Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Assessment

OVERVIEW

Testing is an integral part of our society. Any- grade students. As a result, all 50 states now
one who has attended grade school or college, have testing programs and report testing results
served in the military, or applied for a job has to their community. The use of tests should be
taken one or more tests. It is almost impossible viewed within the context of the broader
to pick up a newspaper, listen to a talk show, or concept of assessment. It is vital that counselors
watch a documentary without testing being and other helping professionals understand the
mentioned. Testing can have significant impact assessment process, the purpose of tests, how to
on all our lives. For example, in 2002, President choose appropriate tests, test interpretation, and
Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind the use of test results in developing treatment
Act of 2001, containing four basic education re- plans or educational plans.
form principles for kindergarten through 12th-

OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you should be able ^ Understand the history of assessment
to tf Discuss current trends and controversial
t/ Discuss several uses and values of testing issues in testing
 Chapter 1 Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Assessment
TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
The use of tests has greatly expanded during the 20th century. More thanjone million
standardized tests are used each school day in American schools alone (Lyman, 1998).
Add to that the tests given in industry, mental health clinics, the military, government,
business, and so on, and that number increases dramatically. The growth in test sales is
impressive, from less than $7 million in 1955 to over $263 million in 1997 (Clarke,
Madaus, Horn, & Ramos, 2001). Between 1990 and 1997 alone, sales increased by
about 50%, or $88 million.
The use of computers to administer and score tests has changed the field of as-
sessment in terms of reducing the time for scoring and analyzing test results and as-
suring their accuracy. There are tests to measure of a wide variety of attributes including
intelligence, achievement, career preferences, personality type, and much more.
Often, the terms testing and assessment are used interchangeably It is important to
know that the use of tests is only one part of the overall process of assessment. ^4^-
sessment is defined by the American Psychological Association (APA) as a process that
integrates test information with information from other sources; a process for evaluating
behavior, psychological constructs, and/or characteristics of individuals or groups for
the purpose of making decisions regarding classification, selection, placement, di-
agnosis, or intervention (2000). The term test refers to a measurement procedure for
assessing psychological characteristics in which a sample of an examinee's behavior is
obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a standardized process (APA,
2000). Because tests provide only one source of information, professionals may also
gather client information from interviews, records, or from other professionals.
A test user is the person or persons responsible for the selection, administration, and
scoring of tests; for the analysis, interpretation, and communication of test results; and
for any decisions or actions that are based, in part, on test scores. Generally, individuals
who simply administer tests, score tests, and communicate simple or "canned" test
results are not classified as test users.
VALUE OF TESTING
Although testing is a specific task that is different from counseling, it continues to be an
important part of the counseling process (Maxmen & Ward, 1995). Though it can occur
at several points throughout the counseling relationship, it will almost always occur at
the outset of the counseling process (Seligman, 1996). The assessment process is used
for the following reasons:
• To obtain information about the client's presenting problem
• To make an accurate diagnosis
• To determine the client's goals for counseling
• To gather information to aid in the development of a treatment plan
• To gather information to aid in the development of an educational plan
• To gather baseline data to measure the client's progress in counseling
• To determine a client's suitability for a certain treatment program or modality
Historical Contexts
• To assess the effectiveness of an education/counseling program
• To carry out research studies
In addition to providing useful information about clients, test information can be es-
pecially valuable in educational decision making because it enhances placement deci-
sions. Public Law 94-142 requires exceptional students to be placed in the least
restrictive environment, and test information helps educational personnel place these
individuals in environments that will best facilitate their learning. Test data are utilized
with different criteria in the selection of students for gifted programs, for admission to
colleges and universities, and for admission to vocational and technical programs.
Advanced placement (AP) programs and college-level examination programs (CLEPs)
are examples of widely used placement programs. Teachers are also aided by test data in
their selection of instructional strategies and in their evaluation of curriculum programs.
Another way of looking at the value of test data is to consider how different groups
such as administrators, teachers, counselors, psychologists, curriculum experts, students,
researchers, the public, and the legislature use the data. All of these groups are
consumers of test information.
STANDARDIZED AND NONSTANDARDIZED TESTS
There are several classification systems for tests. Tests can be classified based on their
purpose, how they wTere constructed, their content, or how they are administered,
scored, and interpreted (Aiken, 2003)- A common classification is standardized and
nonstandardized tests. Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in administering
and scoring the test; therefore, standardized tests will have specific directions for
administration, specific instructions for the test taker, and specific scoring procedures.
Standardized tests have generally proven reliability, or consistency, of scores and val-
idity, the ability of the test to measure what it is designed to measure. Some general
categories of standardized tests include achievement tests, aptitude tests, intelligence
tests, personality inventories, and interest inventories. Nonstandardized tests are in-
formally constructed tests without proven reliability or validity. These include inter-
views, observation, questionnaires, and secondhand information.
HISTORICAL CONTEXTS
Testing is not a new idea, even though the objective test movement began only at the
turn of the century (see Table 1.1). Around 2200 B.C., the Chinese used essay exami-
nations to help select civil service employees. The philosophies of Socrates and Plato
emphasized the importance of assessing an individual's competencies and aptitudes in
vocational selection. Throughout the centuries, philosophers and educators have devised
certain scales or items to provide teachers and parents with useful information to help
their children. Fitzherbert (1470-1538) identified some items to screen individuals with
retardation from those without; for example, being able to count to 20 pence, being able
to tell one's age, and being able to identify one's father or mother.
 Chapter 1 Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Assessment
Table 1.1
Major events in testing during the 20th century.

