THE DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF HEAVY MINERAL

CONCENTRATIONS IN ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS

M.D.LYNN B.Sc.(hons.)(C . N.A.A.) Portsmouth

This dissertation is submitted

as an integral part of the
Mineral Exploration course for
the degree of Master of Science
at Rhodes University.
January 1992,

This dissertation was prepared

in acco rdance with specifications
laid down by the University and
was completed within a period of
ten weeks full-time study.
 A- J{J\·ER. H-WEIR. C-G.nE. D-AnEA. E-MEADOW. F-J7r.:-':CE G-DITCH.

FRONTISPIECE. Extraction of placer tin from fluvial gravels.

From "De Re Metallica", by Georgius Agricola, 1556.
ABSTRACT

The objective of this review is to summarise the characteristics,

significance and evolution of heavy minerals and their accumulations, and
to identify the key controls on the development and distribution of heavy
minera 1 concentrat ions ina 11 uv i a 1 systems. These contro 1s can be boad ly
classified as tectonic setting, geomorphic setting and grain-scale
concentrating processes, each of which is discussed. Based on this review,
exploration models are developed which are designed to indicate favourable
localities for the accumulation of heavy minerals, and trends likely to be
exhibited within these accumulations. The models are structured from the
broadest scale of target selection, down to the local scale ·of sample site
selection.

The major conclusion of this work is that an understanding of process

geomorphology is required to develop genetic models of placer development,
including a detailed evaluation of climatic fluctuations throughout the
Caenozoic.

Palaeoplacers such as the Witwatersrand goldfield, are inferred to have

formed under similar circumstances of tectonic setting as genetically
comparable Caenozoic placers such as those of Otago, New Zealand. The
means of preservation of such major basins is however poorly understood.
INTRODUCTION PAGE

PART 1 CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATIONS 2

1.1 DETRITAL HEAV Y MINERALS 2

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF HEAVY MINERALS IN ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS 2
1. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF PLACERS 6

PART 2 GENESIS OF ALLUVIAL PLACERS 9

2.1 EVOLUTION OF PLACERS 9

2.1 . 1 Weathering Processes 9
2.1.2 Chemical Weathering 10
2.1.3 Mechanical Weathering 13
2.1. 4 Examples 14

2.2 ·TECTONIC SETTINGS OF ALLUVIAL PLACERS 19

2.2.1 Examples 22

2.3 GEOMORPHIC SETTINGS OF ALLUVIAL PLACERS 30

2.3.1 Influence of Climate 30
2.3.2 Influence of Basin Dynamics 37
2.3.3 Influence of Bedrock Lithology 40

2.4 GRAIN-SCALE CONCENTRATING PROCESSES 43

2.4.1 Hydraulic Sorting 43
2.4.1.1 Settling Equivalence 43
2.4.1.2 Entrainment Equivalence 46
2.4 .1.3 Dispersive Equivalence 49
2.4 . 2 Interstice Entrapment 50
2.4.3 The Role of Flow Separati on 53

PART3 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGIC MODELS FOR EXPLORATION 60

3.1 TARGET SELECTION 62

3.2 LOCAL TARGET SELECTION 63

3.2.1 Classification of Rivers 63
3.2.2 The Alluvial Fan Prospecting Model 68
3.2.3 The Braided Stream Prospecting Model 71
3.2.4 The Meandering Stream Prospecting Model 76
 3.3 SAMPLE SITE SELECTION 79

3.4 EXPLORATION APPLICATIONS OF TRANSPORT TRENDS 81

3.4.1 Surface Textures 81
3.4.2 Population Ratios 84
3.4.3 Conclusions 85

CONCLUSIONS
87

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
90

REFERENCES
91
Fig. No. Title

l. The evolution of placer deposits. 9

2. Map of part of Belitung Island, Indonesia. 16

3. Map of the North St. Austell area. 18

4. Distribution of alluvial diamond placers. 20

5. Distribution of al l uvial gold placers. 21

6. Map of the Otago alluvial gold deposits. 23

7. Stratigraphy of the otago alluvial gold deposits. 24

8. Geological map of southern Ghana. 26

9. Cross-section of the Birim River valley near Akwatia. 27

10. Vertical section through the Birim River flood plain 27

deposits .

11. Morphogenetic regions of the world. 31

12. Latitudinal variation in the distribution of 36

morphogenetic regions during the last 100 Ma .

13. Diagrammatic cross-sections of an experimental channel 38

showing response to a lowering of base-level.

14. Geological map showing the alluvial diamond depos i ts 41

of the northern Cape and western Transvaal.

15. Hydraulic settling equivalence. 44

16. Settling velocities of some placer minerals. 44

17. Particle size curves for light and heavy minerals in 47

systems involving entrainment and settling equivalence.
18. Concentration of magnetite with varying friction velocity 48
and bed roughness.

19. Gold and uranium concentrations in crossbedded Witwatersrand 51

conglomerates and sandstones.

20. Size distributions of armour layer pores and ingressed 52

matrices of a gravel-bed stream.

21. Scales of flow separation in fluvial environments. 54

22. Concentration of magnetite around an isolated obstacle 55

clast recorded in flume experiments.

23. Vortex systems associated with flow separation around and 55

isolated object.

24. Bed elevation and magnetite isopleth maps at a channel 57

confluence .

25. Near-bed relative velocity vectors at a channel confluence. 58

26. Areas favourable to placer development in the last 100 Ma. 62

27. Principal river types. 64

28. Typical channel patterns and cross-sections in various 66

river types.

29. The relationship between bank-full discharge and channel 67

slope.

30. Heavy mineral enrichment at the system scale. 69

31. Alluvial fan prospecting model. 70

32 . Size distribution of heavy minerals in the Steyn 72
palaeoplacer of the Witwatersrand gold fields.

33. Verical profile models for braided stream deposits. 74

34. Meandering stream prospecting model. 77

35. Vertical profile model for a meandering stream deposit. 78

36. Field classifaction of heavy mineral trap sites 80

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title

I List of some important detrital heavy minerals. 3

II Classification of placer environments. 7

III Weathering equations and Gibbs free energy values. 11

IV Some observed sites of heavy mineral accumulation . 61

V Classification of river types. 65

VI The six principal facies assemblages of braided river 73

deposits.

VII Lithofacies and sedimentary structures of braided 75

stream deposits.
INTRODUCTION

Alluvial placers have historically been important sources of both

precious and industrially useful minerals. Much of the impetus given to
colonization of the North American western states and the Alaskan Pacific
coast came from riches promised by placer gold. Fossil alluvial gold
placers currently provide nearly half of the Republic of South Africa's
commodity export earn i ngs, whilst alluvial diamonds are important to
several central and west Afri can countries . Alluvial tin provides Malaysia
and Thailand with s i gn ificant export earnings .

The recent interest in alluvial placer exploration, and continued use of

heavy minerals as pathfinders, has spawned recent research into geomorphic
and grain-scale controls on heavy mineral distribution.

The deve lopment and di stri but i on of i::oncentrat ions of heavy mi nera 1sin
alluvial systems is the result of the interplay between a complex array of
processes. These range from the 1arge sca le contro 1s of plate tecton i cs,
down to grain-sca l e processes. An understanding of these pr ocesses is not
only fundamental to the exploration for, and evaluation of, alluvial placer
deposits, but a l soto the exploitat i on of heavy minerals in streams for
prospecting purposes.

After briefly reviewing their characteristics, significance and

classificat i on, the evolution and genetic processes involved in placer
deve lopment are rev i ewed from the 1arge to the sma 11 sea le. . The concepts
thus derived, are assembled into a number of exploration models designed to
be used as simple predict ive tools to direct the exploration geologist to
the most promising localities for heavy mineral accumulation in allu vi al
sediments, both modern and ancient .
 -2-

PART 1 CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

1 . 1 DETRITAL HEAVY MINERALS

The chemical and mechanical processes involved in the genesis of detrital

heavy minerals under weathering and transport conditions, restrict them to
a limited group that have the following properties:

i) they must be heavier than the associated silicate minerals .

The specific gravity (S.G.) of quartz (2.56 g/cm 3) is often taken
as the minimum value for heavy minerals. In general however, heavy
minerals have a S.G. greater than 3, whereas Iridium is the most
dense (21.1 g/cm 3);

ii) all detrital heavy minerals are resistant, to a greater or lesser

degree , to chemical weathering. Many are oxides and are therefore
stable in the secondary environment (see section 2.1.2);

iii) they must be physically durable to survive abrasive processes of

transport and concentration. Durability is a complex criterion
which is influenced by variables such as hardness, crystal system
(i.e. strength and orientation of crystalline bonds) and brittleness .
For example, some minerals are hard but have a strong cleavage and break
down mechanically quite readily (e.g. diopside). Most detrital heavy
minerals have a hardness greater than 5, and many are cubic, hence
displaying no preferred cleavage. Gold has a low hardness but is
malleable and survives transport quite well .

Table I lists some of the more important detrital heavy minerals, and
shows properties, common detrital shapes, and sources.

1. 2 SIGNIFICANCE OF HEAVY MINERALS IN ALLUVlAL SYSTEMS

The concentration of heavy minerals in streams may be of economic

importance for two reasons. Firstly, numerous economic placers occur
within fluvial sediments, and secondly, heavy minerals may act as
pathfinders to economic mineral occurrences of either primary or secondary
origin.
 ------ - - _ .-

MINERAL COMPOSITION
RELATIVE CRYSTAL
DENSITY HARDNESS SYSTEM
U"'""AL
SHAPE
NAIIVC CLH'CNTS
Gold Au 15.0-19.3 2.5-3 cubic round or flat graln', rods or flakes hypo.... meso- and epithermal veins
Platinum Pt 14.0-19,0 4-4.5 cubic angular grains and flakes mafites/ultramarrtes
Other P.G.M. Pd,Ir,Os 12.0-21.1 4.5-7 cubic angular grains mafiles/ultrarnafites
Diamond C 3.5 10 cubic mostly octahedra cratonic kimberllleJ\amproite
OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES
Magnetite Fe304 5.16 5.5-6.5 cubic octahedra · well-rounded equant grains mafic igneous rocks
Chromite FeCr204 4.3-4.6 5-6 cubic octahedra - well-rounded equant grains mafites/ultrarnafiles
Other Spinels XY204 3.6-4.6 7.5-4.6 cubic octahedra· well-rounded equant grains Ig. rocks and aluminous metasedts.
Cassiterite Sn02 6.8-7.1 6-7 Tetrag. prismatic xtals, angular - rounded grains S-type granites
Rutile 1102 4.18-4.25 S-S.7 Tetrag. prismatio xtals, angular - rounded grains plutonic Ig .• mel and sedl rocks
Ilmenite FeTi03 4.5-5 5-6 Hex. sub-rounded· rounded equant graln8 mafites/ultramafites
Leucoxene alteration after Urn. 3 .5-4.5 variable Amorphous rounded - angUlar Irregular coaled grains sedimentary rocks
Corundum AI203 3.95-4.15 9 Hex. ang.- rounded Irregular fragments syenite, leldsp.pegm81.melshale and 1st
Tanl- Columbite (Fe.Mn)(Nb,Ta)206 5.2-7.95 &6.5 ~rth. fracture fragments to sub-rounded grains granite pegmatite
Baddeleyite il02 5.5·6 6.5 Mono. rounded Mbeans" granitoids
Uraninite U02 8-10 5·6 cubic angular graIns granite pegmatite
Thorianite Th02 9.3 6.5 cubic angular grains granite pegmatite ,
Pyrochlore (NaCa)2(Nb.Ta)206(0.OH.F)
SILICATES, TUNGSTATESANO PHOSPHATES
4.2·6.4 5-5.5 cubic angular grains alkaline Deamatltes
,
W

Zircon ZrSi04 4.65-4.7 7.5 Tetrag. prisms acid - intermed . Igneous rocks
Garnet X3Y2{Si04) 3 3 .6·4.3 6.5-7.5 cubic rhombic dodecahedra or fractured to rounded malnly mel rocks. also some ultramafic rocks
Wolframite (Fe.Mn)W04 7-7.5 5-5.5 Mono. submetaJlic cleavage fragments S-type (and some I-type) granites
Kyanite AI2Si02 3.6-3.7 4·7 Tri prismatic to rounded stumpy grains reg. high-grade aluminous metasedts.
Tourmaline complex silicate 3-3 .2 7.5 Trig. rounded to angular fractures granites, grelsen and granite pegmatites
Monazite (Ce,la.Y,Th)P04 4.6·5.4 5-5.5 Mono. mainly ellipsoidal. rounded grnlns accessory of some granites and syenites
Xenolime YP04 4.59 4·5 Tetrag. equant to rectangular flakes accessory of some granites and syenites
Ap~ite Ca5-'f94}~{E, C1.0H) 3.17-3.23 5 Hax. mainlY' ellipsoidal. rounded grains accesso!y in most Igneous rocks

TABLE I. List of some important detrital heavy minerals found in alluvial

systems (sources: Macdonald, 1983 ; Dana, 1932 ; Battey, 1981).
 -4-

Boyle (1979) has estimated that gold produced from alluvial placers,
including palaeoplacers, accounts for two-thirds of the metal ever mined.
The most famous palaeoplacers (or "fossil" placers) are those of the
Witwatersrand in South Afri ca, but numerous other examp les exi st. The
Tarkwa goldfield in Ghana is considered by many workers to be of alluvial
origin, and is hosted in a clast i c sequence of Precambrian age ( Boyle,
1979). The auriferous-uraniferous conglomerates of Jacobina, (Brazil) are
also of Precambrian age, and share many similarities to the Witwatersrand
deposits (Andrade Romas and Fraenkel, 1974). Carboniferous conglomerates
of the Gays River area in Nova Scot i a conta i n go ld in the form of nuggets
and flakes. The source of this gold appears to be auriferous quartz veins
in rocks outcropping in the vicinity (Boyle, 1979).

Recent gold placers include those of the Pilgrim's Rest area in the
Transvaal, which are currently undergoing evaluation for potential dredge-
mining by Gold Fields of South Africa (Bentley, pers. camm.) .

Up to 20% of the world's supply of diamonds comes from alluvial deposits in

countri es such as Za i re, Braz i 1, Ango 1a, the Centra 1 Afri can Repub 1i c,
Venezuala and Ghana (Lynn, 1991). About 1% of South Africa's production is
from alluvial sources (Axsel, 1988), although historically, this figure was
much higher.

In general, tin placer deposits are more productive and more economic to
mine than lode deposits. Cassiterite, from which most tin is smelted, is
conta ined in placer concentrates, wh i ch a 1so yi e 1d va 1uab le amounts of
ni ob i um, tantalum, and rare-earth minerals. The main source of tin is the
Southeast Asian tin belt, extending more than 2400 km from northern Burma,
through western Tha i 1and and Ma 1ay,s i a to Bill i ton Is land (I ndones i a) , The
high concentration of cassiterite-bearing granites coupled with deep and
rap i d chemi ca 1 weatheri ng has re leased large quant ites of primary
cassiterite from lode sources to produce eluvial, alluvial and marine
placers (Hails, 1976).

Stream samp 1i ng of heavy mi nera 1sis of importance in exp lorat i on for a

 -5-

wi de range of commod it i es . In diamond exploration, stream sampling of

kimberlitic and lamproitic indicator minerals such as garnet, has been used
to locate numerous diamondiferous intrusives . These include the Premier
pi pe in South Africa (Wagner, 1914), the Ellendale and Argyle lamproites in
Western Australia (Atkinson et al., 1984), and the Mir and Udachnaya
kimberlite pipes in the U.S.S.R. (Sobolev, 1980).

Heavy mineral stream surveys are also used in exploration for immobile
elements such as Au (e.g., Tooms, 1987), Sn (e.g., Sirinawan et a1., 1987),
W (e. g., Petersen and Stenda 1, 1987), U (e. g., Fri ck, 1987) and Ta-Nb
(e.g . , Watts et al., 1963). In arid environments mechanical dispersion of
elements dominates (section 2.1.3) and, heavy mineral concentrates of the
coarser fractions may produce anomalies. A classic example is the
dispersion of Pb and ln around the Gamsberg orebody in Bushmanland , South
Africa. Pb is dispersed in streams largely as grains of ang1esite (PbS04)
derived from · gossanous outcrop. ln occurs both as secondary minerals
derived by oxidation of the primary sphalerite, and as the spinel gahnite
(lnA 1204) , a product of amph i bo 1i te-fac ies metamorph i sm of the orebody
(McLaurin, 1978 ; J.M . Moore, pers. comm.).

In a regi ona 1 exp 1orat ion programme for ti n (cass iteri te) and tungsten
(wolframite, schee1ite) carried out in a Hercynian granite, migmatite and
schist terrain in northwestern Spain, Zantop and Nespereira (1978) reported
on the fa i1 ure of geochemi ca 1 stream sed iment samp 1i ng techn i ques. At a
density of 2 - 4 samples per square km, orientation samples in the vicinity
of known mineralizations failed to produce anomalies. However an efficient
method of detecting anomalies was found to be that of panning of stream
sediments, to obtain a heavy mineral concentrate . Visual determination of
the heavy mi nera 1s was performed by a techn i ci an at a rate of 10 to 15
minutes per sample. This method was found to have the following advantages
over geochemical methods:

i) a much lower sampling density is sufficient to obtain meaningful

results;

ii) the problem of single sample anomalies is largely eliminated

 -6-

iii) results are available almost immediately and can be used to

guide the ongoing exploration programme; and

iv) the content of economically exploitable minerals is determined,

not the percentage of metal, which could be present in the lattice
of non-economic minerals.

1. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF PLACERS

In this review, the term placer refers to a surficial heavy mineral deposit
formed by mechan i ca 1 concentrat i on of mi nera 1 part i c les from weathered
debris.

Numerous class ifi cat ions of placer depos its have been proposed, usua lly
using such criteria as their major ore minerals qualified in some instances
by environmental descriptors. Examples might be as follows; alluvial gold
placers, heavy mi nera 1 beach placers etc. Such class ifi cat ions are of
little predictive use. Vlasov (1968) and Kartashov (1971) developed a
concept of classification in which the first order criterion is distance
from source. Hence, placers may be grouped as near source, all uv i a 1 or
marine. More simply they may be grouped as "autochthonous" (i.e. proximal
to source) or "allochthonous" (i .e. distal). This system is an
improvement, particularly in combination with the system of Emery and
Noakes (1968) who divided placer minerals into "heavy" heavy minerals
(gold, tin, platinum), "light" heavy minerals (ilmenite, rutile, zircon
and monazite) and diamonds (the extreme durability and value of which sets
them apart). The i r concept imp 1i ed that the heav iest mi nera 1s wou 1d
produce more proximal (or "autochthonous") placers. However, the fact that
the "light" heavy minerals are most commonly mined in beach environments is
more probably a function of the greater tonnages required for these
relatively low value commodities, than the fact that they are absent in
more proximal settings.

