differentially
encoded which reduces phase ambiguity.

Disadvantages of QPSK

 Inter channel interference is very high compared to BPSK

 QPSK is very sensitive to changes in phase.
 To reduce inter channel interference (ICI) QPSK requires very high quality filtering
which increases complexity

35
 5 simulation
model for
underwater
wireless
communication

Contents:-
 Simulation model
 QPSK transmitter
 Communication channel
 Rayleigh fading
 QPSK Receiver
 Constellation result and BER plot

36
5.1 Simulation Model

The direct hardware implementation of underwater wireless communication system is very

risky and expensive. Hence, simulation is a very good technique to implement the system
virtually and see its effects. It provides the basic behavior of a system or more precisely we
can say it gives an idea about the working of our design. By doing calculations we can predict
how the system work when it will be implemented practically. It reduces our time as well as
cost. We can’t predict that direct hardware implementation will work correctly or not hence,
simulation gives a platform to test the designed system virtually. Now we are developing a
simulation system for underwater wireless acoustic communication.

Our simulation model can be expressed as,

Figure 5.1: Simulation model for underwater wireless communication

We are going to use QPSK modulation technique for transmitter and receiver with Rayleigh
fading technique to study properties of underwater. The channel shown in a diagram is an
underwater which contains impediments like attenuation and absorption which causes path
loss. The noise shown in given figure is an underwater noise which is externally added in a
system. Digital bits are given as an input and are transmitted via QPSK transmitter. QPSK
receiver is other end of a system which receives transmitted data and converts it back into
original format

37
5.2 QPSK Transmitter

Figure 5.2: QPSK Transmitter

The diagram of QPSK transmitter is as shown in figure 5.2. The input in terms of binary 1 and
0 is given to the system. As discussed before, QPSK represents two bits per symbol hence
while developing the system we have to work separately on even and odd bits. Serial to
parallel converter converts the symbol in terms of even and odd bits [18].

Odd bit is treated as quadrature phase while even bit is treated as in-phase system. The
basic concept behind QPSK transmitter is signal interval T should be twice of bit duration.

𝑇 = 2. 𝑇𝑏 … (5.1)
1
Hence from Eq 5.1, we can say that, for bit rate 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑇 QPSK requires half transmission
𝑏

bandwidth in comparison with BPSK which makes it special. The bits are then encoded with
an encoder. Odd bits are multiplied with sin (ωt +Ø) and even bits are multiplied with
Cos (ωt +Ø) to transmit the signal.

38
5.3 Communication Channel

Channel is a media through which a signal is propagated. In our case, salt water of ocean is
a channel medium through which we have to transmit the signal. As discussed before, the
main problem of underwater channel is channel variation due to pH, temperature, salinity,
underwater depth and interference.

These all parameters must be considered during channel modelling of underwater. We are
considering multipath propagation and hence we are using Rayleigh fading channel
technique for modelling our underwater channel [17].

Multipath propagation channel can be represented as,

Figure 5.3: Communication Channel

Where, n denotes total number of multipath in underwater wireless acoustic communication

system.

39
5.4 Rayleigh Fading

When transmitter transmit the signal, due to fading direct line of sight transmission becomes
practically impossible and signals reach transmitter in multipath. Rayleigh propagation model
is a statistical model which studies the behavior of different multipath propagation signals
when there is no direct line of sight (LOS) path possible. [17]

Rayleigh fading channel is useful where a transmitted signal transmits in a form of multipath
and no single path is dominant.

Due to environmental conditions, signal scatters between transmitter and receiver and no
single path remains dominant and reception of every path becomes necessary.

Rayleigh Fading Channel Model For Underwater

Figure 5.4: Rayleigh fading channel model

Figure 5.4 represents block diagram of a Rayleigh fading channel. Gs (t) is an input given to
Rayleigh channel where Gr (t) represents and output of a channel. r (t) is a time variant
multiplying factor and No (t) is the additive noise,

Hence, we can write an equation [19],

𝐺𝑟(𝑡) = 𝐺𝑠(𝑡). 𝑟(𝑡) + 𝑁𝑜(𝑡) … (5.2)

40
For a particular application, change in parameters changes system. Hence, there is no firm
method is available for Rayleigh fading channel technique but still it gives efficient output and
hence mainly used for a study of multipath propagation of signal in air as well as underwater
also.

A constant amplitude transmission signal can be given as [20],

𝐺𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒(𝐴. 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 ) … … … . . (5.3)

Hence, the received signal from scattering multipath signals is given by,

𝐺𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑅(𝑡). cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 − Ø(𝑡)) … . . (5.4)

And,

𝑋(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑎(𝑡). sin( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝜏)………. (5.5)

𝑌(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑎(𝑡). sin( 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝜏)……….. (5.6)

Where,

𝑌
𝑅(𝑡) = √𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 , Ø(𝑡) = arctan( )……. (5.7)
𝑋

In this a (t) and 𝜏 are the amplitude and delay associated with each scattered path.