1900 Jung Word Association Test Graduate Record Examinations

to Binet and Simon Intelligence Scale Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence
1909 Standardized group tests of Scale 1937 revision of the
achievement Stone Arithmetic Test Stanford-Binet
Thorndike Handwriting, Language, Intelligence Scale
Spelling, Murray's Thematic Apperception Test
and Arithmetic Tests Spearman's Bernreuter Personality Inventory Leiter
measurement theory Pearson's theory of International Performance Scale Kuder
correlation Thorndike's textbook on Preference Scale Record Lindquist's
educational measurement Goddard's Iowa Every-Pupil Test Bender Visual
translation of Binet into English Motor Gestalt Test Marino's Sociomethc
1910 Army Alpha, Army Beta Tests Techniques Piaget's Origins of
to Stenquist Test of Mechanical Abilities Intelligence Tiegs and Clark's
1919 Porteous Maze Test Progressive Achievement Test Gesell
Seashore Measures of Musical Maturity Scale
Talents Spearman's Factors in 1940 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Intelligence Stanford-Binet Inventory to Wechsler Intelligence Scale
Intelligence Scale Otis Absolute for Children
Point Scale Stern's concept of 1949 U.S. Employment Service's General
mental quotient Woodworth Aptitude
Personal Data Sheet Test Battery Cattell Infant
1920 Founding of the Psychological Intelligence Scale
Corporation to Goodenough Draw-a- 1950 Lindquist's electronic test
Man Test scoring to Standards for
1929 Strong Vocational Interest Blank
Educational
Terman, Kelley, and Ruch's Stanford
1959 and Psychological Testing
Achievement Test dark's Aptitude
Guilford's The Nature of Human
Testing Spearman's The Abilities of Man:
Intelligence Stevenson's The Study of
Their Nature
Behavior: O-Technique
and Measurement
and Its Methodology Osgood's
Morrison's School Mastery
semantic differential National Defense
Tests Rorschach Ink Blot
Education Act Frederikson's in-basket
Test
assessment technique Bloom's
Hartshome and May's Character
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Education Inquiry Kohs's Block Design
1960 National Assessment of Educational
Test
Progress
1930 Thurstone's primary mental abilities
to Flannigan's Project Talent 1969
to Buros's First Mental Measurements
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale
Yearbook
of Intelligence 1960 revision
1939 Johnson's test-scoring machine
of the Stanford-Binet