Macdonald (1983) attempted to present a scheme which is suited to

exploration and mining. However, this classification (Table II) is (with
all respect) clearly written by a mining engineer, not a geologist, and
 -7-

The placer environments

Environment Sub Main products Environmental Exploration Mining methods

environment process elements techniques

Continental Eluvial Au, Pt, Sn, WO, Ta, Percolating waters. Soil sampling, shal· Open cast, hydraulic
Nb, gem stones (all chemical and biologi- low pitting, churn sluicing, hand mining
varieties) cal reactions, heat, drilling
wind and rain
Colluvial Au, Pt, Sn, WO, Ta, Surface creep. wind, Stream and soil sam- Hydraulic sluicing
Nb, gem stones (all rainwash, elutriation. pIing. shallow pitting bulldozer and
varieties) Frost and trenching loader-hand mining
Fluvial Au, Pt, Sn, rarely Ta, Flowing streams of Stream sampling, Bucket dredging in
Nb. diamonds and water geophysics, pitting, active beds, bucket
corundums churn auger and pit- dredging, hydraulic
digging drills, sluicing and dozer-
Banka Drills loader operations in
old stream beds
Desert Au, Pt, Sn, WO, Ta, Wind with minor Shallow pitting, Various earth~moving
Nb, gem stones (all stream flow_ Heat and chum and pit digging combinations
varieties) frost drills, geophysics
Glacial Au (rarely) Moving streams of Stream sampling and Hydraulic sluicing
ice and melt waters pitting

Transitional Strandline Ti, Zr, Fe, ReO, Au, Waves, currents, Hand augering and Suction cutter dredg-
Pt, Sn wind, tides sludging, sample ing, bulldozer and
splitting allowable loaders, bucket~wheel
dredging
Coastal Ti, Zr, Fe, ReO Wind and rain splash Power augers Suction cutter dredg·
Aeolean (hollow), sample split. ing, buldozers and
ting allowable buried loaders
Deltaic Ti, Zr, Fe, ReO Waves , currents, Hand augering and Specially designed
wind, tides and chan· sludging, sample shallow depth dred·
nel flow . splitting allowable ges having great
mobility

Marine Drowned Au, Pt, Sn, diamonds, Eustatic, isostatic Geophysics (seismic Bucket line dredging,
placers minor Ti , Zr, Fe, ReO and tectonic refraction and reflec- jetting, clamshell,
industrial sand and movements-net rise tion) bottom sam- rarely suction-cutter
gravel in sea level pIing, remote sensing, dredging
hammer, jet, vibro
and bank. drills,
positioning

TABLE II. Classification of placer environments (after Macdonald, 1983) .

 -8-

1acks important deta i 1s of env ironment and genet i c process requ ired by a
scheme which can truly be used as an exploration tool.

A scheme which is of use to an explorationist should encompass aspects of

environment or where the deposits may be located . Secondly, it should
recognise the criteria of processes involved in the genesis of the
different types of placer, i.e. how the deposits were formed. Because
this assemblage of factors of environment and process is complex, no such
classifications have yet been published .

The concepts of where and how are centra 1 to the theme of th is rev i ew. The
next sect i on deals with the genesis of alluvial placers.
 PART2 GENESIS OF ALLUVIAL PLACERS

2. 1 EVOLUTION OF PLACER DEPOSITS

Accumulations of heavy minerals may occur at many stages of the sedimentary

cycle, producing residual, eluvial, alluvial and beach placers. Figure 1
is a diagrammatic representation of this evolution indicating some general
features of placer sed iments. Wh i1 st the ma i n regi on of interest covered
in this review is the alluvial environment, it is pertinent to outline the
processes which resultin the liberation of detrital heavy minerals into
this environment. A brief review of weathering processes is given,
followed by examples of cassiterite placer evolution involving chemical,
and then mechanical weathering ptocesses.

Proximal Distal

Eluvial Colluvial ALLUVIAL Beach . Marine

j I
(Aeolian)
.------~==~

l'j
/

Characteristics of Heavy Minerals and Host Sediments

Chemical Maturity
..
Textural Maturity
..
Grain Size

Sorting
..
FIG. 1. The evolution of placer deposits.

2. 1 . 1 Weathering Processes

The weathering processes responsible for the breakdown of primary rocks can
be subdivided into: i) chemical weathering; and ii) mechanical
 -10-

weathering. Whi 1st chemica 1 weathering appears to be the more important

process in intra-continental areas, placers may also be formed from heavy
minerals liberated by predominantly mechanical means particularly i n
orogenic areas. The following review is taken from Levinson (1974).

2.1 .2 Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering may be defined as the chemical reactions between rocks

and minerals, and the constituents of air and water at or near the Earth's
surface. In this environment, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water are
abundant, and the temperatures and pressures are low. Many minerals are
unstab le in the secondary environment and consequent ly chemi ca 1 changes
take place during weathering in an attempt to reach equilibrium. The order
of resistance to chemical weathering of rock-forming minerals is generally:

oxides> silicates> carbonates> sulphides.

All chemical reactions related to chemical weathering involve four

relatively simple processes : ionization ; addition of water and carbon
dioxide; hydrolysis ; and oxidation .

The products of chemical weathering are threefold :

i) soluble constituents (important for geochemical stream sample

prospecting) ;

ii) insoluble minerals (producing residual geochemical soil anomalies)

and

iii) residual primary minerals (including detrital heavy minerals).

Residual primary minerals are often encountered in the zone of weathering

because they are not affected by the chemical reactions around them. They
include native elements, oxides, some silicates and a few examples of other
chemical types such as phosphates (e.g. monazite).

Curtis (1976) used a thermodynamic approach to explain the stabilities of

 -11-

different mi nera 1s in the weathering env ironment. The likelihood of a

part i cu 1ar react ion occurri ng in preference to another react ion may be
predicted by reference to the change in free energy of the r·eactions. The
standard free energy change of a reaction is the sum of free energies of
formati on (Gf) of a 11 the react i on products mi nus the sum of the free
energies of the reactants. When calculated free energy changes are
negat ive, react ions wi 11 proceed spontaneous ly. The greater the negat ive
value of the change in free energy, the greater the tendency to react.

I. FelSiO, + tOl - FCzO] + SiOl ,

2. Mg1SiO, + 4H-t - 2Mgl+ + 2HP + SiO l
3. MgSiO, + 2H+ Mgl+ + H20 + SiOl
-0.

4. CaMg(SiOJh + 4H+ - Mgz+- + Ca l + + 2H 1 0 + 25i0 1

5. Mg1SitOn(OH)z + 14H" - 7Mgl+ + 8H 10 + 8Si0 2
6. Ca!Mg,Si wOn (OH)l + 14H+ - 5Mgl+ + 2ea l + + 8H 1 0 + aSiO]
7. CaAI1Sj~OI + 2H+ + H 2 0 - AI1Si10, + Cal+-
8. 2NaAlSi J0 1 + 2H+ + H 20 - AI1Si10,(OH), + 45i0 1 ..... 2Na+
9. 2KAISi J O. + 2H+ + H 2 0 - Al~ilO,(OH)4 + 45i0 1 + 2K+-
10. 2KA1,Si,O,o(OHh + 2H+ + 3H 10 - 2K-fo + 3AJ 1Si 10,(OH).

(b) Gibbs free energy values for weathering reactions 1-10 in Table I.3a (after Curtis
19761.

Mineral 6Dj kcal mol-' 6Gj kcal g Q/orn - '

I. olivine (fayaJitc) -52.7 -6.58
2. olivine (forsterite) -44.0 -I.DO
J. pyroxene (clinoenstatite) -20.9 -2.98
4. pyroxene (diopside) -38.1 -2.72
5. amphibole (anthophyllite) -137.2 -2.49
n. amphibole (IrcmoJite) -123.2 -2.24
7. Ca· feldspar (anorthite) -23.9 -1.32
~. Na· rcJdspar (albite) -23.1 -0.75
O. K ·reldspar (mil.:rocline) -17.3 -0.32
10. mica (muscovite) -17.3 -D.32

TABLE III. a) Weathering equations written with rock-forming silicate

minerals as reactants with aqueous phases (after Curtis,
1976).

b) Gibbs free energy values for weathering reactions 1 . 10 in

Table lIla (after Curtis, 1976).

In order to assess stability, specific equations can be written with

primary igneous and metamorphic minerals as reactants (Table IlIa).
Experimental data on standard free energies of formation for both potential
reactants and products are then assembled and the calculated free energy
 -12-

changes tabulated (Table IIIb). An example of such a calculation would be

(for anorthite weathering to kaolinite):

Thus:

= (-904 + -132.2) - (-955.6 + 0 + -56.7)

o
6 Gf = -1036.2 + 1012.3

= -23.9 kcal mol- 1

This result states that anorthite wi 11 spontaneously react with hydrogen

ions in aqueous solutions to form the clay mineral kaolinite and calcium
ions. Tab le IIIa 1 i sts the resu lts obta i ned by th i s procedure for ten
other primary silicates. Note that for the comparison of the free energy
values between different reaction equations, the results in kcal mol- 1 must
be changed to kcal gram atom values. This is done by dividing by the
number of product atoms for each reaction.

The final results (Table IlIa) show a good correspondence to the

stabilities of minerals found in nature, and the order of stabilities is
the reverse of Bowen's reaction seri es for mi nera 1 crysta 11 i sat i on from
silicate melts. This suggests that, muscovite and K-feldspar as well as
quartz shou ld domi nate the clastic mi nera 1 components deri ved by eros i on
from igneous and metamorphic rocks. These should const.itute the major
mi nera logi c "background" with wh i ch detr i ta 1 heavy mi nera 1s "compete" for
transport and concentration. However, there are also important new
minerals produced by weathering, including clay minerals.
 -13-

The hydrolysis and oxidation weathering reactions usually lead to the

liberation of the alkali- and alk al i-earth elements (Ca, K, Na and Mg) in
solution as hydrated ions, with silica and aluminium silicates as by-
products. These clay minerals are volumetrically a significant product of
weathering in humi d regi ons, and because they are transported in
suspens i on, do not dilute the coarser bedload fractions which tend to host
the heavy minerals. Hence, in climatic regions dominated by chemical
weathering the generation of coarse sediment is limited.

2.1 . 3 Mechanical Weathering

In nature, four important physical processes lead to the fragmentation of

rocks: frost wedging expansion resulting from unloading ;thermal
expansion; and organic activity. In general, these processes are far less
efficient in liberating detrital minerals from their host rock than
chemical weathering processes. However, they increase the surface area of
the rocks, thus making them more susceptible to chemical attack.

Frost wedging involves the alternate freezing and thawing of water which
has penetrated into cracks in rocks. Water has the un i que property of
expanding by about 9 per cent as it freezes, thus exerting an outward
force, and increasing the dimensions of the cracks. This process is most
common in periglacial environments in sub-arctic and mountainous regions.

Un load ing produces exfo 1i at i on domes caused by the different i a 1 reduct ion
in pressure as overlying rock is stripped away. It is particularly well-
developed on granites.

Thermal expansion involves the daily cycle of temperature changes, which in

ari d regi ons may exceed 300C. Repeated heat i ng and coo 1i ng of rocks
composed of mi nera 1s wi th different coeffi c ients of therma 1 expans i on is
generally believed to result in the rocks disintergration. This process
may explain the dominance of mechanical dispersal of elements in arid
regions.

Organic activity involves the exploitation of weaknesses in rocks by plants

(especially roots) and burrowing animals.
 -14-

2. 1 • 4 Examples

Placer Evolution By Chemical Weathering

An Example From Indonesia

The stann iferous placers of the Tujuh arch i pe 1ago, Indones i a, have been
described by Aleva (1986). 95% of the mineable cassiterite in this
province lies on the source bedrock indicating that minimal transport has
occurred. The generati on of these placers has been the resu 1t of the
interaction of four factors:

i) the presence of primary source rock

ii) the liberation of cassiterite without excessive comminution of the

cassiterite grains ;

iii) the mechanical concentration of the now detrital grains and

iv) the protection of the placers against mechanical erosion.

The primary source rocks are granitoids intruding Permian clastic

sediments. Mineralization occurs as veins, greisen masses and pegmatites
in the country rocks above granite cupo 1as, and as d i ssemi nati ons in the
roof zones of the granites.

The liberation of the brittle cassiterite from its encasing minerals in the
host rock, has been efficiently effected by deep tropical weathering, which
alters most sil icates to kao l inite . An example of this reaction is as
follows:

orthoclase + water kaolinite + quartz + alkalic hydroxide

2KAL5i30S + 3H20 A125i20S(OH)4 + 45i02 + 2KOH.

 -15-

Alkalies and earth alkalies are removed by leaching, leaving quartz and
cassiterite as residual primary minerals. Granitic rocks are thus altered
to a sapro 1 ite of p 1ast i c to tough clayey cons i stency composed of quartz
(and cassiterite) grains in kaolin, with many relict igneous textures
ret a i ned. Th i s sapro 1ite may reach tens of metres in thi ckness and is
covered by a residual sandy layer. The sedimentary rocks develop a thinner
sapro 1ite of on ly a few metres because their const ituent mi nera 1s are
already largely in equilibrium with near-surface conditions.

Weathering is greatly promoted by the hot and humid climate which is

considered to have been prevalent throughout the Caenozoic (Frakes, 1979).
Periods of semi-arid morphogenesis have therefore been absent, reducing the
potential for transport by rapid flood events.

The concentration of cassiterite into placers has produced three types of

depos its:

i) residual eluvial concentrations or, Kulit (Indonesian for "skin"),

placers on interfluves and valley-side slopes:

ii) proximal fluvial lags, or Kaksa (Chinese for "coarse sand"),

placers lying directly on weathered bedrock in main drainage
channe 1s ; and

iii) transported alluvial concentrations or Miencan (Chinese for "cover-

layer") placers comprising cassiterite-rich layers interbedded with
alluvial sediments (less than 10% of the mineable cassiterite in
Indonesia) .

Figure 2 is a map of the Belitung area of Indonesia showing the identified

cassiterite deposits up to the late 1950' s. Both the eluvial Kulit and
proximal fluvial Ku~a can be seen (the former on the interfluves, and the
latter in the valleys). The fluvial lags are largely considered to be
fluvially reworked colluvium derived from the interfluves . . The mechanism
of transport of these e 1uviated depos i ts, from the interfl uves to the
valleys, involves the shrinkage (or slow-motion collapse) of a thick (up to
40m) mantle of weathered bedrock, resulting from humid tropical saprolitic
 -16-

FIG. 2. Map of the central eastern part of Belitnng Island, Indonesia

(Lenggang district), showing the present drainage channel (thin
lines) and topographic culminations (asterisks), the contact
(heavy broken line) of smaIl granite masses, and the identified
cassiterite deposits (black) as of the late 1950's (after AJeva,
1985).

weathering. Gravity movement (colluviation or tropical solifluction) of

this mantle occurs continuously toward the nearest topographical low, i.e.
the fluvial valley.

The protection of unconsolidated placers is required to prevent destruction

by erosional activity . Such protection has been afforded by rises in sea-
level, which have effectively prevented rejuvenation of the fluvial
systems, and continued trop i ca 1 climates wh i ch have promoted genera lly
sluggish fluvial activity (Aleva, 1983). Rejuvenation of drainage systems
brought about by sea-level falls, tectonic uplift events, or periods of
semi-arid morphogenesis might erode these placers to form more distal
alluvial cassiterite deposits such as those in western Malaysia.
 -17-

Placer Evolution By Mechanical Weathering - An Example From Cornwall ,

England.

The tin province of south-western England is associated with a granitoid

i ntrus i on of Permo-Carbon iferous age . On ly the top, doma 1 parts of the
batholith are exposed within Devonian and Carboniferous metasediments. The
major styles of primary tin mineralization are stockworks, sheeted veins,
hydrothermal breccias and replacements, which are generally associated with
the apices of domes and cusps in the intrusion. Their mineralogy is
simple, comprising cassiterite in a silicate gangue of quartz and
tourmaline.

Camm and Hosking (1985) described the evolution of stanniferous placers in

the St.Auste 11 area, and concluded that processes of physica 1 weathering
were responsible for the liberation of cassiterite from the primary
sources.

During the Quaternary, ice sheets periodically encroached from the north
to produce a periglacial environment in the region . Wet phases dominated
the i ntergl aci a 1 stages, and the 1ast co 1d phase termi nated about 10 000
years BP with amelioration of the climate. The ground preparation for
placer development in a cryergic system depends largely upon frost wedging,
and on disintegration during rapid and marked variations in temperature of
material composed of several mineral species with different coefficients of
thermal expansion. This process builds up a layer of unconsolidated debris
known locally as "head", which moves downslope by processes of mass
wasting, most notably solifluction.

In the interglacial stages, fluvial activity reworked the solifluction

debris, transporting and sorting the heavy mineral components.

At Criggan Moor, (Figure 3) the cassiterite fraction of the alluvial

deposit is mainly angular and appears to have been derived entirely from
 -18-

the products of solifluction. Many grains are still attached to silicate

gangue, implying minimal reworking.

LEGEND
1,,"'1 PLACER DEPOSITS 135m CONTOUR .: ••••••••• 230m (ONTUJR

* STOO\WORKS ETC. 160m CONTOUR

.
2 3 4km
~ LAND ABOVE 270m

* c

FIG. 3. Map of the North St. Austell area showing disposition of stockwork,
sheeted vein and replacement deposits, and of placer deposits (after
Carnm and Hosking, 1985).
2.2 TECTONIC SETIINGS OF ALLUVIAL PLACERS

Whilst it can be convincingly argued that placer deposits do not, strictly

speaking, have tectonic settings, the minerals which comprise placers are
usually specific to particular settings, and this must affect the
distribution of particular mineralogical types of placer.

For example, the primary source rocks of diamonds are kimberlites and
certain lamproites, and diamondiferous examples of these igneous intrusions
have a strong geographical association with cratonic areas (Dawson, 1980).
In some regions such as Ghana and Brazi 1, economic concentrations of
alluvial diamonds have been derived from metamorphosed Precambrian
sediments, and, although the primary sources of these diamonds have never
been estab 1i shed, thei r occurrence adds to the associ at i on of diamond
mineralization with shield areas. The distribution of significant diamond
placers is shown in Figure 4. There is a clear correspondence with
cratonic areas.

Primary hydrotherma 1 go 1d, on the other hand, is genera lly re 1ated, to 1-

type, magnetite series granitoids generated in subduction-related magmatic
arcs. This association appears throughout geologic time from the Archean
(e.g. in the Barberton greenstone belt of South Africa) to the Tertiary
(e.g. Marte in the southern Andean cordillera of Chile) (Mason, 1991; J.J.
Latorre, pers.comm.). Figure 5 shows the distribution of primary gold ores
of Precambrian, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic-Caenozoic age, and of placer
deposits derived from these sources.