The envelope R (t) has Rayleigh distribution and Ø(𝑡) has uniform distribution. This channel
is known as, Rayleigh fading channel. Rayleigh channel is used to investigate the properties
of underwater acoustic communication channel [20]. But sometimes there is a possibility that
each distinct path may contain a dominant component and number of other sub components
at that time due to inhomogeneity and microstructure of ocean medium, Rayleigh fading can’t
be used to study the behavior of underwater. In this thesis sub paths and dominant paths are
not taken into consideration.

41
5.5 QPSK Receiver

Figure 5.5: QPSK Receiver

When the signal is transmitted through a communication channel, to receive the transmitted
signal QPSK receiver is used. When, the transmitted signal is collected at the receiver it is
first multiplied with a reference frequency generator. The multiplied output with reference is
integrated over one bit period using an integrator. Threshold detector takes a decision on
each bit and finally Quadrature phase signal and in-phase signals are remapped to get the
originally transmitted bit. [18]

5.6 BER calculation

When the data is received by the receiver, number of errors occurred after reception of data
is calculated. Then the ratio of errors and symbols is obtained to plot SNR vs. BER plot

The ratio is obtained as,

No. of errors received at receiver

Ratio =
number of symbols transmitted

The BER plot for designed system is shown in figure 5.6

42
5.6 Final Result

Constellation Plots for designed underwater wireless acoustic system using

Rayleigh fading
From constellation plots it is completely seen that bits are received at receiver at SNR of 23
dB, 33 dB, 43dB and 53 dB out of which output at 53 dB is excellent and each bit can be
separated to avoid errors. But generation of a power at such high SNR is practically
impossible. Hence, we can say output at 33 dB is fair but contains lot of errors.

The basic problem in underwater wireless acoustic communication is attenuation is very high
compare to terrestrial ground which affects system very badly and results into poor bit error
rate. As shown in the first constellation plot at 23 dB all bits are very closer to each other and
very hard to separate. So, all information can’t be recovered.

constellation of received symbols for SNR = 23.0103

2

1.5

1
Quadrature Component

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Inphase Component

At 33dB recovery will be better than recovery at 23 dB but still symbols are very closer and
mixed to each other. 33dB power can be practically generated hence we can use the system
at SNR of 33dB with compromise of full recovery.

43
 constellation of received symbols for SNR = 33.0103
1

0.8

0.6
Quadrature Component

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Inphase Component

At 43dB and 53dB all symbols can be recovered but as discussed before generation of such
high SNR is practically impossible because very high power will be required to produce this
SNR. Which says that practically the BER of an underwater system is poor. So it is hard to
recover all information that has transmitted through the transmitter at low SNR. It also affects
data rate of system. Hence, from this result we can conclude that design of underwater
wireless acoustic system at low SNR is very difficult.

constellation of received symbols for SNR = 43.0103

4

2
Quadrature Component

-1

-2

-3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Inphase Component

44
 constellation of received symbols for SNR = 43.0103
4

2
Quadrature Component

-1

-2

-3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Inphase Component

SNR VS BER plot for these constellation plots is as shown in figure 5.6

0
SNR Vs BER plot for QPSK Modualtion with rayleigh channel for underwater
10

-1
10

-2
10
BER

-3
10

-4
10

Simulated output
Theoretical Raylegh

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

SNR (dB)

Figure 5.6: SNR VS BER plot for designed system of underwater wireless acoustic
communication

45
 6 conclusion
and future work

Contents:-
 Conclusion
 Future scope

46
6.1 Conclusion

Thus, we say channel modulation for underwater wireless communication is extremely

difficult as it mainly depends upon multipath propagation. The channel variation causes a
degradation in bit error rate. Also, we don’t have too much flexibility to change signal
frequency range too high because most of the underwater parameters are dependent on
frequency.

In underwater wireless communication, EM waves are not used in seawater although lot of
research is done on them because acoustics gives excellent results with increase in velocity
in underwater. Also, direct path transmission is almost impossible due to high attenuation
components in salt water. And as attenuation, absorption and noise all are dependent on
signaling frequency, it has to be carefully chosen for better performance. System cannot be
robust if the channel variations affecting system are very high. Even for short distance
communication also channel variations affects system very deeply. The complexity of a
system is also very high. Channel degradation causes degradation in bit error rate (BER).
Hence, the bit error rate for multipath propagation is poor.

6.2 Future scope

In this thesis, we considered that in underwater both transmitter as well as receiver are not
moving. In future we can consider Doppler’s effect by considering either one of the transmitter
and receiver or both are moving in underwater. Also, we can develop a system for greater
distance. An orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) can be introduced to
improve bit error rate and system performance. Different techniques like ray tracing
technique, or use of Reed Solomon code can be used for studying the behavior of multipath
propagation signals.

47
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