Juan Huarte (1530-1589) was probably the first author to suggest formal mental
testing. His book title was translated as The Trial of Wits: Discovering the Great
Differences of Wits Among Men and What Sorts of Learning Suit Best with Each
Genius. Jean Esquirol (1772-1840), a French physician, proposed that there are
several levels of mental deficiency and that language is a valid psychological
criterion for differentiating among levels. Eduardo Seguin (1812-1880) also
worked with individuals with mental
Historical Contexts

Table
1.1

Jensen's How Much Can We Boost IQ and Mental Measurements Yearbook reviews
Scholastic Achievement? Kuder in *
Occupational Interest Survey Cattail's Bibliographic Retrieval Service Test
Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Critiques, Vols. 1-7 Detroit Test of
Intelligence Kirk and McCarthy's Illinois Learning Aptitude IV Differential Ability
Test of Scales Neurobehavioral Functioning
Psycholinguistic Abilities Inventory Nagiieri's Nonverbal Aptitude
Bayley Scales of Infant Test: Individual
Development Administration
1970 Family Educational Rights and Test of Nonverbal Intelligence 1
Privacy Act to New York State Truth in -3 Beta III
Testing Act Bracken's Basic Concepts Scale:
1979 Public Law 94-142 Revised Bayley Scale of Infant
System of Multicultural Pluralistic Development Millon's Index of
Assessment Wechsler Intelligence Scale Personality Types
for Children-Revised Revised Standards 1990 Sixteen Personality Factor
for Educational and Questionnaire V to Tests in Print IV
Psychological Testing Rokeach 2000 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Value Survey Peabody Picture Children IV Wechsler Adult
Vocabulary Test Seventh and Eighth Intelligence Scale 111 Wechsler
Mental Measurements Preschool and Primary Scale of
Yearbooks Intelligence III
Use of computers in testing Wechsler Individual Achievement Test
McCarthy Scales of Children's Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of
Abilities Intelligence Early Reading Diagnostic
1980 Thorndike, Hagen, and Startler's revision Assessment: Revised Early Mathematics
of the to Stanford-Binet Diagnostic Assessment Wide Range
1989 Kaufman Assessment Battery for Achievement Test, 3rd Edition State Trait
Children Anger Expression Inventory: II Stanford-
Ninth and Tenth Mental Measurements Binet V
Yearbooks Minnesota Multiphasic Dynamic Assessment of Test
Personality Inventory II Revised Accommodations BarOn's Emotional
Standards for Educational and Quotient Inventory First Step: Screening
Psychological Testing Test for Evaluating
Computer-adaptive and computer-assisted Preschoolers
testing Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Tests in Print V
Revised Nader/Nairn The Reign of ETS
Tests in Print HI