The difference in tectonic settings of primary gold and diamond deposits

carries significance in terms of the genetic models for gold and diamond
placers. Tectonic uplift in regions of plate collision exerts the dominant
control on the genesis of the major gold placers (the giant gold placers of
Henley and Adams, 1979) . In intra-continental settings, climate plays a
more important ro l e than tectonic upliftand the genesis of diamond placers
reflects th i s (see examp le be 1ow) . Cass iterite placers, although
associated with major collision sutures, are associated with late-orogenic
S-type granites which undergo relatively little uplift and erosion during
the orogenic cycle . Climate is also therefore important in the genesis of
cassiterite placers .

It can be concluded that the tectonic setting of the primary source,

influences the distribution of the secondary placer.
 -20-

Q.,
II
6~~~
'" "-

~" }
"·E " '20 'GO

• • <>.::

,
I

-I
U-II

I
~

,,·s o (}'i"J
DIU4GlfD -nA[£ l
IGO
'" " ~D · w 11 lO·[
" '"
FIG. 4. a) Primary source rocks of diamond. Diagonal lines represent
Precambrian shield areas and solid black shows areas of outcrop
of kimberlite and lamproite.

b) Distribution of significant diamond placer deposits (after

Sutherland, 1985).
 '.
~

,~."Y:
., ~
{}(I~

CJ » o
-W. )
PUCQmbfian PalaeOloic

I
.....
N
I

MrsOlOic and CrnOlo i( Plac rr ,

FIG, 5. Distribution of primary gold ores of Precambrian, Palaeozoic and

Mesozoic - Cenozoic age, and of placers derived from these sources
(after Sutherland, 1985).
 "
Tasmon 54'Q

'i-,Q'"

~
.,<, N Toromakau
.,0v'''
t Ross Flat

t~ w
I
Clutno -Kawe rou Ri ... er

j( Lod. mining fi~lds

. Approximoh' limit at o 50 100 km

r .... ·/ olluvial gold deposits ! 1 !

- Fault

r:':~':'::" 1 Lot. Cr~tac .. ous- T~rliory

::....,':: grQ ... ~1 s .. qu~nc .. s r::::l Location of principal
Limit of dredge
op.ralions
L.J gold-producing districts
Oel-an

Blu. Spur Ver t~rburn

Woipori

FIG. 6. Auriferous sedimentary basins on tbe Clutha-Kaweru River system in

Otago, South Island, New Zealand (after Henley and Adams, 1979).
 -24-

Otago

(USIOhl;
t
$otO~ ct"<r>qei

~-=""T
14 00Cl.., \&111ft

_A>_ ,..,__
z
g
Blue 5(lur
F~l'!Jr~

MesaZ!)c SChlSlS and

gold qJOrlZ lodes

~ Paths of detrital gold through sequence

FIG. 7. Stratigraphy and principal tectonic events in the evolution of

auriferous gravels of Otago (after Henley and Adams, 1979).

Renewed uplift to form the present day Alpine Mountains induced reworking
of the Blue Spur fanglomerates into the Otago basins which had formed on
the flanks of the rising mountain chain. Sedimentary reworking in these
basins occurred in response to base-level changes due primarily, to
episodic regional uplift, as well as eustatic sea-level fluctuations.
Adams et al. (1978 ; see also section 2.3.2) suggested that the complex
response to a single uplift would produce the multifold· reworking of
channel alluvium that is required for placer formation. Although such
rejuvenat ion may destroy ex i st i ng placers, it creates a su i tab 1e
environment for the formation of new ones. The broad distribution of gold
through the stratigraphic column (Figure 7), therefore records the
sequence of base- 1eve 1 changes and sed iment-supp ly changes that occurred
during the period of episodic uplift.
 -25-

Hence, tectonic uplift was the primary controlling factor in the genesis of
the Otago alluvial gold deposits. This conclusion may be extended to other
major alluvial gold deposits, including those of the Witwatersrand, in
which the gold is associated with angular unconformities· (Els, 1991).
Although the Witwatersrand Basin is now part of the Kaapvaal Craton, it is
likely to have developed as a foreland basin in a collision setting
(Stanistreet and McCarthy, 1991).

The Birim Alluvial Diamond Placer, Ghana

A study of the late Quaternary alluvial diamond placer on the Bir im River
in Ghana by Hall et al. (1985) assessed the contributions of both
morphogenic and grain-scale concentrating processes in the deposit's
formation. Quaternary climatic changes are cons i dered to have been
significant in governing the development of many West African diamond
placers. The Birim deposit is the downstream continuation of more proximal
alluvial and colluvial placers of the Akwatia diamond field.

Geology

The Birim dra i nage basin is underlain by Proterozoic metasediments

comprising steeply dipping breccias and greywackes which have been
identified as the source of the diamonds in the region. Weathering extends
to a depth of some 30m and unweathered outcrops are confined to the
channels of the Bir im River and its major tributaries. Weathering of the
metasediments produces a silty-clay saprolite (95% finer than 0.5 mm) and
it releases gravel-sized clasts only from quartz veins, delivering a
strongly bimodal sediment supply to the river. Figure 8 is a geological
map of the region.

Geomorpho logy

The Birim River floodplain lies in a wide shallow valley, 30-40 m below
broad interfluves which rise to between 155 to 180 m above s'ea level. The
interfluves are capped by a thin laterite which is regarded as the remnant
of a Tertiary planation surface. The Birim floodplain displays alternating
broad and restricted reaches from 200 to 1500 min wi dth. The bedrock
 -26-

• KUMASI

0;..,~_ _ _ _ _ _ ::.;3,O ml

o 5'0 km

UPPE

t2l TERT I AR Y o UP P E R 8 1R R IMI A N

D.
, SEKOND I AN &
ACCRAIAN
o L OWER 8 1RRIM IA N

EZJ OAHOMEYAN
o VO LTA . AN
BA SIC
.~ TOGO SE AlES I NT RUSIV E S

CJ TAR KW A' AN o GRAN I TE

FIG. 8. Geological map of southern Ghana, showing the location of the Birim
catchment (broken line). All rocks except intrusives and Tertiary
deposits are of Proterozoic age (after Hall et al., 1985).

surface beneath the alluvium varies f r om planar to highly irregular with

discontinuous channels and r i sers giv i ng a loca l bedrock topography of up
to 9 m. A schematic cross-section i s shown in Figure 9.

The river f lows in a box-l ike channel on average 30 m wide and 7 m deep .
The ri ver bed compri ses coarse grave 1s, and it's banks, sandy and clayey
silts. The channe 1 pattern is i rregu 1ar ly meandering, but the abundant
bedload, and the lack of the typical characteristics of a meandering river
 -27-

Br..... r"DUI.'l'
lo .. tow f",.c.
9=::...:.':~~_"_. _ ____ ~1o~ flooOr>l:::':'"=-__ T~"a c. •. _ __"c-=c._"_ _____"'=.=-:c.:H~....::..:'~M~'~"~.~.___

'"
......\ Brown
...... r. llIY soil __ _ _ _ _~--;-,
: · -~--.....,aIRI IoI
n,

A
A
'"

FlG. 9. Schematic cross-section of the Birim River valley near Akwatia.

Bedrock levels A, B and C refer to locations of typical vertical
sections in Fig. 10 (after Hall et al., 1985).

o m
o
Sod
one1
,
Gtey bto.t molll.d
!lancIY clayey s~t OIly-brown lighlly
moW,d day .00's
•
StronOly moWed
ell.,.e.,. sand
Gre., blue mollled
cll yey .-0
Dark ore.,. sandy
claye.,. Silt wtlh
traIn

~f~~;E~~r~g'''h
••nd
Coane s..-cl and line sancl ""'th line
to mediuM ..,....., WIth Grey QUartz Sind II
..... 10 woooy trasn atw:I !tash
occasional pel)bles.
Abu>danl rlrMl tr.sn eo...,. Sind, line
,.n d PI<tC" ot wood ,,"Ivlll and limOef.

"
CII.t -sUOOQrtfld coa rs. Coar•• IVI"'e' w it h
grave' w"h Il"ly elay pebbles and cobbles
m.,,; • . PilN;. . 01 woo d ana Si nd m.trlx

" C.comoo:sed phyllite

o
" A 122 183m. 0 81

8
122 183ml

Red-b rown clayey

"It wltn ,nCIDlenl
,ron co ne,el lons

Dark grey dey ...... h

par llatly decotTlPOse d
leaves and 1.... ''.Is
Poorly sOried qraveWy
sand w"n pebble bands
Sand
FIli i -bedded oebbly
gravel w"n sand maltl~

Sand w,lh lO c: ," Irast! band

Fresh grey pnylhle

o
" '"
C
FlG. 10. Vertical sections in the Birim floodplain deposits. A, B and C
refer to bedrock levels shown in Fig. 9 (after Hall et aI., 1985).
 -28-

(meander loop cut-offs, point bar deposits etc.) indicates that the general
model of channel migration and floodplain development by lateral accretion
is not applicable .

Climatically, the region falls into the humid tropical morphogenic region
of Suther 1and (1985 ; sect ion 2.3.1), but radiocarbon dat ing of organi c
material, and stratigraphic corre lation, has produced the following
inferred sequence of environmenta 1 and f 1uv i a 1 cond iti ons in the Birim
Valley for the late Quaternary.

Pre· 21000 years BP.. Formation of the lower terraces (Figure 9) during
several humid to sub-humid climatic oscillations.

21000 - 13500 years BP.. A contraction of the dry climatic belts and a
return to humid pluvial conditions. Extensive erosion of pre-existing
sed iments and scouri ng of bedrock. Depos i t ion of bas a 1 grave 1 with high
proportions of cobbles and pebbles (Unit I in Figure 10) .

years BP.. Forested conditions.

105000 - 7000 Continued aggradation of
gravels and scouring of bedrock outside main channels (Unit II in Figure
10) .

7000 - 45000 years BP..Reduced peak discharges of the river, and limited
reworking of uppermost gravels.

4500 - 3000yearsBP. . Mid-Holocene arid phase . Minimal fluvial activity.

3000 - modem years I ncreas i ng discharges and local scouring of

BP..
channels to bedrock . Deposition of pebb ly sands on flanks of present
channels (Unit III i n figure 10).

The recognition of these palaeo-morphogenic regimes has considerable

significance for placer development, implying that gravel and diamond
transport, deposition and reworking may have been episodic.
 -29-

Diamond Distribution

Diamond distribution in the Birim Valley varies both vertically and

spatially at several scales. Only the gravels contain grades of economic
interest.

Within the gravels, grades increase downwards and, as with other alluvial
diamond placers, relatively high grades and larger stones are often found
close to bedrock. Higher grades may also occur well above bedrock and this
is ascribed to continued aggradation and multiple periods of reworking.
There is a strong correlation of higher grades with coarser gravels.
However, where the gravels are less than 1.Sm thick they are usually
barren.

·Spat i a lly, the grades decrease downstream from over 1. Scar. 1m 3 to 1ess
than O.S car. 1m 3 over the 32 km from locality 1 on Figure 8. Superimposed
upon this trend are major grade deviations reflecting local variations in
grave 1 1itho logy . Hi gher diamond grades are a 1so associ ated with points
where the floodplain widens to form a braided fan as described by Collinson
(1986) .

Diamond Sorting Mechanisms

The disparity in hydrau 1i c equ i va lence between the diamonds and grave 1s
suggests that the primary process of diamond concentration is interstice
entrapment (section 2.4.2). Penetration of diamonds into the gravels may
have been aided by shear-sorting (section 2.4.1.1) induced by high bed-
shear stresses.

The richest placers were probably formed between 10S00 and 7000 years BP.
as a result of increased precipitation following the prolonged "Ogolian"
dry phase and the deposition of the coarse basal gravels . This combination
of circumstances had the following effects:

i) high rates of slope erosion from hillslopes and older terraces

 -30-

ii) flushing of colluvial deposits which had accumulated in small

tri butary va 11 eys during the "Ogo 1ian" dry phase

iii) erosion of pre-Ogolian channel deposits

iv) channel scour forming irregular bedrock morphology; and

v) formation and frequent partial reworking of coarse channel gravels

leading to diamond concentration by interstice entrapment and shear -
sorting.

Hence the domi nant factor contro 11 i ng the geomorph i c evo 1ut i on of th i s
cratonic tectonic region was climatic.

2.3 GEOMORPHIC SETIINGS OF ALLUVIAL PLACERS

Placer mi nera 1 concentrat ions are the product of part icu lar interact ions
between three distinct sets of variab les: the nature of the bedrock ;
basin dynamics ; and external processes acting at surface which are mainly
controlled by climate. Since geomorphology is the product of the same set
of variables, it follows that a geomorphological approach is essential to
an understanding of placer deposits at all scales . The global distr i bution
of placer deposits is largely a product of variation, both at present and
in the recent geological past, in geomorphological processes, acting at the
Earth's surface, given that suitable primary minera l sources exist.

2 •3 •1 Influence Of Climate

Climate controls factors such as weathering, rate of erosion, nature of

sediment supply and opportunities for sediment reworking . Sutherland
(1985) recognises five broad morphogenetic regions wh i ch are identified on
the basis of distinctive combinations of geomorphological (mainly climatic)
processes responsible for placer formation. These are:

1) gl aci a l (ice sheet an d mounta i n) ;

2) cold non-glacial;
 -31-

3) humid temperate ;

4) arid and semi-arid and

5) humid tropical.

Figure 11 shows the modern distribution of these morphogenetic regions.

!;Sl J.

~ J'
b:)l
[]Jl
bd'
!Ell

flG. 11. Morphogenetic regions of the world: la, glacial regions effected
by ice-sheets' 1b, glacial regions in mountainous areas; 2, cold
non-glacial regions; 3, humid temperate regious ; 4, semi-arid and
arid regions; 5, humid tropical regions (after Sutherland, 1985).

1) Glacial Regions

These are the areas presently glacierized as well as those areas that were
extensively glaciated during the Quaternary . A subdivision is indicated
between areas of ice-sheet glaciation and mountain glaciation, the latter
being restricted by topographic control.

It is a frequently held tenet that glaciation is unfavourable to the

 -32-

deve lopment of placers because g lac i a 1 processes tend to disperse rather

than concentrate minerals. Sutherland (op.cit.) quoted studies which
documented lower-grade placers within glacial limits than outside them,
(e.g . in placers of the Urals). Several examples of economic gold placers
do however exist within formerly glaciated areas. Their existence may be
explained in terms of three relevant points.

Firstly, glacial or fluvioglacial sediments are deposited rapidly with

little sorting and, typically, are disposed in such a manner with respect
to the establ ished drainage pattern that there is 1ittle opportunity for
reworking. Heavy mineral reconcentration is therefore minimal. As a
consequence, only highly valuable commodities such as gold may be found to
be economic in such deposits (e.g., the auriferous "bench" placers near
Nome, Alaska; Cobb, 1973), or alternatively, very proximal deposits of less
valuable commodities (e.g., the cassiterite-bearing "morainic debris" in
Bolivia ;Breeding, 1968).Secondly, although extensive erosion is
characteristic of ice sheets, on the ice sheet margins the cover of ice and
glacial sediments may be more protective than erosive, and pre-existing
placers may be preserved. Examples of this are cited in Boyle (1979) and
include the Chaudiere River area of Quebec, and the Caribou of British
Columbia.

Thirdly, glaciers can disperse heavy minerals with little size sorting over
considerable distances to give rise to large volumes of very low grade
sediment. This protore may be reworked by post-glacial rivers into
economically valuable placers. The extensive gold placers along the North
Saskatchewan River in Canada are an example. Other possible examples are
some of the alluvia l diamond deposits of South Africa. Harger (1909) was
the first to suggest that at least some of the Vaal Rivet diamonds are
derived from pre-Karoo Kimberlites via Permo-Carboniferous Dwyka
"conglomerates". This hypothesis is based on the fact the diamond-bearing
gravels generally occur in areas where Ventersdorp andesites are associated
with the overlying Dwyka diamictite, and the premise that the diamonds have
been reworked from low-grade concentrations in the diamictite, into higher
grade gravels, by processes of heavy mineral concentration. This
suggestion is supported by the fact that the Dwyka diamictite is locally
diamondiferous (e.g., at Bosluispan in Bushmansland) . Although the Vaal
 -33-

River is not strictly a post-glacial drainage, it does exploit Dwyka-age

valleys (Visser and Loock, 1988).

Despite these examples, it is concluded that placer deposits in formerly

glaciated terrain are relatively uncommon.

2) Cold non-glacial regions

These areas lie beyond the Quaternary ice sheets, but are characterised by
the presence of permafrost. The greatest extent of these regions lies in
Siberia, Alaska and Canada.

A thin active soil layer with limited vegetation cover and seasonal thawing
combine to produce a short period of intense fluvial activity in late
spring and early summer. This temporal concentration together with the
contrast in state between the soil in the thawed valley bottoms and frozen
interfluves, results in fluvial incision.

Weathering is predominantly mechanical and the nature of the regolith is

bedrock dependent. Soil-formi ng processes produce predomi nant ly coarse
material with a low silt and clay content. This material is mainly
transported in the fluvial system as bedload. Because the permafrost is
subject only to local melting, it prohibits widespread stripping of pre-
existing deposits or regoliths inherited from the Tertiary period when more
effective chemical weathering processes prevailed. This is of particular
significance to placer formation, since the Tertiary regolith may act as a
protore. Where the periglacial fluvial system has intersected these
earlier sediments, rich placers may be formed.

Examples of such placers include gold in the Yukon River area of Alaska and
NW Canada (e. g., Cobb, 1973 ; Boyle, 1979). Sutherland (1985) also
recorded examples from the Siberian shield.

3) Humid temperate regions

This region includes much of mainland Europe and the U.S.A, with a more
restricted distribution in the southern hemisphere . River flow is
 -34-

perennial but strongly modulated by soil cover . Soils are

characteristically arenaceous with relative ly little clay content « 10%).
This gives rise to large volumes of bedload-sized material that may rapidly
dilute heavy minera 1s with distance away from the source. Thereforethese
areas do not possess an opt imum balance of placer-forming characteristics.

4) Semi-arid to arid regions

Qnaternary climatic change has meant that even the most arid modern
environments have probably experienced some fluv i al activity in the last
three million years, and no distinction is therefore made between semi-arid
and arid regions.

This zone is characterized by very high run-off rates produced by

infrequent but intense rainfal l , and 1imited interception by a sparse
vegetation cover. Weathering is domi nated by mechan i ca 1 processes, and
large quantities of bedload-sized materi a 1 are therefore generated. The
large volume of sediment entrained during fluvial events produces a
relatively high-density fluid in which heavy minerals are more easily
transported. Fluvial activ ity in arid areas is therefore effective in
transporting heavy minerals, but the sediments produced are often poorly
sorted, and reworking is less likely than in other geomorphic environments.