retardation and believed that these people should be trained in sensory

discrimination and in the development of motor control.
Alfred Binet (1857-1911) became the director of the first physiological-
psychological laboratory in France, at the Sorbonne, and did his early work on the
relationship of intelligence, palmistry, and phrenology. Binet and Henri were
commissioned in 1896 by the Ministry of Public Education in Paris to recommend
procedures whereby children with mental retardation might receive the benefits of
an education. Binet claimed that his scale provided a crude means of
differentiating between those children who could function in the regular classroom
and those who could not.
Chapter 1 Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Assessment
The Victorian era marked the beginning of modern science and witnessed the in-
fluence of Darwinian biology on the studies of individuals. In 1879 in Leipzig, Wundt
founded the first psychological laboratory. His work was largely concerned with sensi-
tivity to visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli and simple reaction time. He
followed scientific procedures and rigorously controlled observations. He influenced the
measurement movement by using methodology that required precision, accuracy, order,
and reproducibility of data and findings. The interest in the exceptional individual
broadened to include personality and behavior. Freud, Charcot, and Pinel were
interested in individuals with personal and social judgment problems.
Many of the innovations and changes in the testing movement resulted from major
crises. Both World War I and World War II stimulated major movements in testing. The
armed services found that they needed a quick way of screening the level of mental
functioning of recruits. They adapted the work of Otis, who developed an objective
group test of intelligence and created the Army Alpha. The original purpose of the army
test was to identify those recruits whose lower intelligence would create problems for
the military organization. The typical recruit had only a fifth-grade education, and many
candidates were illiterate. Another problem was that America had many foreign-born
candidates who had little command of the English language and thereby required a
nonverbal test or pictorial form with pantomime substituted for written directions. This
became the Army Beta.
The first major personality assessment was also developed for use during World
War I. The armed services wanted a way to screen individuals with psychosis and other
emotional disabilities. Such a test was developed from the Woodworth Personal Data
Sheet, a forerunner of the modern adjustment inventories.
The successful use of tests by the armed services led to widespread adoption of tests
in education and industry. Other factors also contributed to the acceptance of tests. The
growth in population, free public education, compulsory school attendance laws, and the
increase in students going on to institutions of higher education all were factors that
changed the philosophy and practice of testing. In addition, the egalitarian, political, and
philosophical movements that championed integration, women's rights, rights of
exceptional children and adults, and minority and ethnic group heritage influenced how
people viewed testing. Tests were criticized for cultural bias, gender bias, unfairness to
minority groups, and unfairness to groups with disabilities. These criticisms led to
improved review procedures for the selection of test items and the selection of norming
samples.
In recent years, however, the prevailing political philosophy in the United States
has changed from a liberal to a more conservative orientation, which has caused a shift
from open, humanistic education to back-to-basics and competency-based approaches.
There are national assessment, state assessment, and minimum- and essential-level
skills tests.
The testing movement has also been affected by technology. The computer has
changed the scope and direction of test administration, scoring, and interpretation.
Computer-based and computer-adaptive testing and myriad software packages exist to
help score and interpret everything from biographical data blanks to the Rorschach test.
Current Issues
CURRENT ISSUES
Testing has had a history of controversy, both within the field and outside it. Some of the
issues involved are recurrent and will be discussed again in other chapters. A test user,
though, needs to be aware of the problem areas and learn to follow proper legal and
ethical guidelines. It is best to anticipate problem areas and be proactive in
communication rather than being surprised by criticism and becoming defensive. The
following statements reflect some of the current issues, complaints, and controversies:
1. Testing is an invasion of privacy.
2. Tests are gender-biased and use inappropriate language,examples,and illustrations.
3. Tests are culturally biased; they are unfair and discriminate against minority groups.
4. Tests may be self-incriminating, and individuals should have the right to rebuttal.
5. Criterion-referenced tests should be used rather than norm-referenced tests.
6. Coaching will help performance of clients on scholastic aptitude tests.
7. Intelligence tests are not measuring the right constructs.
8. There are genetic differences in intelligence.
9. We cannot rely on grades and diplomas; we must have demonstration of compe-
tencies on objective tests.
10. Every school scores above the median on achievement tests. The norms are not
valid; this is known as the lake Woebegone effect.
11. Athletes should meet the same standards on the SAT as other students. Only a small
percentage graduate from college.