The wide dispersion of diamonds in central and southern Africa may be due
to transport during arid phases of the Caenozoic, but concentration has
been during alluvial or "wet" phases. It is suggested that in arid
phases , weathering and fluvial processes are more effective in l i berat i ng
and transport ing heavy minera 1s, wh i 1e during "wet" or all uv i a 1 phases, the
heavy minerals are more effectively concentrated.

An a 1ternat i on between per i ods of intense ephemera 1 fl uv i a 1 act i vi ty and

perrenial flow may, therefore, be more important in pl acer formation than
periods of either type of flow alone.

5) Humid tropical regions

The humid tropics are characterized by high temperatures, perennial stream

 -35-

flow and an ubiquitous vegetation cover. The extensive chemical

weathering which dominates these regions has three significant effects:

i) weathering-resistant minerals are efficiently liberated from their

host rocks ;

ii) a clay-particle dominated regolith is produced with relatively little

coarse-sand or larger calibre material that might form the bedload in
a river system ; and

iii) chemical denudation and mass solution of up to 40% of the bedrock

occurs prior to any mechanical erosion of the bedrock (Thomas,
1974).

This last factor produces an enrichment in resistant minerals which is

unmatched in any other morphogenetic zone. The combination of this in situ
enrichment with the removal in suspension of the larger part of the fine
particles of the regolith upon mechanical erosion, results in particularly
favourable conditions for placer development.

Because vegetation cover inhibits the direct influence of mechanical

erosional processes, it may be argued (e.g. Thomas, 1974) that placer
deposits would show relatively little evidence of fluvial transport and be
dominantly residual in nature in the humid tropics. The stanniferous
placers of Banka and Billiton in Indonesia are of this kind, and they may
be contrasted with the placers of the Ma lays i an peni nsu 1a and Tha i 1and
where there is ev i dence of greater fl uv i a 1 transport of the cass i terite
(Aleva, 1985).

Sutherland (1985) stated that much of the humid tropical zone has
period i ca lly experi enced semi -ari d cond it ions throughout the Quaternary.
During such periods, fluvial activity may have been particularly efficient
in transport i ng 1iberated heavy minera 1s. The return of humi d cond it ions
and consequent increase in vegetat i on cover wou 1d reduce sed iment supp ly
and encourage rework i ng of materi ali ntroduced into the fl uv i a 1 sys tem
during the preceding arid phase. Such a combination of circumstances might
produce placer deposits of considerable extent.
 -36-

Conclusions - The Role Of Climatic Change

From the foregoing discussion of the five morphogenetic regions of

Sutherland (op.cit.), the role of climatic change has been mentioned
repeatedly as a key factor in the genesis of fluvial placers. Thi sis
because different climatic regimes produce environmental conditions which
may be conducive to high degrees of weathering, erosion or fluvial
transport, but not all three together.

Figure 12 is a schematic representation of how changes in the Earth's

climate during the last 100 Ma ha ve influenced the latitudinal distribution
of the morphogenetic regions discussed above. Of course, this distribution
is not merely a function of latitude, and the tectonic plate distribution
has changed so that the further back in time one goes, the 1ess re 1i ab ly
climate can be discussed with respects to the present latitudinal
disposition of the continents. Futhermore, local climatic perturbations of
the general latitudinal distribution, such as monsoons and orographic
effects, are difficult to trace back in time (Frakes, 1979). Despite these
factors, certain patterns do arise.

FIG. 12. Schematic representation of the variation in latitudinal

clistribution of morphogenetic regions during the last 100 Ma.
Symbolism as in Fig. 6. Note logarithmic time·scale (after
Sutherland, 1985).
 -37-

During the latter part of the Cretaceous and the early Tertiary, humid
tropi ca 1 processes appear to have operated in mi d- to - high 1at itudes,
produc i ng deep 1y weathered clayey rego 1i ths (Dury, 1971 ; Ki ng , 1951 ;
Partridge and Maud , 1987). Significant changes occurred in the mid-
Tertiary as the climate shifted towards a regime characterized by a
sequence of glacial and interglacial periods exhibiting a periodicity of
around 0.1 Ma (Shackelton et al., 1984). These glacial cycles involve
major climatic changes at all latitudes (Figure 12).

The widespread changes in conditions between periods of deep weathering,

stripping and sediment reworking thus implied, suggest that the Quaternary
is a period particularly suited to placer genesis.

2. 3.2 Influence Of Basin Dynamics

The role of basin dynamics and tectonics in the formation of pl acers has
been studied by Adams et a1. (1978 ) i n an experimental model of an alluvia l
drainage basin. The concept of geomorph i c thresho 1ds is ment i oned in
section 3.2.1 where it is noted that channel pattern (the basis on wh i ch
rivers are classified) is controlled by slope thresholds, for a given
discharge, within a fluvial system. This concept has great significance to
the morphology of a drainage basin at times of tectonic uplift and drainage
rejuvenation. Figure 13 shows how a meandering river first becomes
incised, then braided, and finally stabilizes in response to a single
rejuvenation event (in this case a lowering of base level) .

A second concept of s i gnificance to the change in morphology of a drainage

bas in in response to rejuvenat i on, is that of comp 1ex response (Schumm,
1973; Schumm and Parker, 1973). The various components of a drainage
bas i n (floodplain, hi11s10pes, divides, tributaries and main channe l )
respond at different times to rejuvenation as follows

i} incision occurs firstly at the mouth of the system and moves

progressively upstream. This process i s responsible for successively
 -38-

::: , ....

,,: -.

Braided
Channel

-- ,

FIG. 13. Diagrammatic cross-sections of an experimental channel showing the

response of a meandering channel to one relative lowering of base
level.

A. Valley and alluvium prior to base-level lowering. The low

width-depth ratio meandering channel flows on alluvium.

B. After base-level lowering, the channel incises into the

alluvium and bedrock floor of the valley to form a terrace.
Following incision, bank erosion widens channel and partially
destroys terrace.

c. An inset alluvial fill is deposited as the sediment discharge

from upstream increases. The high width-depth ratio channel
is braided and unstable.

D. A second terrace is formed as the channel incises slightly and

assumes a low width-depth ratio in response to reduced sediment
load. With time, channel migration will destroy part of the
lower terrace and a flood plain will form at a lower level.
(After Adams et aI., 1978).
 -39-

rejuvenating tributaries, scouring pre-existing alluvium from the

valley floor , and forming terraces (F i gure 138);

ii) as erosion progresses upstream, the main channel becomes increasingly

choked with sediment and begins aggrading (Figure 13C);

iii) as the tributaries stabilize to the new base - level, sediment loads
decrease, and a new phase of channel erosion occurs forming a low
terrace (Figure 13D).

Thus, initial channel incision and terrace formation is followed by

deposition of an alluvial fill, channel braiding, and lateral erosion.
Then as the dra i nage system ach i eves stab il ity, renewed inc is i on forms a
low alluvial terrace. But how do heavy minerals behave during such a
rejuvenation event?

Adams et al. (op. cit.) derived an empirical model in which the processes
involved in crossing geomorphic thresholds are superimposed on those
involved in complex response as follows:

i) when the lower main channel is degrading (Figure 13B and D) heavy
minerals are in transport. When aggrading (Figure 13C) the heavy
minerals are stored in the alluvial fill;

ii) superimposed upon this sequence of heavy mineral transport and storage
are shorter per i ods of transport and storage controlled locally by
internal thresholds of gradient and discharge. During periods of
aggradation, the channel is braided and heavy minerals are stored in
the drainage basin. During periods of incision, the channel is
meandering or straight, and heavy minerals are reworked and
concentrated.

It is conc l uded that, whilst basin rejuvenation may initially destroy

existing placers, conditions following rejuvenation are ' conducive to
placer format ion. Indeed placers may be formed duri ng a 1ternat i ng per iods
 -40-

of mild aggradation and degradation that result from the exceeding of the
internal geomorphic thresholds which may follow rejuvenation.

The preservation of diamondiferous terraces on the Vaal and Orange Ri vers

in South Africa, and numerous other placer localities worldwide, indicate a
response to base-level drop and consequent abandonment. At Auchas on the
lower Orange River, terraces of Miocene age (dated with wood and mammal
fossils) are currently mined for diamonds. Two distinct facies
assemblages are recognised. The first is a valley fill sequence of
channels and coarsening - upward sequences interpreted as br.a id bars. The
second is a younger channel fill facies and is incised into the valley fill
sequence. Th i s fac i es assemb 1age can be interpreted as represent i ng the
product of a rejuvenation event, the valley fill sequence representing the
aggradation phase (Figure l3C) and the channel fill sequence, the final
incision phase (Figure 130).

The Miocene age of the Auchas gravels corresponds to the uplift event ci ted
by Partridge and Maud (1978) as being responsible for their Post-African I
erosion cycle. Note that rejuvenation need not be in response to tectonic
uplift, but may be due to a drop in base-level (a eustatic lowering of sea-
level for examp l e) as is suggested by Dingle and Hendey (1984) for the late
Oligocene - early Miocene rejuvenation event in the western part of
southern Africa.

2. 3 . 3 Influence Of Bedrock Lithology

The nature of the bedrock influences the nature of sediment liberated into
a drainage system, and hence the nature of the materi a 1 with wh i ch heavy
minerals must "compete " for transport and deposition. Many fluvial placers
are associated with gravels for reasons outlined in section 2.4.2, and it
follows that a bedrock which 1iberates coarse clasts is required by many
fluvial placer-forming processes.

For example, consider the alluvial diamond deposits of the northern Cape
and western Transvaal in South Africa (Figure 14) . The alluvial diamond
depos i ts are vi rtua lly confi ned to a bedrock of Ventersdorp Supergroup
lithologies, comprising mainly andesitic lavas. These rocks are resistant
 -41-

v V
V
SRSWEIZER RENEKE V V
B BLOEMHOF V
CHRISTIANA V V
C V
WaWARRENTON V
WiWINDSORTON
BWBARKLY WEST
DeDELPORTSHOOP
D DOU GLAS
S SCHUTSEKAMA
R RITCHIE
K KIMBERLEY

•
0
ALLtNIAL
KAROO ROCKS
DIGGINGS

~ CAMPBELL GROUP

K
•
}fODDER

FIG. 14. Geological map showing the alluvial diamond deposits of the northern
Cape and western Transvaal, South Africa. Note the association of
deposits with Ventersdorp lava bedrock.

and weather spheroidally liberating clasts up to 2m in diameter into the

Vaal/Orange drainge basin. The Karoo lithologies of shale, diamictite and
dolerite produce relatively fine-grained sediments andplacers are almost
absent over these lithologies. Two exceptions to this rule occur:

i) a short distance (up to 5 Km) downstream of Ventersdorp subcrop,

placers still occur in coarse gravels transported onto Karoo bedrock
and
 -42-

ii) where Ventersdorp bedrock forms a topographic high (an exhumed pre-
Karoo high) the drainage is always highly incised thus forming
gorges. On the downstream side of such gorges, large alluvial fans
have formed, which are the sites of some of the richest
deposits.

Examples of the first case are found at Delportshoop, and of the second at
Schutsekama (Figure 14).
2.4 GRAIN-SCALE CONCENTRATING PROCESSES

Concentrations of heavy minerals can only occur at sites where grain-scale

processes dictate, and an understanding of concentrating processes at
grain-scale is therefor~ a prerequisite for successful prospecting. Heavy
minerals may be accumulated in either of two ways:

i) by hydraulic sorting (whereby heavy minerals accumulate .essentially

as lags) ; or

ii) by interstice entrapment.

In this section, these processes are reviewed .

2 . 4. 1 Hydraulic Sorting

Rubey (1933) presented the first explanation of hydraulic sorting by

defining mineral grains in terms of their settling equivalence with quartz.
However, although his concept is useful, it only explains hydraulic
equivalence where the grains in transport leave the bed regularly in a
series of saltation leaps, or in a longer-lived state of suspension. In
other words, where the sediment has the opportunity to fall through a
column of water. In most fluvial situations, however, the transport of
sediment is largely in the form of a traction carpet, in which cirumstance
settling equivalence becomes unimportant as a sorting process.
Accordingly, more recent papers (e.g., Slingerland, 1984 Reid and
Frostick, 1985) have highlighted the importance of entrainment
and dispersive equivalence in the concentration of heavy minerals in
fluvial systems.

2.4.1.1 Settling Eqlivalence

The settling velocities of grains immersed in water will depend upon their
density if shape and surface texture are similar. Consequently, the size
of gra i ns that sett 1e together on the bed wi 11 be an inverse funct ion of
their density. Figure 15 is a schematic illustration of the quartz
settling equivalents of four heavy minerals. It can be seen that a
spherical cassiterite grain has a diameter which is only 0.52 of its quartz
equivalent (see Callaghan, 1979 for formulae). Gold, with a greater
density contrast, has a settling equivalent diameter only 0.32 times that
of quartz.
 -44-

Qu.lrIl' P" 2.6 rJmt'nrte. Mannetlte CJ.~5.ter i le Cold

p . 4.7 P s 5.2 p .. 7.0 p. 16.9

Unit
: sen ling
, veJoclly

FIG. 15. Spheres of selected minerals that have the hydraulic settling
equivalence of quartz. Values of density are given for each mineral
(after Reid and Frostick, 1985).

QU,Htz diameter, mm
0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0
Shorn.lov & /
Shumovskiy 's Data /
30 ... gold. Au o·
/
g cassiterite, 5n
/ ....'0<:;1 \:) ,,-
II magnetite. Fe / • 1· ./
• ~menite . Ti / .,)q Q"'./ -""
't': c.,(' \"~ -"' ...
./ /""" ""..
\.\eY /"
/'
/ "-""
/ , (\\1
/
,/ /,/
/

~)/,: p ·5.2

A /,/.
/" T
II Empirical
\I .;; Stokes' & Rubey's
formulae for spheres
,Ti p . 4.7
o~~--__----~----~~
a 5 10 15
Quartz (rounded) settling velocity. cnu "

FIG. 16. Settling velocities of natural placer minerals given against

those of rounded quartz grains of the same diameter (solid lines and
symbols, after Shumilov and Shumovsky, 1978); the same for .
theoretical spheres but derived using Stoke's and Rubey's equatIOns
(broken lines) (after Reid and Frostick, 1985).

The expected fall velocities of spherical mineral grains in a fluid can be

predicted by Stokes' (particles < O.5mm) and Rubey's (> O.5mm) equations:

STOKES' LAW for grains < O. 5mm

W: ( /? /?) D~
~
 -45-

RUBEY'S LAW for grains> 0.5 mm

W= 2/3g . /? - /? Os
~

where, W = fall felocity, I? = specific gravity of mineral~ = speCific

gravity of fluid,
~ = viscosity of fluid, and Os
0, = grain diameter .

Detrital grains are, however, rarely perfect spheres. Surface

irregularities increase the coefficient of drag which leads to a lowering
of settling velocity. Elongate particles have lower coefficients of drag
when oriented in the direction of fall, and consequently they have higher
settling velocities than spheres of the same volume and mass. Empirical
data for the sett 1i ng of natura 1 heavy mi nera ls is compared to predi cted
values derived from Stokes' and Rubey ' s equations in Figure 16 (data from
Shumilov and Skhumovsky, 1975). It can be seen that, as the density
contrast increases, factors such as particle shape become more important in
controlling sedimentation. Empirical and theoretical values for ilmenite,
magnetite and cassiterite are fairly similar. Grains of gold on the other
hand, have asett 1i ng ve loci ty that is ony 60% of that pred i cted by the
Stokes - Rubey equations over the range depicted . If follows that gold
particles travelling in suspended load, should travel further than
predicted by the equations. A complication arises in that malleable gold
particles change shape during transport (Hallbauer and Utter, 1977). Gold
is particularly susceptible to the effect of repeated impacts which tend to
hammer irregularities flat over the first 30 Km or so of transport, thereby
increasing settling velocity, and tending to promote sedimentation.
Continued transport tends to produce flakes which have lower settl ing
velocities and therefore tend to remain in suspension, with a consequent
increase in transport distance.

Different settling velocities give rise to suspension sorting (Slingerland,

1984) which is the fractionation of grains with different settling
 -46-

velocities into different levels off the bed, in a turbulent, open-channel

flow. This results in the deposition of suspended sediment in different
areas and explains why heavy minerals are most common in the deepest parts
of channels and least common on flood-plains (e.g., Muggeridge, 1989) . It
is suggested that suspens ion sort i ng may a lso govern the ' strat i graph i c
level of concentration of heavy minerals in fining-upward point-bar
sequences which are the characteristic deposits of meandering river
systems. Hence, the coarsest and heaviest minerals might accumulate at the
bottom of the sequence, interpreted as the deepest part of the channe 1
(e.g., Allen, 1964) while the finer and "lighter" heavy minerals would be
deposited near the top of the sequence (e.g., de Wit, 1983). In a braided
all uvi a l-fan environment, the coarsest and heavi est mi nera ls mi ght
accumu 1ate in the more proxima 1 reaches, whi 1st the "1 ighter" and finer
grained heavy minerals would continue in suspension to the more distal
reaches (e.g., Matheys, 1990 ; McGowan and Groat, 1973).

2.4. 1. 2 Entrainment Equivalence

It has long been recognised that the individual laminae of river deposits
often consist of like-size and like-shape particles, regardless of density.
Th i sind i cates alack of sett 1 i ng equ i va lence for the 1i ght and heavy
minera 1sin such a 1ayer. In fact, the heavy mi nera 1s present are much
larger than predicted by cons ideration of their quartz sett 1ing
equivalence.

The operation of entrainment equivalence and its tendency to homogenize a

sediment in terms of its size distribution has been observed on active
beach bars that stand proud of the still-water level , and over which the
swash rides as a shallow stream carrying material as bedload (Reid and
Frosdick, 1985). Here, the size distributions of light and heavy mineral
particles overlap (Figure 17a). Entrainment equivalence is the sorting
mechanism, and the heavy minerals are on average, only 13% smaller than the
quartz grains. In contrast, the size distributions of the bed material of
submerged bars show a distinct size separation of light and heavy mineral
particles (Figure 17b). Breaking waves ride over the submerged bar as a
re 1at i ve ly deep turbu 1ent flow, thus throwi ng sediment into suspens ion .
The dominant process here involves settling equivalence, and on average the
 -47-

1. [ntra lnment equivalence ' b 2. Settling equivalence-

a bed-com')ct transport s,illatlon trampart

100
-="_2'~""~""'---
:,r --
I,( c Settling

"",,
equivalence

.," "~I
~ . 50
.." ," '
/'/ heavy minerals
P" 5.2

o
I( ---

" light minerals

O ~~L- ____ ~ ~~~

/, " ____ ___ p-2.&
~ ________
0.1 0.1 10
Particle size. mm

FIG. 17. Typical particle size curves for: a) light and heavy minerals on
beach bars of Lake Turkana that stand proud of the still-water level
and on which the swash rakes the surface as a shallow flow to
produce entrainment equivalence; and b) for those bars whose
crest is just below the still-water level and where breaking waves
throw bottom sediment into suspension to produce settling
equivalence. c) Schematic relationship between the average median
- sized quartz and magnetite - ilmenite particles on the two types
of swash bar showing the difference in relative size of each mineral
generated by the processes involving entrainment and settling
equivalence (after Reid and Frostick, 1985).

diameter of heavy minerals is 40% smaller than that of associated quartz

grains. Figure 17c shows schematically the relationship of the average
median-sized quartz and magnetite-ilmenite particles on the two types of
swash bar, and the relative sizes of each mineral generated by the
processes involving entrainment and settling equivalence.

Komar and Wang (1984) have demonstrated that like-size particles congregate
because larger particles are removed. They stand proud on the bed and by
do i ng so, they are subject to greater lift and drag.

Because heavy mineral particles tend to dominante the finer fractions, it

is these that remain on the bed while the larger, dominantly lighter grains
are selectively entrained. Th is leads to the concentration of the higher
density material. Adding to th is is the effect of greater inertia inherent
in the heavy minerals. Once settled on the stream bed, these particles
require larger for ces to dis lodge them. This accou nts for the small
difference in size in entrainment equivalence between heavy and light
minerals .
 -48-

If an alluvial fill is scoured, either during a single flood event or as a

result of longer-term down-cutting in response to local or regional
rejuvenation (as described in section 2.3.2), the smaller and denser grains
may be concentrated as a bedrock heavy mi nera 1 accumu 1at ion through the
combined action of these winnowing and inertia-controlled processes.

Slingerland (1984) identified friction velocity (U*), grain diameter, grain

dens ity and bottom roughness size (k) as the important vari ab 1es
influencing sorting by differential entrainment. Increased bed roughness
decreases transport rate and inhibits grain entrainment .

For example, for a mean friction .velocity (U*) of 20.1 cm s-1 at a

roughness of 5mm, magnetite will not be transported ; if roughness reaches
10mm, the movement of quartz is restricted to particles of up to 0.84 mm
diameter only . This suggests that the coarser the stream floor gravel
environment, the greater the ve locity required to mobil ize the 1i ghter
minerals and thus concentrate heavy minerals amongst the gravel. Figure 18
shows the pred i cted concentrat ions of fi ne-gra i ned magnetite under
different U* and k conditions and for different magnetite concentrations.

/
/
/

E 10 APPROX !MATE LIMIT OF //

'

E 8 MAGNET! T\E TRANS~O~~~:NE TlTE

W "'/' CONCEN TRATION I
t:::! 6 ~ ('t.)
(f) .-

(f)
(f) 4 .-
/
/ ,
w ... ",'"
Z.,- ~_--'

~ ot~;/~/~/~~~~~~~~§~~i
a::
2
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
U',,(cm-sec-1l

F1G. 18. Predicted magnetite concentrations in a transported sediment

comprising 90% quartz and 10% magnetite with quartz mean grain size
of 1.23 ,and magnetite of 2:15 . Concentrations increase with
increasing friction velocity U', and decrease with increasing bed
roughness K (after Slingerland, 1984).
 -49-

Consider a further example of entrainment sorting. A deposit comprises 10%

magnetite and 90% quartz. The mean size of the magnetite grains is smaller
than the quartz grains, and their size distribution is better sorted. If
this population comes to rest on a substrate with a bottom roughness
nearer in size to the smaller, heavy grains, the larger lighter grains will
be more suscepti ble to entra i nment. Any 1ag depos it formed by subsequent
flows will then consist of a heavily enriched lamination with a heavy to
light settling velocity ratio greater than 1. If the bed roughness size
is nearer in sca le to the larger 1i ghter gra i ns, then the sma ller heavy
minerals, even though denser, may be ,entrained along with the finest of the
1ight grains, as turbu lent vort ices pluck gra i ns from among roughness
elements. The resulting deposit will have a settling velocity ratio of
less than 1 and wi 11 be 1ess enri ched in heavy minera 1s (S 1i nger 1and,
1977) .

2.4. 1.3 Dispersive Equivalence

Dispersive equivalence of grains leads to shear sorting (Slingerland, 1984

; Reid and Frostick, 1985). The grains of a sediment which is subjected
to a shearing force (e.g., laminar flow), exert a dispersive stress normal
to the direction of shear and proportional to the product of the square of
grain diameter and density. If this law is applied to non-uniform sizes,
it predicts that larger or denser grains will be driven to a free surface.
Two grains with different densities coming to rest at the same horizon
would have a size ratios given by:

Since experience shows that heavy minerals tend to dominate the finer
fractions of a sediment (Blatt et al . , 1972), the operation of dispersive
stress may lead to a concentration of heavy minerals several grain
diameters below the bed surface.
 -50-

Whilst not dismissing the role of shear sorting in the genesis of placers,
Komar and Wang (1984) found a wide range in dispersive stress, mineral by
mineral, in each of their samples from a beach in Oregon. This leads to
the conclusion that, if dispersive stress is of consequence, it is an
ancillary process. Its role is to feed larger light-mineral grains to the
top of the mobile layer where protrusion tends to promote entrainment as
outlined previously .

2.4. 2 Interstice Entrapment

As noted in section 2.3.3, alluvial gold and diamonds are often associated
with coarse-grained deposits (e . g. Witwatersrand gold and Vaal River
diamonds). The size contrast between heavy minerals and coarse framework
is usua lly too great to invoke sett 1i ng or entra inment equ i va lence to
explain the genesis of these deposits. This suggests that such deposits
were laid down during two distinct sedimentation events; the larger clasts
during extreme flood events; the heavy mineral-bearing matrix, later
(possibly during the waning stage of the flood).

Minter and Toens (1970) demonstrated experimentally that heavy minerals can
move into the interstices of a simulated river gravel comprising an open
framework of densely packed beds of pebbles. Furthermore, they found that
the concentrations for heavy minerals in transported bed-loads is increased
during passage across a layer of gravel. Smith and Minter (1980) provided
convincing evidence of this process having occurred in the coarse-grained
Witwatersrand "bankets" (pebb le cong lomerates) . They showed that the
conglomerates have concentrations of heavy minerals ten times greater than
that of neighbouring sandstones, thus indicating their trap-site qualities.
Figure 19shows the concentrations of gold and uranium in sand and gravel
facies of a Witwatersrand palaeoplacer. The sandstones have, in general,
much lower concentrations of the heavy grains.

A major control on the size of the material which passes into a stream-bed
framework and forms a matrix, is the size distribution of the surface
pores, i.e . the interstices of the surface, or armour layer. The largest
pore dictates the maximum grain size of the matrix, and in the case of a
close ly packed framework th i s wi 11 be 0 ..4 times the med i an framework
particle size . (Fraser, 1935) .
 -51-

100

10 ~

,....
I
...
0\• J'
0
01)
, 1 f- ~
::J 0 •
-< 0
•
• •• •
0

0.1 ~ • 0 • 0

o conglomerate
• sandstone
0.01 • I I

1 10 100 1000
-1
U, g.t

F1G. 19. Gold and uranium concentrations in crossbedded conglomerates and

sandstones. Since the heavy minerals cannot be
in hydraulic equivalence to the clasts of the conglomerate, the
concentrating mechauism here is thought to involve interstice
entrapment (after Sruith and Minter, 1980).

Frostick et al., (1984) showed that the sub-armour framework also effects
the quantity and size distribution of the matrix. In a fining-upward
gravel bed in which the ratio of median particle diameter (D50) of the
armour layer to that of the sub-armour layer is about 0.5, the amount of
matri x (and heavy minera 1s) wi 11 be over three times greater than that
occurring ina coarsen i ng upwards bed wi th an armour 1ayer : sub armour
layer size ratio of about 2 (Figure 20). This is explained by the fact
that where the sub-surface pores are smaller than those of the armour layer
(i.e. a coarsening-upward profile), there is a tendency for coarser matrix
particles to lodge not far into the framework and thus clog the pores.
Consequent ly, there may be a cons i derab 1e amount of unfi 11 ed pore space
below such a matrix plug. The heavy mineral concentrating process is then
short-lived and such gravels are unlikely to be sites of preferential heavy
mi nera 1 accumu 1at i on. Converse ly, where grave 1s fine upwards, the pores
 -52-

E 100
o
50
100
fining downwiud fining upward

O+-~==~I~==~~
o 10 20 30 40

(lJ
N
....
VI

(lJ
""0
50 channel-bed
c: armour-Ia yer
::::l pores
~

armour-Ia yer D 50 = 26mm

O+----------.----------.---------~---
. 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle and pore - Size, D, mm

FIG.20. Size distributions of both the armour layer pores, and of the
ingressed matrices where the sub-armour layer framework particles
are differentiated according to size, of a gravel-bed stream. The
inset shows the total quantity of matrix that accumulates where the
the bed sediment either fines or coarsens. D 50 refers to median
clast size (after Frostick et al., 1984).

tend to be packed uniformly and over a longer period of time, and the
opportun ity for heavy mineral accumulation is therefore increased.

This process may explain the distribution of diamonds in the Vaal and Riet
River gravels in the northern Cape Province of South Africa. Gravel
profiles from the Vaal (Matheys , 1990) and Riet (Dawson, 1990) Rivers
closely correspond to the proximal-to-distal facies sequences of alluvial
fans (Collinson, 1986 ). Both sequences occur where the rivers emerge from
the confines of a gorge. Both comprise a proximal facies of massive
 -53-

bou 1der-grave 1s, a mi d-f an fac ies of interbedded grave 1s and sands, and a
distal facies of coarse, trough-cross bedded pebbly sands. These alluvial
fans represent the large-scale morphological features built up by bedload
streams and they are characterised by a braided channel pattern. Matheys
(op.cit.) noted a decrease in per carat value of diamonds from the Vaal
River in a downstream direction, from the proximal facies at Gong Gong to
the mid-fan facies at Delpoortshoop (Figure 14). This decrease is ascribed
to a decrease in diamond size . A positive correlation exists between clast
and diamond sizes suggesting that during the waning water stage of flood
events, the largest diamonds were deposited with the coarsest and heaviest
matrix in the proximal areas, and progressively finer stones were deposited
further and further downstream. A fining-upwards profile has been noted in
some of the basal gravel beds which would enhance accumulations as
described above.

This model is not in conflict with that proposed by McGowan and Groat
(1973) for the Precambrian Van Horn alluvial fan in west Texas. These
authors found the greatest concentration of heavy minerals in the trough-
cross bedded distal facies of the fan. However, these were relatively fine-
grained ilmenite and magnetite grains which would have been carried in
suspension by flood events. Matheys (op.cit.) also found abundant fine-
grained heavy minerals (chiefly ilmenite) in the more distal facies of the
Vaal River gravels.

2 . 4.3 The Role Of Flow Separation

The grain-scale processes of heavy mineral accumulation have been outlined

above where it is suggested that particle size and shape are important
factors influencing heavy mineral concentration. However, it is local flow
dynamics that determine grain-by-grain sorting. A feature of free
turbulent flows is the separation of fluids at sites where channel
morphology changes (Best and Brayshaw, 1985). At these localities,
positive pressure gradients cause the flow to separate from the boundary
and radically distort the local flow field, providing opportunities for the
processes of entr a i nment and di spers i ve sort ing, as we 11 as i nterst ice
entrapment, to operate. Fluid separation generates a region of high bed-
shear stress that can entrain heavy minerals, and a region of low velocity
 -54-

which is a preferred site for the deposition of denser particles. This

process may occur at a variety of scales (Figure 21).

Geomorphological Example
Scale
(after Smith & Minter 1980)

- W!ry small scale flow around

individual grains

- small scale flow over ripples

& bars

intermediate scale channel confluences

ml:ander bends

FIG. 21. Scales of flow separation in fluvial environments.

Consider first the smaller scale, whereby an obstacle such as a boulder

lies in mid-channel. Figure 22 shows the resulting pattern of heavy
mineral concentration derived in a flume experiment by Best and Brayshaw
(op.cit). An explanation of this pattern may be found by reference to flow
structure and fluid forces acting around the isolated obstacle. A dominant
feature of flow in the obstacle's vicinity is the system of vortices
generated by fluid separation. Three vortex systems are recognised
horseshoe ; trailing, and wake vortices (Figure 23). The pressure
distribution on the stream bed wi 11 reflect the reorganization of flow
which occurs as fluid passes an obstacle (Brayshaw et al., 1983) . The most
 -55-

DIRECTION OF FLOW •

? ~~~~~
Centimetres

%MAGNEnTE I
<5 5-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75

FIG. 22. Concentration of magnetite around an isolated obstacle clast

recorded in flume experiments. Free-stream magnetite concentration
is 9.0% (after Best and Brayshaw, 1985).

Rolling-down of
boundary layer

Wake vortex

FIG. 23. Schematic representation of vortex systems associated with flow

separation around an isolated hemispherical particle (after
Best and Brayshaw, 1985).
 -56-

important result is the generation of a large area of negative bed pressure

in the lee of the obstacle. Modification of the flow also produces a
complex pattern of flow velocities which exerts considerable control over
sediment grain entrainment. The pattern of flow velocities is explained by
pressure differences up- and down-stream of the obstacle. Close to the
upstream face of the obstacle, fluid is decelerated. High flow velocities
bound the wake region but are greatest in the shear layers developed on the
obstacle"s flanks. Beyond the obstacle and its wake zone, fluid velocity
returns to the free-stream value.

The areas of higher and lower pressures and velocities generated around the
obstac 1es contro 1 the behaviour of higher and lower dens ity gra i ns such
that sorting can take place. The areas of high concentration which bound
the wake region are clearly related to the large fluid forces recorded
immediately around the obstacle's flanks. The extremes of both velocity
and turbulence will ensure supply of both heavy and light sediment grains
to this zone . Downstream, rapid deceleration of fluid sorts the heavy and
light minerals. Smaller, denser grains will be more resistant to tractive
forces than 1arger, lower dens ity gra i ns. They wi 11 thus be concentrated
by the hydraulic processes of settling and selective entrainment of lights.
The area of turbulence and variable flow velocity associated with the point
of free-stream reattachment (i.e. the point at which bed pressure rises to
free-stream levels, immediatetly downstream of the wake of the obstacle)
also concentrates heavy minerals (Figure 22) .

Zones where heavy minerals are deficient reflect areas of low fluid
velocity. For instance, the magnitude of lift and drag may be insufficient
to draw grains into the low pressure wake zone. Only lighter grains, which
are characteri sed by lower entra i nment thresho lds, are carri ed into such
areas, so that their concentration increases above background levels.

Flow separation may also occur at larger scales (Figure 21), for example
at a channe 1 confl uence . Fi gure 24 shows the re lat i ve concentrat i on of
magnetite at an experimental channel confluence with a ratio of tributary
channel discharge: main channel discharge of 1.05. The bed morpho logy
 -57-

a, = 1.05

BED ELEVATION
(mm)
avalanche face edge

o~
•

1.0

MAGNETITE
CONCENTRATION

FIG. 24. Bed elevation and magnetite isopleth maps at a channel confluence.
Discharge ratio (Or = OtlOm, where Ot = tributary channel
discharge and Om = main channel discharge) is 1.05. Magnetite
concentration is expressed as a ratio with the background
concentration of the free stream (after Best and Brayshaw, 1985).

compri ses three domi nant elements : a centra 1 scour ; ava lanche faces at
the mouth of each channel ; and a bar below the downstream junction corner .
It is around the flanks of the bar that significant quantities of magnetite
accumulate (Best and Brayshaw, 19B5). This pattern of accumulation may
again be explained by the distortions of the local flow field caused by
flow separation, and the associated processes .

At the downstream corner of the channe 1 junct i on, a large zone of slowly
recirculating separated flow occurs (Best and Reid, 19B4). This zone is
associated with fluid pressures and velocit i es that are much lower than the
surrounding flow (Figure 25). Additionally, a strong shear layer is formed
that bounds the separation zone, and al ong which powerful vortices are
generated. The vort i ces are respons i ble for the turbulent character of the
flow, engendering close similarities to the character istics of flow around
an isolated obstacle , described above .
 -58-

Q, = 1.05
I I I

Relative velocity scale (Ulu m )

I I I t!.11
II where U = velocity
... u... = average mainstream velocity
-: ~ ~~=""'~hear layer
-
- - -......
...... ----
.........
---.,;

FIG. 25. Near-bed relative velocity vectors at a discharge ratio of 1.05

measured in sediment-free channels. Velocities were measured at a
distance above the bed of 0.12 yfY where y = height of a point in
the flow and Y = flow depth (after Best and Brayshaw, 1985).

Flow separation produces two loci for the concentration of heavy minerals.
Firstly, the shear layer that bounds the separation zone (Figure 25)
induces the necessary shear stresses to provide a lag of heavy minerals by
selective entrainment of coarse, light mineral grains. Secondly, the
separation zone provides an area of low pressure and shear stress which
determines paths of transported grains. It also provides an area of
accumulation.

Heavy mi nera 1 gra ins enteri ng the ma in channe 1 from the tributary, are
deflected by the main stream (see vectors in Figure 25). The majority of
sediment grains are supplied to a narrow transport zone at the downstream
junction corner. Higher density grains are entrained along the shear
layer, but heavy minerals are deposited in an area of rapidly decreasing
shear stress within the separation zone. Best and Brayshaw (op.cit) found
that concentrations of heavy minerals increases with increasing tributary
discharge - main channel discharge ratio.

It may be concluded that at both small and intermediate geomporphological

scales, flow separation creates a zone of low-pressure, low-velocity fluid
which is bounded by powerful shear layers along which vortices are
generated. The following consequences are inferred for heavy minerals:
 -59-

i) turbulent shear layers can provide the shear stresses necessary

to entrain and maintain transport of heavy minerals

ii) the path of the fluid towards the separation zone carries entrained
heavy minerals into an area of lower shear stresses; and

iii) the area of low-pressure, low velocity separated fluid provides a

region of low shear stresses in which lighter minerals are
selectively entrained and heavy minerals are concentrated.

It is probable that flow separation is an important process in producing

hydrodynamic environments suitable for the operation of grain-scale
concentrating processes not only in the situations decribed, but also many
others including the following:

in the lee of negative rock steps (e.g. Muggeridge, 1989)

on the downstream side of ripples, dunes and bars (e.g . Smith and
Minter, 1980)

in bedrock hollows and potholes (e.g. Matheys, 1990)

at channel expansions (e.g . Lidstone, 1981); and

at ti9ht meander bends (e.g. Leeder and bridges, 1975).

PART 3 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGIC MODELS FOR EXPLORATION

The previous section discussed the i nfl uence of tectonic setting,

geomorphology and grain-scale processes in contro 11 i ng the distribution of
detrital heavy minerals. In order to develop geologic models for
exp lorat ion, the consequences of these influences may be cons i dered in
terms of heavy mineral accumulation at different scales. The areal
concentration of heavy minerals may be classified into four categories
whi ch broad ly correspond to the spatia 1 sca 1es at wh ich these infl uences
dominate (Table IV). The scales of accumulation are:

a) continental scale (~106m) ;

b) system (large) scale (~104m)

c) bar (intermediate) scale (~102m) and

d) bed (small) scale (~100m).