12. Multiple-choice tests need to be replaced by authentic and performance
assessment. 13- There is too much emphasis on testing and teachers teach
for the tests.
14. There is too much pressure on students, teachers, and parents because of high-stakes
testing, now the "in" approach in schools.
15. Psychological testing of students is intrusive meddling.
Of concern to many educators, teachers, students, and the public is the use of high-
stakes testing in schools. These are primarily achievement tests and are used to assess
student progression in three areas: reading, mathematics, and science. Some of the key
data needing analysis are how well the students are performing, how well the schools are
performing, and how well the students understand how much they are being taught. The
tests are based on the state standards and assess student knowledge through four
different kinds of questions:
1. multiple-choice items
2. guided-response items
3. short-response tasks
4. extended-response tasks
Ryan (2002), among other researcher-evaluators, feels that tests should be carefully
selected and that the consequences of test results should be studied. There are a
8 Chapter 1 Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Assessment
number of potentially serious consequences, such as promotion to the next grade level,
certification, and award of salary. Tests can provide a critical measure of knowledge,
skills, and abilities, but if used inappropriately, such measures can have negative and
adverse consequences.
__________ SUMMARY___________________
The testing movement is about 100 years old. Some tests were developed and used in
the 19th century, but the major developments have occurred in the 20th century. A
number of social and political factors stimulated the movement. World War I and and
World War II had an impact on how tests were scored and the content of the items on the
tests. Group tests were developed in almost all fields of testing. Nonverbal tests such as
the Army Beta demonstrated the utility of the format to other types of content. Test
developers during the early half of the century believed "if something exists, it can be
measured"
In the last half of the 20th century, psychometric procedures influenced the struc-
ture of the test and how it was administered and scored. The tools and theories of testing
went through an evolution of change, and continue to do so with computer-based and
computer-adaptive methods, making testing quicker and more accessible to the user.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION________
1. What tests have you taken during your lifetime? For what purposes were they
given? How can you organize the tests into categories? In what ways was the test-
ing valuable to you? What type of feedback did you get about the results?
2. What types of changes have you noticed in tests and/or testing over time?
3- Should all tests be considered within a framework of cultural diversity? Are any
tests culture-free, can a true culture-free test be constructed?
4. Should knowledge of the historical foundations of testing be a competency re
quired by workers in the helping professions? Why or why not?
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES___________
1. Interview individuals who are working in the helping professions to find out wha
tests they regularly use.
2. Secure a study guide for school counseling and mental health counseling certifi
cation and take the practice tests included in the manual.
3. Discuss the issue you think is most important for counselors to address.
Additional Readings
ADDITIONAL READINGS______
American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA Code of ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Bringmann, W. G. (Ed.). (1997). A pictorial history of psychology. Chicago:
Quintessence. Brief biographies and pictures of important contributors to the history
of psychology.
Clarke, M., Madaus, G., Horn, C, & Ramos, M. (2001). The marketplace for
educational testing. National Board on Educational Testing and Public Policy
Statements, 2(3), 1-11.
DuBois, P H. (1970). A history of psychological testing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
The text has five chapters and covers early psychological testing, invention of the
individual scales, invention of group tests, personality questionnaires, and the
modern period in psychometrics.
Flanagan, D. P, Genshaft, J. L., & Harrison, P. L. (Eds.). (1997). Contemporary
intellectual assessment. New York: Guilford Press.
Three chapters in Part One are valuable to readers interested in the early history of
intelligence tests, the history of test development and test interpretation, and the
history of intelligence.
Maxmen, J. S., & Ward, N. G. (1995). Essentialpsychopathology and its treatment (2nd
ed.)-New York: W. W. Norton.
Prediger, D. J. (Ed.). (1993, March). Multicultural assessment standards. Alexandria,
VA: Association for Assessment in Counseling.
Ryan, K. (2002). Assessment validation in the context of high-stakes assessment.
Educational Measurement:Issues and Practices, 21, 7-15.
Seligman, L. (1998). Selecting effective treatments. A comprehensive, systematic guide
to treatment of mental disorders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sternberg, R. J., & Berg, C. A. (Eds.) (1992). Intellectual development. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Suzuki, L. A., Ponterotto, J. G., & Meller, P J. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of multicultural
assessment: Clinical, psychological, and educational applications (2nd ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Contains sections on general multicultural assessment issues, personality
assessment, assessment of cognitive abilities, and daily living assessment.