These scales of concentration are hierarchical. An example might be a

go 1d-ri ch layer on a foreset (d) formi ng on a channe 1 bend (c) in the
distal part of a braid - complex (b) in a cold non-glacial morphogenic
region of Alaska (a). This classification may be used as a predictive
too 1 for exp 1orat i on target se lect i on, and also for reconna i ssance-,
detailed-, and evaluation-stage sampling. For example, an exploration
company is looking for an alluvial gold deposit. They might start with
broad-sca le target se lect i on (a) and then home- in to a geomorph i ca lly
promising area (b). Field teams might then search for the best trap-sites
for the collection of samples (c and d). Exploration applications are now
discussed from the broader to finer scale .
 -61-

CONTROLS
BASIN GRAIN-SCALE
SCALE TECTONIC SEITING CLIMATE DYNAMICS PROCESSES
CONTINENTAL
LARGE (SYSTEM)
INTERMEDIATE (BAR)
SMALL (BED)

CONTINENTAL SCALE (106 m )

Tectonic settings (Boyle, 197-9)
Morphogenic regions (Sutherland, 1985)

SYSTEM SCALE (104m)

Proximal parts of alluvial fans (Matheys, 1990; Dawson, 1990)
Distal parts of alluvial fans (McGowan and Groat, 1973)
Regional angular unconformities (Minter, 1978; Els, 1991)
Regions of suitable bedrock (this work, Fig. 14)

BAR SCALE (102m)

Heads of mid-channel bars (Smith and Minter, 1980; 'de Wit, 1983)
Heads of distal point bars (de Wit, 1983)
Bedrock riffles and potholes (Matheys, 1990; Toh, 1978)
Sharp bends (Leeder and Bridges, 1975)
Channel confluences (Best and Brayshaw, 1985; Mosley and Schumm,
1977)
Winnowed tops of bars (McGowan and Groat, 1971)

BED SCALE (10 0 m)

Leeward side of obstacles (Best and Brayshaw, 1985; Lidstone, 1981)
Dune and ripple crests (McQuivey and Keefer, 1969; de Wit, 1983 )
Dune fore sets (McGowan and Groat, 1971)
Scoured bases of trough
cross-strata sets (McGowan and Groat, 1971).

TABLE IV. Some observed sites of alluvial heavy mineral concentration drawn
from the literature, and the key influences which control this
distribution at the different scales.
 -62-

3.1 TARGET SELECTION

On the broadest scale, areas favourable for placer development may be

identified by the coincidence of favourable aspects including

i) tectonic setting and occurrence of primary mineral sources

ii) the nature and distribution of climatically controlled morphogenic

regions ; and

iii) the variation and intensity of ·specific landforming processes during

the last 100 Ma (Sutherland, 1985).

Figure 26 shows those areas in which there is a coincidence of these

factors with regard to gold, diamonds and tin. ~hey are areas that should
be most favourable to the production of placers and, in fact, they do
incorporate zones in which major placer deposits have been found. Examples
include the extensive alluvial diamond diggings of Sierra Leone in west
Africa (Thomas et a 1., 1985), and the go 1d placers of eastern Sumatra in
south-east Asia (Toh, 1978). They are also regions in which stream
sediment sampling would be most efficient as a mineral exploration

Q..

.~~>~1.'
Q "
o· wr ,.. 110· 160·

FIG. 26. Areas favourable to placer development in the last 100 Ma

(after Sutherland, 1985).
 -63-

Not all significant placer deposits are included within the regions
identified in Figure 26, largely because of climatic change since the time
of their formation. In the Vaal River basin of South Africa, over 10 Mct.
of alluvial diamonds have been recovered. It is now known that the major
period of diamond transport from the Kaapvaal craton to the west coast of
South Africa was during the Miocene, as evidenced by the vertebrate
assemblage collected at Arrisdrift on the lower Orange River (van Wyk and
Piennar, 1986 ; Corbett, 1989). At present, the kimberlite diamond sources
in the Vaal River basin are typically sealed by calcrete duricrusts and
there is little release of diamonds into the present drainage. It is
therefore clear that target areas may be selected on the basis of studies
of palaeogeomorphology, which might indicate periods of heavy mineral
liberation, transport, reworking and concentration (e.g., Partridge and
Maud, 1987 ; Corbett, 1989 ; Thomas et al., 1985 ; de Wit, in prep.).

3. 2 LOCAL TARGET SELECTION

Local target selection will depend largely upon the type of fluvial system
under consideration. A number of prospecting models are presented based
upon the criteria discussed in previous sections. The models are specific
to classes of fluvial systems, since each class is chara:cterized by a
particular assortment of morphological and process parameters. It is
therefore pertinent to briefly outline various types of rivers prior to
presenting the models. Note that rivers evolve in response to tectonic and
climatic changes and therefore may change their character with time.

3 •2 • 1 Classification Of Rivers

The underlying causes which produce different types of rivers involve a

complex interaction of a number of factors. These include flow, channel
geometry, sediment load, bed roughness and climate (Leopold and Wolman,
1957). Because of this complexity, rivers are usually classified on a
descriptive rather than a genetic basis. The classification of Mi all
(1977) recognises four principal river types meandering, braided,
straight and anastomosing (Figure 27). His system is shown in Table V.
 -64-

~ .,
;:..r' __..,---~
./~
---
~-~-------....,...
- ~,--_
-"'-"'>~-­
-
straight

meondering

anastomosing

r:;:::.'I bar surfaces- covered

~
dUring flood STages

fiG. 27. Principal river types (after Miall, 1977).

The scheme is nat entirely satisfactory since the classes are nat mutually
exclusive, being based on slightly differing criteria. For example
braiding refers to multiple channels separated by alluvial islands or bars,
whereas meanderi ng refers to sinuous channels (Fi gure 27). It is thus
possible to have a braided channel bed within a meandering channel system.
Such comp 1ex i ties are, however, rare. Bra i ded streams are .genera 11y wi de
and sha 11 ow with near ly stra i ght channe 1 systems, and meanderi ng streams
tend to be relatively deep and narrow and are thus seldom braided. Cross-
sections of braided, meandering and straight channels are shown in Figure
28.

Trul y straight channels are uncommon in aggrading rivers. They occur most
often in degradational (downcutting) settings and therefore seldom provide
opportunity for the preservation of their deposits . Anastomosing rivers
have rece i ved 1itt le attent ion in the 1i terature a lthough Smith and Smith
(1980) recognised recent examples from Alberta, and Smith and Eriksson
(1979) described probable examples from a Permo-Carboniferous proglacial
Typo Morphology Sinuosity Load type Bedload per- Width/ Erosive behaviour Deposilional
cent (oC total depth behaviour
load) ratio

M{'f\n(lerinli{ !;ingle channels > 1.3 suspension <11 <40 channel incision, point-bar
or meander formation
mixed load widening

nrnide(l two or more < 1.3 bedload >11 >40 channel wiul:'ning channf'l
ch:mncis with aggril<!alion,
bars and small mid -channel
island. bar formation

Slrni~ht sin~lcchnnnel with < 1.5 suspension, <11 <40 minor channf'1 sirlc ·chilOnd
I
pools nml rirnes, mixed or widening <Inc! bar formation
mennrlering thalweg uedload incision '"
U1
I

Anastomosing two or more chnnllrls >2.0 suspension < 3 <10 slow meander slow hnnk
with Illq.~e, slnhle islilnds load widening accr(>tion
- - -- - - --- --- _ .-

TABLE V. Classification of river types (after Miall, 1977).

 -66-

0"'

!
"*,,,,",t-:;C .No d.

A B c

o 0' b b'

O~:;g;
,. ":':.
2.5
r .
' . ~ ..
. •
...)-\j-f'. ,.."'""'7':• . ~
' ''''''0,'<:::1'
. ':rf't;7-0-;
.. .. =
..·.•..•"r\)-r<i=:)
:~.; ..:

-.,
.50 : " -;
v '::.:~ .~•• "",lo.._~~
1.5 . - ... . . .
, ,,' •
....... ...... ., ... / .,
"

........... .... . .~...

FIG, 28, Typical channel patterns and cross sections in braided (A),
straight (B) and meandering (C) reaches of the Brahmaputra River
(after Coleman, 1969),

sequence in South Africa. Braided and meandering streams have been

emphasized by fluvial sedimentologists as the dominant deposit-forming
river types.

Leopold and Wolman (1957) have shown that an empirical relationship exists
between channel slope, bankfull discharge and channel pattern (Figure 29).
For a given bankfull discharge, braiding is favoured by high slopes, and
meandering by low slopes. For a given channel slope, braid ing is favoured
by larger bankfull discharges and meandering by lesser bankfull discharges.
 -67-

, I

.
~

~
0;
<
<
,g 0 .001
u
0 .0005

0 .0001
0,00005 Ll_----'--L_-L...L_---'--L_-L-L"-...J
10' 10' 10' 10'
Banll. full <!!s.:horqe ( cfs)

FIG, 29, The relationship between'bank-full discharge and channel slope.

Braiding is favoured by high slopes and meandering by low slopes.
For a given channel slope, braiding is favoured by high discharges,
and meandering by lower discharges. Discharges shown in cubic feet
per second. 1 cfs - 2.8 x 10-2 m3s- 1. (After Leopold and
Wolman, 1957).

Braided river systems are favoured over meandering systems for heavy
mineral concentration because of their gravel-dominated alluvium and
associated fluvial process. In fact Collinson (1986) refers to braided
systems as "bedload streams", indicating that the coarser grain-sizes
dominate the associated deposits. This assertion is borne out by
consideration of the fact that the majority of economic alluvial placers
and paleoplacers are associated with the deposits of braided streams.
Examples include the diamondiferous gravels of the northern Cape (Dawson,
1990) and the Witwatersrand gold (Minter, 1978) in South Africa, and the
stanniferous placers of Ranong Province, Thailand (Aleva et al., 1973).

Alluvial fans are large-scale morphological features built up by bedload

streams and they are usua lly character i zed by bra i ded stream patterns.
They develop where the stream emerges from the confines of a valley or
gorge into a basin. Lack of confinement allows horizontal expansion of the
flow, deceleration and deposition of some or all of the sediment load.

Basins into which fans build are quite variable in character. They may be
 -68-

alluvial pl a i ns, broad valleys, inland drainage basins or bodies of

standing water. The latter case may be termed a "fan de 1ta" .
There is generally a down-fan reduction in slope, commonly associated with
a decrease in the maximum clast size.

3 . 2 . 2 Alluvial Fan Prospecting Model

McGowan and Groat (1973) have produced an alluvia 1 fan prospect i ng mode 1
for fine-grained gold based on the distribution of other heavy minerals in
the Van Horn sandstone of west Texas. They noted that fine-grained heavy
minerals (mainly ilmenite and magnetite) occur throughout the fan, but are
concentrated in the distal-fan facies where sedimentation units are thin.
There is a close spatial association between heavy mineral accumulations
and trough crossbeds.

Minter (1978) developed this model in his synthesis of the heavy mineral
distribution within the Witwatersrand pa laeoplacers. Gold and uranium
occur in braided river environments in the mid-fan to distal facies of wet
alluvial fan-complexes. Gold concentrations are highest in a strike-
para lle 1 band across the fans, between 4 and 10 Km from the entry front
(Figure 30) . The gold here i s mostly concentrated in pebble-supported
conglomerates with a maximum clast size of between 2 to 4 cm. The highest
uranium values are displaced 2 Km down the palaeoslope (Figure 30). This
spatial distribution is controlled largely by the size of heavy and light
minerals available . Generally, the clast size of alluvial fans decrease
exponentially downslope (Collinson, 1986). It is therefore reasonable that
given the source size distributions, and the differential rates of heavy
mineral comminution, a strike-parallel band of accumulation would be formed
where the rat i 0 of 1oca 1 mean heavy mi nera 1 size to loca 1 mean 1i ght
mineral size was appropriate for heavy mineral deposition either by
i nterst i ce entrapment (more prox ima lly) or by entra i nment sort i ng (more
distally). This point would be shifted down palaeoslope for uraninite
compared to gold because its lesser density would demand a smaller light
mineral entrainment equivalence. The location of this band within the
palaeodepositional system might be predicted if the initial settling
velocity distributions of the gold were known.
 -69-

1 1

1 I
1 1
1 I
r r
,.\ ~
~I ~I
'-1 ,-\
r r
V'I,.. "'I-
;:'\ ~\
""\ ""\
"I- "I-
';.1
~\ -'\
~,
"'.<-' ",'..po'",
",'~"\< Sample Sample
01-,>-.......... locafions ~>-'.... locafions
2 km .... _D Low 'Olold ....... Cl Low uranium
L....L.J E2J HIOh Qold

F1G.30. Heavy mineral enrichment at the system scale. The Steyn and Basal
placers of the Witwatersrand goldfield have high gold concentration
occnrring sourceward of high uranium concentrations. This is a
function of the sizes of light and heavy minerals available, and the
average roughness size and friction velocities down the fans.
(Modified after Minter, 1978).

Frostick and Reid (1985) draw attention to the fact that at the heads of
fans, coarse-grained deposits act as natural sieves for the entrapment of
sa ltating heavy minerals. The efficacy of interstice entrapment wi 11
decline away from the apical zones of alluvial fans because of the decrease
in grain size . Because of the rapid flow associated with these areas , only
coarse heavy minerals (larger diamonds, or gold nuggets for example) mi ght
be accumulated here (e.g. Matheys, 1990).

Figure 31 is an adaptation of McGowan and Groat's (1973) original alluvial

fan prospecting model which takes into account these aspects.
 -70-

S0lJTH
A. PLAN VIEW _ _ _ _...:NORTH o

-- ----- ...
Re!o h~e Il1lel'lSlIy of fluvlol processes

Re he l brolded pollern

Surge dePOSits
f\
Lonqlludmal bars
CJ
(

OiSIOI facies MId - fon facies Prmtimal facies

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - UNCONFINED F~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r - - CONFINED FLOW (SURGES) - - - - -

.. Heavy Mineral Size Decreases

Lighter Heavy Mineral Species

...
.. Entrainment Sorting
.. Interstice Entrapment
•

0«,_ ~:~~:-qy----------l----------- RAPID [LOW

•
Oecreose in grain size B. CRO~S ~ECTION
Decreos.e in thickness uf sec imentalic:n lJ'lils

FIG. 31. Alluvial fan prospecting model (modified after McGowan and Groat,
1973).
 -71-

3.2. 2 The Braided Stream Prospecting Model

The all uv i a 1 fan prospect i ng mode 1 of Figure 31 shows that heavy minera 1
gra ins i zes decrease in the down-fan direct ion, the coarse-gra i ned heavy
minera 1s be i ng concentrated by i nterst i ce entrapment, the fine-gra i ned,
mainly by processes of hydraulic equivalence. Minter (1978) showed that
th i s trend may be extended to bra i ded systems genera 11y. The Steyn
palaeoplacer provides the longest, most extensively accessible, palaeoslope
exposure available in the Witwatersrand Bas i n and affords an ideal
opportunity to examine facies and associated changes in the heavy mineral
population, related to the decrease in hydraulic energy down the
palaeoslope.

Pyrite nodules occur together on foreset planes, trough bottoms and

winnowed surfaces, implying that they were deposited by processes of
hydrau 1i c equiva lence. Fi gure 32 shows the gra i n-s i ze decrease down the
palaeoslope exhibited by these nodules. The size frequency distr i bution of
sample 1 i n Figure 32 appears to be bimodal, possibly as a result of
coarse nodules being concentrated in the more proximal regions by
interstice entrapment.

Mia11 (1978) presented a broad classification of the faciesassemblages

present in gravel- and sand-dominated braided river deposits (Table VI) .
This classification is presented graphically in Figure 33 in the form of
si x vertical prof i le models for braided stream deposits. Table VII is a
list of the lithofacies codes used in Table VI and Figure 33. From
the previous discussion, the following inferrences may be made regarding
the qual i ties of the different lithofacies for the concentration of heavy
minerals.

in genera 1, heavy mi nera 1s wi 11 be assoc i ated with G- and S- type

lithofacies on ly, as these mainly represent channel deposits, and
suspension sorting (section 2. 4.1.1) dictates that heavy minerals tend to
congregate in the deeper parts of channels i
 -72-

~ :1
:1
PYRITE

- "•
HOOULE3

:1
:1
ZIIIICON

.
GRAlfitS

'e
~

Z
\
\~-" I
/~.-

I· '7"
c
~---~
: :1, tI. :1 J • I •
I
I
I

I
I
I
/
I
....
'..
i ,
, , ' ....
• S

allr
~
I / I ~ ............. -"4
..! =1, •.11 .. • • I I I .~ - - .....
::1 ~
0 ' /0
.... , . .
. I
I
; 0,I
:1 ... . ::1
. • (J)\
~
~~
.,
'0
/
.of
;
of
/

A'·.. , - , r- 0'
'-
;
\- 2.,6 - -
" 1
;
;

\ 2:4=~""''''~Y
,. ,,0 -
" 0

.
• HIGH GOLD CONTENT •
• HIGH URANIUM CONTENT. . "<---r-'''rl

" .
.. !!
~

..'" -
~

• ;;
;;
en " I

. U

,. ..• I
;; .. ;// I ••

"
Too
Spa, ..
ire

e. o II(
e/
I.
~
0

B •2 • • • .. ~
• ..• •.. ZOm
'---'
o Sampl. locatlonl
3"
" PhI Ical. contourl
Sam,le I ..
• 2,0

FIG.32. Size distribution of detrital heavy minerals in the Steyn

palaeoplacer of the Witwatersrand gold fields. A: Size frequency
distribution of pyrite nodules and zircon grains at five locations
distributed down 20 Km of palaeoslope. B : The size relationship
between pyrite and zircon is the inverse of that predicted by their
S.G. (S.G. of pyrite = 5; S.G. of zircon = 4.65) and reflects a
lack of coarse zircons in the source area. C: Contours of the
mean size of pyrite nodules reveal the palaeoslope dispersal of the
Steyn palaeoplacer, and the more distal nature of the Basal
palaeoplacer. (After Minter, 1978).

the Gms facies (representing debris flow deposition) is unlikely to

contain heavy minerals, unless resedimented from a pre-existing placer,
because its deposition neither involves significant hydraulic sorting
processes, nor allows for post-depositional ingression of heavy minerals
into an open framework
 -73-

Name Environmental Main Minor

setting facies facies

Trollheim type proximal rivers Gms, Gm St, Sp, FI, Fm

(G,) (predominantly alluvial
fans) subject to debris flows
Scott type proximal rivers (including Gm Gp , Gt, Sp,
(Gil) alluviat fans) with stream St, Sr, FI,
flows Fm
Donjek type distal gravelly rivers Gm, Gt, Gp, Sh, Sr,
(G",) (cyctic deposits) St Sp, FI, Fm
South Saskatchewan sandy braided rivers St Sp, Se, Sr,
type (SII) (cyclic deposits) Sh, S5, SI,
Gm, FI, Fm
Platte type sandy braided rivers St, Sp Sh, Sr, S5,
(SII) (virtually non cyclic) Gm, FI, Fm
BiJou Creek type Ephemeral or perennial Sh, SI Sp, Sr
(S,) rivers subject to flash
floods

TABLE VI. The six principal facies assembhges in gravel- and sand- dominated
braided river deposits (after MiaJJ, 1978). Lithofacies codes as
in Table vn.

the Gm facies is generally the most suited to the process of interstice

entrapment, to produce potentially coarse-grained heavy mineral-bearing
sieve deposits. The Gt and Gp facies may also be suited to this process;

the S-type lithofacies might most often be suited to the concentration

of heavy minerals by processes involving hydraulic equivalence, especially
entrainment sorting ;

the classification of Miall (1978 ; Figure 33, Table VI) is structured

from the proximal types, which would tend to contain greater concentrations
of coarser heavy minerals, to the distal types with finer heavy minerals.
 TROLLHE IM T YPE SCOTT T YPE DONJEK T YPE S. SASKATCHEWAN T YPE PLATTE TYPE BIJOU CREEK TYPE
,.
m inor ~. ~~
super imposed 'i' ~upe(jmposed
df=br is fl o ws t channe l
IInguojd
minor
" bar s '0
I channels "
~~ - superimposed
bar-edge ,. '" flOOd
,.
I' sond wedge =:' -:-':'l
I mojor
major
channel . -- --
cycles

..
I chonnel
or 5, ~.
::::.=. ~

Iii!- I chonnel
'" .',
' ., debris flow "
:',9;-~~':': '. deposit !~ ~----:. system
.';';-~;~" ';:. :
..
.:' ~:. ~: ~;} ~ stream flow

~'" s... . .~<;:

.
channel
(',, ~ .f II
~ .....::::
tft:,,~...m~

"::.j~~~;~;:r
! cOl1)pound
,
,:~':f:;(~
bar Mt!it"''''' I

... V( I .,.
-J

r -.,? .~~, <, 1;-. , I I

/~ j1 ~\"";. '. longitudinal

'..~!'- !d"
J
- 'r 'l, • .1r-; -
i},?~ !rr'~~1
y '-" '~i i pi;,
,!: '
bar
M. . 5
superimposed
.,-=
~

l£;£;~r\?'i bors

I~ I
"lD':'-J0'-06C\ I m
fi'::J.:i.I:':.[:'; ~,
,,?,:l>l-.'1
~(ft~~ t 0
~;~:{~:i-i~i.i r

FIG. 33. Vertical profile models for braided stream deposits. Facies codes
to left of each column are given in Table VII. Arrows show
small-scale cyclic sequences. Conglomerate clasts are not shown to
scale. (Alter Miall, 1978).
 -75-

Faefes
Code Lithofacies SedImentary 5tructures Interpretation

Gms massive, matrix none debris flow

supported gravel deposits
Gm massive or horizontal bedding, longitudinal bars,
crudely bedded imbrication lag deposits,
gravel sieve deposits
Gf gravel, stratified trough cross beds minor channel fills
Gp gravel, stratified planar crossbeds linguoid bars or del-
taic growths from
older bar remnants

Sf sand. medium solitary (theta) or dunes (lower flow

to v. coarse, grouped (pij trough regime)
may be pebbly crossbeds
Sp sand. medium solitary (alpha) or linguoid. transverse
to v. coarse, grouped (omikron) bars. sand waves
may be pebbly planar cross beds (lower flow regime)
Sf sand, very ripple marks of all ripples (lower flow
fine to coarse types regime)
Sh sand. very fine horizontal lamination, planar bed flow
to very coarse, parting or streaming (I. and u. flow regime)
may be peubly lineation
SI sand. fine low angle «10") scour fills, crevasse
crossbeds splays, antidunes
Se erosional scours crude crossbedding scour fills
with intraclasts
Ss sand. fine to broad, shallow scours scour fills
coarse, including eta cross-
may be pebbly stratification
Sse. She. Spe sand analogous to Ss, Sh, Sp eolian deposits
FI sand, silt, mud fine lamination, overbank or waning
very small ripples flood deposits
Fsc silt. mud laminated to massive backswamp deposits
Fcl mud massive, with freshwater backswamp pond
molluscs deposits
Fm mUd. si it massive, desiccation overbank or
cracks drape deposits
Fr silt. mud rootlets seatearth
C coal. carbona- plants, mud films swamp deposits
ceous mud
p carbonate pedogenic features soil

TABLE VII. Lithofacies and sedimentary structures of modern and ancient

braided stream deposits (after Miall, 1978).
 -76-

3 . 2 •4 Meandering Stream Prospecting ModeL

Channel sinuosity is the normal response of a stream to variations in the

resistance of bed- and wall rock formatio ns. It provides a mechan ism for
absorbing excess stream energy by lengthening the flow paths, thus reducing
gradients and increasing friction losses. With respect to heavy mineral
transportation and sorting, placer accumulations are restricted, on
empirical observation, to streams having sinuosities of less than 1.5
(sinuosity is defined as the ration of thalweg lenth to down-valley
distance; Macdonald, 1983). This is probably because highly sinuous
streams are too sluggish to transport significant quantities of heavy
minerals. Many field investigations suggest that the main, active flow-
channel is an important horizon for concentration of heavy minerals whilst
flood level areas seem less favourable (e.g. Muggeridge, 1989). This is
presumably because of hydraulic sorting processes (see section 2.4.1.1).
In an aggrading meandering stream, the most channel sediment is deposited
on point bars on the inner part of the curved channels (Smith, 1980).
Accord ingly poi nt bars const itute the major depos i tiona 1 sites for heavy
minerals.

Jensen and 8ateman (1979) noted that "p l acer deposits do not form in the
downstream meanders of sluggish, old-age streams, because the stream
velocity is insufficient to transport heavy minerals." Kartashov (1970)
also noted that the more proximal reaches of rivers were more favourable to
placer deve 1opment, and that finer, and 1i ghter heavy minera 1s wou 1d be
transported to, and concentrated at, less proximal sites than coarser and
heavier heavy minerals. Thus gold placers might be expected to form close
to source, while rutile, ilmenite, zircon and monazite will continue to be
transported over considerable distances, leading to their major
concentration in coastal regions (e.g., Richard's Bay, South Africa).

The coarsest fractions are deposited in the deepest parts of the channel
and the finer sediments in the shallower, upper part of the point bar. As
 -77-

the channe 1 mi grates 1atera lly (by eros i on of the outer bank), the point
bar likewise accretes laterally, forming a tabular deposit that fines
upwards. In most cases, the bed-forms are dunes in the deepest part of the
channel, and ripples in the shallower upper portion. Hence point-bar
deposits show an upward change from large-scale to small-scale cross-
stratification as well as a grain-size decrease.

De Wit (1983) discovered that the highest concentrations of fine-grained

heavy minerals occurs on the ripple crests on the upstream top surface of
distal point bars. Allen (1964) recognised coarser lags in the troughs of
cross-beds from the deepest parts of meandering channels of the Devonian
Old Rea Sandstone in Wales.

Figures 34 and 35 show an exploration mode 1 for heavy mi nera 1s in a

meandering system, based on these aspects . .

/1
,,/' /

FIG. 34. Meandering stream prospecting model. Gravel deposition and

formation of pay streaks in a rapidly flowing meandering stream, In
which meanders migrate laterally and downstream. Stream arrows
indicate point of cutting.
1, original position; 2, intermediate position; and 3,. pr~sent
position of stream. Deposits formed at a, b, c, or at inside of
meanders of stream 1, become extended downstream and laterally in
direction of heavy arrow to aI, b1 and cIon the present stream,
and buried pay streaks result. (After Jensen and Bateman, 1979).
 -78-

MAIN FACTS INTERPRETATION

==
CD

to ~"
CD

"
~ ~ ,. • .,. ~I ' . i th ••• d ........ at beddi ..... \JowtIc:oI .urlll_ depo";' t,_ _ rbonll
CD CO Spot •• eak:io.o", cot"boMIhI _ .. ;0.... llaod .. ~bt., cMpOtil..t in boc.II--.,
CD
"
~ ... lnrw9I1.brol. bul"ro.. in low. port.
S-,aul 01.......
OI'-.,...hiIIIIM II _ _
I• •.
OI''''~'

CD
~.
to
CD to
"
.....
CO
...CD" CD

...;:r= ...CD" >

~. " "
<II
CD
"""CDCO
9" ,... " CD
,...
rt
,M.
CD CO ,...
t-'
==
VO/iobt. 'Nell".... of '1P'9! ..... ift
bldd,d • •• ,., fi",. $ondslo.... C,od" Uf'
YHf~
flood ..
ac:C,..,ioot depot;' Irom _bOItII
"'.001,. ~r 01 II
...=
II , .....
'" (lQ CD

"'"
inlo ,;11.10111. ''''''''',brent bwll'O'W&" point-bar ....... till"".
'" ;:r
;:r
rt ~"
'" ~"'"
};' 0 CD
'<l
,..". ...
...rt til
n ~
",... "'" =
rt
"..... ==
CD
" ...=
CD

~ ~. Whit. 10 I"II"t_, Ii... 10 rn.d~ •••11

~
eh...... doo01l11 pt'ObQbI., FornIM by
CD ...'" t>l "
..... .or'" I"...htonn S j l~l_ doWs e_ .... IOI_1M oc:erolio" CHI II PCIi",-Oar. Sond

=
rt
l' ...." ...CDCO ~ '"
rrafed ot bot. Gnd scoller" lI'Ir!lU9f*&l
""'tI
porIed D bed-loao _ ,1".. bM form"
·dun..•. StrOl'lQ. ¥O,i a~ t ............
rt
= ,... Trou<;l'" o;:ton-.trollfl ,d. IO-90at! ;"'0 lu_
CIl

...0rt
",..
rt
0 .... '<l
CIl
(lQ
=
CD
... " "
11'Iio::1I. COMorr.d cros.-ur",. II .... 110. .
orld micfdr ••
SlItsl.". dents ,.".". r~ tonc:""rol. wh_
~ ..... _ d ........

,... = " "..... t:lCD

=
(lQ
,..~ " CIl
'tl ...CDn
rt CD
~ ,...n "en
CD Coo, on ,.lIslon • . MQu_ •• Ii., "eM. E,01Iio .. 01 de.".., pot'l ot _.-.cI.InV

(- CD

" " F_ dWlcriOf'ClI U ; _ " '.. e'...... ";"0' dlo ....!.

Interstice Entrapment 1 GENERAL LEGENQ

R ll>c" -~d.d I i,.. 10
m,d ... ,.., .Qncbl_

R,ppl, -to,deI" ~.,.,

"111 101\01101'11

Flol-b.-dde4 11M III

"'.d'........ IOIOd.I'O ",
Ftol-l)edd,d ."'1
,in, ,end.tOOlS

FIG. 35. Vertical profile model of a single meandering stream depositional

cycle showing distribution of heavy minerals and processes.
(Modified fro m Allen, 1964).
 -79-

3.3 SAMPLE SITE SELECTION

To some extent, the selection of sample sites is obvious from the models
presented in the previous sections. However, it is stressed that, as in
geochemical sampling, some orientation work is required in order to
discover the optimum heavy mineral sampling sites. In arid regions, for
example, a surficial lag may develop by wind deflation over unconsolidated
fluvial sediments, making this the most attractive sampling horizon.
Eva 1uat i on of "trap" sites has been performed by vari ous workers in
different environments, working with different heavy minerals. Clearly,
such stud i es are of 1imited use in new areas . However, certa i n samp 1e
sites do appear repeatedly in the 1 iterature as representing "good" trap
sites. A review of some of these sites follows.

In a field experiment to test the efficiency of fluvial trap sites in

concentrating kimberlitic indicator minerals, Muggeridge (1989) was able to
rank natura 1 sites in order of effectiveness. The stream chosen was a
bra i ded perenn i a 1 dra i nage on the Kimber 1ey craton in northern Western
Austra 1i a. The i nd i cator mi nera 1s recovered in the experiment were all in
the + 0.4 to - 2 mm size fraction.

The poorest samples were collected at sites with relatively few clasts,
a lthough some of these contained concentrat ions of finer probab ly non-
kimberl itic heavy minerals. Figure 36 summarises the trap sites in terms
of efficiency of concentrating the kimberlitic indicators.

A similar study was undertaken by Matheys (1990) on diamondiferous gravels

of the Vaal River in South Africa. These gravels comprise a palaeo-braided
system in wh i ch there is a genera 1 decrease in average stone size ina
downstream direct ion. The best prox ima 1 trap sites were found to be
ri chest in the coarsest, 1-2 mm s i ze i nd i cators, whereas the best di sta 1
trap sites were enriched in the finest 0.3 - 0.5 mm indicators. The
characteristics of the best sites were simi lar to those found in the
Australian study.
 -80-

rlow DlrecllOn

r. l<lst Sl'Fpf)rte-fJ. tllJhf/'t paclc",tj, poorly sortq.rj

(pvel ln ~1I·fo,me<j bedrock depre<;Slon. pelhole
or crP.VICe- Cla st; ran'JE!" trom boulders to peCbl"'<;
Gonn In size and Include- aOundanl: IM? 1I·rounded typ"'s
Matrix co nbm<; ~a nfj and Slit Exc ::a val!on tl)
bedl'ock ",n hanc.;.<; ~ite- rallnfj Lack of boukJ~r>
rlmlntshes rat'"')

Clast supported. tig htly paCke-d. poorly sOrle-d

tya'l'el upstream or downstream of prominent rocle
MOO[lIrll[ bar or la r']e- coulder and preferably at a lev",. WI!,!!
TO r,oou be .ow the or.slTuc tlr.. n Clasts range trorn coulrJ.;./""i
t? pebbles In Sill? and Inc lude abundant well.
rounrJed types M<tlrtx contains sand a nd Sl~
Excavation to beflrock enhances site r.ltlng

Clast supported. poortl sorted grav",' amon!)st

bOIJId..-rs Par.leln'J modera tli'to IllJht Cla sts
range frern gener.l lly small bou lders to pebc[es In
size and Include at lEe-as! some we [l·rounded
MOII£nnT( types . MalTlx Includes sand and Silt AssociatIOn
with some kind cf Qbsb'uctlQn. excavatio n to
bedrock. and re [atlVe abundance ef well.rounded
clasts enhance site rating.

M atrlx supported, generally loosely packed gra'l'el

strewn on fiver bed and not associated with any

~*'
#~"b
POOR TO
MOOERATE
distinct obstrUction Sorting IS moderate to poor.
Bou'ders are rare or absent. Clasts mam[y range
rrom cobbJe$ to pebbles and may not Include well.
rounded l'/pes MatrIx contams sand and Silt.

Mab'ix supported, very [oosely packed, fine gravel.

~ ;. ~':":,
. ' ~,~~:7-- . . ;r-:':;.,
, . .' ' :',
POOR Clasts are relatively rare, range (rom minor small
. ;:. : Sen<l ; . ; ~ :\:::: ,~.
. .. pebbles to common grn.nules, and orten fOITTl a
surface ve neer on sand or are confmed to Iso[ated
o metre, lenses wlthm a sand mass MatrIx is of sand, or
.1 Silt, or both No assoCiated obslJ'uction.

FIG. 36. Broad field classification of heavy mineral trap sites. Diagrams
are of river bed cross-sections parallel to main water flow
direction. (After Muggeridge, 1989).

Fi ne-gra i ned heavy minera 1s are part i cu 1ar ly suscept i b le to processes of

flow separation as reviewed in section 2.4.3. At sites of abrupt changes
in bed geometry, such as obstacles, ripples and bedrock depressions,
turbulence caused by flow separation may produce efficient heavy mineral
concentration, particularly by selective entrainment of less dense
particles. These sites are sometimes clearly visible by the abundance of
dark heavy minerals such as magnetite.

For example, McQuivey and Keefer (1969) showed how the intensity of
turbu l ence from the trough to the crest of ripples may be used to explain
the segregat i on of magnet ite and other fi ne heavy mi nera 1s beh i nd the
crests of ripples. Such studies are particularly useful in indicating
sites of concentration in suspension load-dominated meandering streams.
 -81-

3.4 EXPLORATION APPLICATIONS OF TRANSPORT TRENDS

Resistance to change is provided in varying degrees by the chemistry of

placer minerals, and by their phys i cal propert i es of hardness, cleavage,
toughness, size, shape and textural associations . Certain minerals survive
the processes of weathering, erosion and fluvial transport preferentially
compared with many of the rock-forming minerals with which they set out.
Th i s was demonstrated by Ruhe and Cady (1967) when they measured the
particle size distribution in two different soils . They showed that of the
minerals present, zircon persisted better than any others.

The experiments of Linkholm (1968) explained the abundance of gem and the
near absence of industrial quality diamonds on the west coast of southern
Africa. A ball mill was charged with gravel and steel balls, together with
s i x industrial and six gem quality diamonds. It was then run for a total
period of 950 h. Each hour, the contents was washed over a 60 mesh screen
and the oversize returned to the mi 11. After only 7h, the industrial
diamonds had disintegrated. After 950 h, the total weight loss of the six
gems was hardly measurable at (0.01%), whilst the gravel loss was 40%.

Such stud i es demonstrate the concept of transport trends, wh i ch may be

usefully applied to exploration. In the following section, the transport
trends of surface textures and population ratios will be outlined in terms
of their exploration applications .

3.4. 1 Surface Textures

Surface textures are microrelief features of the grain surface and are
independent of size, shape or roundness. Less abrasion and transport are
required to modify these details in comparison with the change of grain-
size, shape and roundness. For examp Ie Wentworth (1922) determined that
about 560 m of fluvial transport would remove glacial striations from
limestone pebbles, and Bond (1954) noted that the frosting of sands of the
Kalahari desert is lost in less than 64 Km of transport down the Zambezi
River . The app 1i cat i on of surface texture stud i es of heavy mi nera 1s to
determine the distance from source is discussed in two examples : i)
kimberlitic indicators i and ii) detrital gold.
 -82-

Kimberlitic Indicators

Despite the recent success of aeoromagnetic surveys in the location of

alkaline intrusives (e.g . , Reed and Sinclair, 1991), the strongest tool in
the exploration for diamond-bearing kimberlites remains the field
collection of mantle-derived xenocrysts which are disaggregated during
emplacement and weathering of the kimberlite and dispersed into the surface
environment. The most important i nd i cator xenocrysts are pyrope garnet,
picroilmenite, magnesian chromite and chrome diopside. Minerals such as
olivine, ph logopite, serpent ine and ch lorite read i ly breakdown chemi ca lly
and/or mechanically and they are therefore generally unsuitable as
indicators. Zircon may be a useful indicator, but its kimberlitic nature
is difficult to demonstrate (Mosig, 1980). Diamond itself is, of course, a
useful indicator, but its high resistance to wear means that surface
texture studies are of little practical use in exploration.

The major advantage of the use of indicator minerals in exploration, is

that anomalies can be subjected to geochemical analysis and ranked
accord i ng to a "degree of interest" (e. g. Gurney, 1984 ; Dummett et a 1. ,
1987 ; Thompkins, 1987; Gurney and Moore, 1991). In regions of suitable
geomorphology, it is most convenient to collect stream samples (e.g.
Gregory and Wh ite, 1989 - in Western Austra 1i a ; Thompk ins, 1987 - in
Brazil). but in such surveys, the distance from source is difficult to
judge, part i cu 1ary in higher-order dra i nages. The surface textures of
indicators provide a means of estimating distance from source .

Mosig (1980) sub-dived picroilmenite and pyrope garnet into three classes
respectively, based upon their degree of wear. This classification can be
summarised as follows:

Picroilmenite

i) Proximate to source . Within 2km of source, about 10-20% of the

grains are very angular, with pitted surfaces and very fresh fracture
surfaces. The remainder are at least partially coated by
porcellaneous leucoxene (presumably formed in the weathering
mantle over the kimberlite).
 -83-

ii) Fresh worn picroilmenite. Grains 2-4 km from source are sub-rounded
with matt surfaces, and some are freshly fractured.

iii) Worn picroilmenite. At a distance greater than 4 km from source,

grains are rounded, often with percussion marks.

Garnet

i) Proximate to source. Rounded and fractured grains are present, but

most retain their kelyphitic rims (kelyphite represents a reaction
rim formed between the garnet and the kimberlitic fluid during
. emplacement) . The kelyphite survives up to 1 km.

ii) Fresh-worn garnet. A pitted grain surface is exposed beneath the

kelyphite. This surface survives up to 3 km from source.

iii) Worn garnet. At distances greater than 3 km, garnets become smooth
and rounded, and some may exhibit frosting.

This summary indicates that surface textures, which can be recognised in

the field, may provide useful i nformation regarding proximity to source.
It must be remembered, however, that kimberlitic indicators will not behave
in this manner in all (or even most) situations. The samples used by Mosig
(op . cit . ) came from the Pine Creek diatreme in South Australia. It would
be unreasonable to assume that the wear criteria described would correspond
to similar transport distances in, say, the jungles of Brazil. McCandless
(1990) has recognised this problem. In experimental studies of xenocryst
wear he found that minerals are transported with less wear when the
proportion of fine-grained material is increased. Presumably, the fine-
grained component cushions the xenocrysts from contact with other clasts by
i ncreasing the overall viscosity of the sed iment charge . This suggests that
the nature of the bedrock, as well as the stream type and the
nature of discharge are key influences in determining the degree of wear .
 -84-

The transport abrasion of detrital gold has been experimentally studied by

Yeend (1975), who noted that its malleability results primarily in changes
of grain shape and surface textures . The main conclusion of this work is
that ve loc ity of the part i c le appears to be the more important factor
controlling abrasion than the distance of transport. For example, a four-
fold increase in velocity produced a ten-fold increase i n the rate of gold
abrasion. Furthermore, the abrasion is hi,gher when a low proportion of
fine-grained sediment is present, and vice versa (cf. McCandless, 1990).

Hallbauer and Utter (1977) have studied the morphological characteristics

of gold grains in streams draining the Barberton Mountainland of South
Africa . Primary gold in the area was found to be crystalline and
the preservation of at least part of this morphology was found to be
characteristic of alluvial gold particles transported over short distances
in rivers.

The characteristics of gold particles transported up to 30 km include

numerous scratches on the surface and bent and hammered edges. Nuggets are
common. Prolonged transport imparts a "dough-like" microtexture. Repeated
folding of previously flattened particles occurs, and scratches on earlier
surfaces can be observed on the inner side of the fold edges. Grains
transported over 80 km are primarily flakes. The fineness of the gold
(Au/Au + Ag x 1000) was also found to increase with transport, presumably
because of chemical leaching of silver.

Applying these criteria to the detrital gold from the Witwatersrand, the
transport distances for these grains appears to be in the order of 10 to 30
km. It should be noted, however, that much of the , gold of the
Witwatersrand may have been transported in association with sand-rich
sediment charges .

3 . 4 . 2 Population Ratios

The concept of mineralogical maturity in clastic sediments is well known.

The concept can be applied to detrital heavy minerals such that ratios of
 -85-

more-stable to less-stable minerals provide an index of maturity and,

assuming only mechanical wear attributable to transport, these indicate
proximity to source. For example, diamondiferous gravels of the lower
Orange River conta i n high qua 1ity diamonds. Almost a 11 of the fl awed
stones are inferred to have been destroyed during transport from the
craton i c source area to the east, along with the kimber 1it i c i nd i cator
minerals, pyrope garnet, picroilmenite and chrome diopside (van Wyk and
Piennar, 1986). Conversely, diamonds in the lower Vaal River bas i n are
associated with kimberlitic indi cator minerals and a relatively high
proportion of poor-quality stones (Matheys, 1990) . These alluvial diamonds
are located within a few kilometres of their probable kimberlitic sources ..

Mos i g (1981) reports that the elongate, fibrous chrome diopsides from South
Australian kimberlites are broken down to sizes too small to recover beyond
3 km of transport in streams. Numeric ratios of chrome diopside to, say,
garnet may therefore give an indication of proximity to source.

Note, however, that mineralogical ratios may change, not as a consequence

of differential survival, but of differential hydraulic equivalence brought
about by density, size or shape differences. An example would be the
relative displacement of gold- and uranium-rich facies in the Steyn placer
of the Witwatersrand goldfield (section 3.2.2). Furthermore, the transport
survival of grains is presumably also a function of the parameters
identifi ed in the previous section (i.e. proportion of fine-grained
sed iment, rate of transport, etc). Fi na 11y, the study of changes in
population ratios requires an estimate of the proportions present in the
source, which is, in the case of exploration, unknown.

3.4. 3 Conclusions

Transport trends are, at first glance, an attractive means of estimating

transport distance from source of heavy mi nera 1s. However, the abras ion
characteristics are found to be determined not only by the quantifiable
factor of transport distances, but also by the less quantifiable factors of
environmental conditons . One might visualize a fresh, un abraded mi neral
grain be i ng transported in suspension in a silt-rich sediment charge during
a flash flood, and being rapidly deposited without wear at the apex of an
 -86-

alluvial fan system 100 km downstream. The second problem is a practical

one. The study of surface textures is skilled (in order to be objective),
time-consuming and expensive (espec i ally if a scanning electron microscope
is required).

The application of population ratios suffers from the same drawbacks.

Furthermore, changes in mineralogical proportions may be effected by
hydraulic processes alone, and the exploration geologist is seldom sure of
the proportions of minerals present in the source rocks.

It is concluded that, whilst the use of transport trends will remain a tool
in mineral exploration, its application is limited to the broad scale, or
to projects in which some degree of control exists, derived from
orientation studies.
CONCLUSIONS

Detrita 1 heavy mi nera 1s are a 1imited group with d i st inct phys i ca 1 and
chemical properties. Their presence in alluvial systems of all kinds may
be of economic value both as mineral deposits in their own right (i.e.
placers) and as pathfinders to deposits drained by rivers.

Economi ca lly, the most important all uvi alp 1acers compri se go 1d, diamond
and cass iterite depos its. The genes i s of these is a consequence of the
complex interplay between tectonic setting and geomorphic evolution. It
can generally be stated that major alluvial gold placers develop on the
flanks of rising mountain chains during orogenesis, where the primary lode
gold was emplaced in the overriding plate during subduction of oceanic
crust, prior to collision. Where conditions are unfavourable for the
emplacement of I-type granitoids (i.e. where sUbduction of oceanic crust is
limited or absent) then primary hydrothermal gold is unlikely to be
emplaced, and · such orogenies are unlikely to spawn major deposits of
alluvial gold. A good example of such a collision belt is provided by the
European Alps. Here, the development of oceanic crust was limited and
the plate margin motion was dominantly lateral. Subduction of oceanic
crust was not therefore developed on any substantial scale, except over an
area between Yugoslavia and Iran (Evans, 1975). This has resulted in a
1ack of I -type magmati sm and the consequent absence of hydrotherma 1 go 1d
deposits (as well as related deposits such as porphyry copper). Molasse
basins marginal to the European Alps are not therefore likely to host
significant gold placers. Of course smaller gold placers may develop
locally under suitable conditions, adjacent to any pre-existing gold
deposit. An example might be the Caeonozoic alluvial gold deposits at
Bourkes Luck on the Blyde River in the eastern Transvaal, which have formed
in response to a rejuvenation event (or events) from primary Archaean
sources in the Pilgrims Rest goldfield 12 km upstream.

The relatively quiescent tectonics associated with cratonic areas, means

that climate plays a far more significant role in the genesis of diamond
(and some minor gold) placers. Morphogenic regions in which humid tropical
conditions have alternated with semi-arid conditions, are those which may
liberate minerals by deep weathering, and transport them during flood
events. Such regions have a high potential for the development of alluvial
placers.
 -88-

Rejuvenat ion events enhance thi s potent i a 1 by encouragi ng rework ing of

sediment in the drainage channel, and producing terraces, thus preserving
placers. Rejuvenat i on may be as a resu 1t of cont inenta 1 upwarpi ng, or
base- leve 1 fa 11 s. These events a 1so produce loca 1 bra i di ng of coarse-
sediment choked rivers which provides appropriate conditions for the
formation of gravel-related placers in regions of suitable bedrock.

The grain-scale concentrating processes which control .heavy mineral

accumulation can be divided into those involving hydraulic equivalence
between the sediment grains deposited (generally finer-grained lag
deposits), and those involving interstice entrapment of heavy minerals
within gravels.

By far the most important process for concentration of fine-grained heavy

minerals involves the concept of entrainment equivalence, whereby
generally coarser, lighter minerals are selectively entrained by the stream
flow.

Interstice entrapment is the most important mechanism for the accumulation

of heavy minerals in most alluvial placers, and may occur in the proximal-
to mid - fan reaches of alluvial fan systems as well as the main thalweg of
meandering streams containing coarse sediment.

These processes may be enhanced by the occurrence of flow separation at

sites where channel morphology changes. These changes in morphology may
occur at the large-scale, such as at the confluence of two channels, down
to the small-scale, such as in the lee of ripples.

The appreciation of these controls on heavy mineral distribution, enables

the development of geologic models which can guide exploration. These
mode 1s are based upon the domi nant infl uences contro 11 i ng heavy minera 1
distribution at different scales. Thus on the continental scale, tectonic
and morphogen i c sett i ng are the domi nant contro 1s; at the system scale,
climate and basin dynamics are dominant; and at the bar scale and smaller,
flow separation and grain-scale concentrating processes dictate heavy
mineral accumulation.
 -89-

Studies of the dynamics of river systems and their facies models, aided by
empirical studies of heavy mineral distribution within rivers, have enabled
the development of prospecting models for the two main types of river
system ; bra i ded and meanderi ng. These mode 1s are intended to gu i de
exploration programmes to the most promising sites of heavy mineral
accumulation, and to indicate likely trends in their distribution. Grain
size is found to be an important parameter in governing this distribution.

Whilst it has been beyond the intended scope of this review to discuss
evaluation of placers, it should be clear that the genetic process history
of placers provides an indication of how to subdivide a deposit into
separate sampl ing "strata", each with its own characteristic grade and
tonnage. Examples mentioned in this review include the Auchas alluvial
diamond deposit on the Orange River in Namibia, which can obviously be
subdivided into the valley-fill and channel-fill facies (section 2.3 . 2);
the Otago alluvial gold deposits of South Island, New Zealand, which can be
subdivided into cycles of fluvial degradation developed in response to
intermittent tectonism (section 2.2.1); and the stanniferous placers of the
Tujuh archipelago in Indonesia, which can be subdivided into Kuli~ Kaksa
and Miencan concentrat ions, correspond i ng to the stages of placer evo 1ut i on
(sect ion 2.1. 4) . An understandi ng of the geomorph i c hi story therefore
provides descriptive and genetic terrain models which can also be used by
mining geologists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wou ld 1ike to thank De Beers Conso 1i dated Mi nes, Ltd. for 'permi ss ion and
financial support in the undertaking of the M.Sc . Exploration Geology
course and in particular my colleague Mike de Wit for his initial
encouragement.

Numerous people have willingly shared their experience and expertise, and
thanks are expressed to the following Rhodes University academic staff for
maintaining an open-door policy throughout the year: Prof. N. Hiller,
Prof. J.S. Marsh, Prof. H.V. Eales, Prof. R.E. Jacob, Dr. A.R. Butcher, Dr.
B. Teigler, and Mr C. Mallinson. I am particularly indebted to Prof. John
Moore, whose enthus i asm, constructive criti ci sms and abi 1ity to convey
often complex concepts in a readily understandable way, has been a constant
source of inspiration. Special thanks are also extended to Dr. Teigler for
proof-reading the text of this dissertation.

My fe 11 ow students, with their diverse geo logi ca 1 backgrounds, offered

encouragement, experi ence and compan ionsh ip, and thei r contri but ions are
gratefully acknowledged.

Finally, it is difficult to convey the appreciation I feel for my wife

Colleen, to whom the successful completion of this year's studies owes so
much. She has remained a tower of spiritual strength for me, as well as
accepting the task of typing this and numerous other reports without
comp 1a into
REFERENCES

Adams, J., Zimpfer, G. L. and McLane, C.F. (1978) Basin dynamics, channel
processes, and placer formation a model study.
Econ. Geol., V. 73 : 416 - 426.

Aleva, G.J.J. (1983) On weathering and denudation of humic tropical

interfluves and their triple planation surface . Geol.
Mijnbouw, V.62 : 383 - 388 .

Aleva, G.J.J. (1985) Indonesian fluvial cassiterite placers and their

genetic environment. J. geol. Soc. London, V.142 :
815 - 836 .

Aleva, G.J.J., Bon, H.E., Nossin, J.J. and Sluiter, W.J. (1973) A
contribution to the geology of part of the Indonesian
Tinbelt : the sea area between Singkap and Bangka
Islands and around Karimata Island. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Malaysia, No.6, pp. 257 - 272.

Allen, J .R.L . (1964) Studies in fluviatile sedimentation six cyclothems

from the Lower Old Red Sandstone, Anglo-Welsh Basin.
Sedimentology, V. 3 : 163 - 198.

Anderade Ramos, J.R. and Fraenkel, M.D. (1974) Uranium occurrences in

Brazilj Int. Atomic Energy Agency - SM - 183/24,
pp. 637 - 658 .

Atkinson , W.J., Smith, C.B. and Boxer, G.L. (1984) The discovery and
geology of the Argyle diamond deposits, Kimberley,
Western Australia. Proc. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall.
Ann. Conf . Darwin, Aug. 1984, 141 - 149.

Axsel, K. (1988) Operating diamond mines in the Republic of South Africa.

Dept. of Energy and Mineral Affairs, R.S.A.

Battey, M. H. (1981) Mineralogy for Students. Longman, England, 355 pp.

Best, J.L. and Reid, I (1984) Separation zone at open-channel junctions.

Proc . Am. Soc. Civ . Engnrs. J . Hydraul . Engrg., 110 :
1588 - 1594.
 -92-

Best, J.L. and Brayshaw, A.C. (1985) Flow separation - a physical process
for the concentration of heavy minerals within alluvial
channels. J. geol. Soc. London, V. 142: 747 - 755.

Blatt, H., Middleton, G. and Murray, R. (1972) Origin of sedimentary rocks.

Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 634 pp.

Bond, G. (1954) Surface textures of sand grains from the Victoria Falls
area. J. Sed. Pet., V.24 : 191 - 195.

Boyle, R.W . (1979) The geochemistry of gold and its deposits.

Bull. geol. Surv. Canada, 280, 584.

Brayshaw, A.C., Frostick, L.E. and Reid, I. (1983) The hydrodynamics of

particle cluster and sediment entrainment in coarse
alluvial channels. Sedimentology, 30 : 137 - 143.

Breeding, W. H. (1986) Tin dredging in the high Bolivian Andes, World

Mining, 21: 35 - 38.

Callaghan, C (1979) Tin placer deposits How and where to find them.
Geol. Surv. S. Afr. Open file Report No. 121, 36 pp .

Camm, G.S. and Hosking, K.F.G. (1985) Stanniferous placer development on

an evolving landsurface with special reference to
placers near St.Austell, Cornwall. J. geol. Soc. London,
V.142 : 803 - 813.

Cobb, E.H. (1973) Placer deposits of Alaska. Bull. U.S. geol. Surv., No.1374 .

Coleman, J.M. (1969) Brahmaputra River: channel processes and

sedimentation. Sediment. Geol . , V. 3. 129 - 239.

Collinson, J.D. (1986) Alluvial sediments. In : Reading, H.G. (Ed.).

Sedimentary Environments and Facies, Blackwell Sci. Publ.,
Oxford, pp. 20 - 54.
 -93-

Corbett, I. (1989) The sedimentology of diamondiferous deflation deposits

within the Sperrgebiet, Namibia. Unpublished Phd. thesis,
U. C. T., 433 pp.

Curtis, C.D. (1976) Stability of minerals in surface reactions: a

general thermochemical approach. Earth Surface Proc.,
V. 1 : 63 - 70.

Dana, E.S. (1932) A Textbook of Mineralogy. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 851 pp.

Dawson, J.B. (1980) Kimberlites and their xenoliths. Springer - Verlag,

Berl in.

Dawson, P. (1990) A sedimentary appraisal· of the Schutsekama gravels.

Hans. thesis, Wits. University (unpubl.).

Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A and Zussman, J. (1982) An Introduction to the

Rock Forming Minerals. Longman, England, 528 pp.

Dummett, H. T., Fipke, C.E. and Blusson, S. L. (1987) Diamond exploration

geochemistry in the North American Cordillera .
In : I.L. Elliot and B. W. Smeer (Eds.)
Geoexpo/96 : Proceedings of an exploration symposium
focussing on Cordilleran environments. Vancouver,
Canada, pp. 168 - 176.

Dury, G.H. (1971) Relict deep weathering and duricrusting in relation to

the palaeoenvironments of middle latitudes .
Geogr. J., V.137 : 511 - 522 .

Els, B.G. (1991) The gilded Archaean unconformities. In : Eriksson, P.G.

(Ed . ), Precambrian Sedimentary Basins of Southern Africa,
Terra abstracts, supp . 3 to V. 3l, p. 11.
 -94-

Emery, K.O. Noakes, L.J. (1968) Economic Placer Deposits of the Continental
Shelf, ECAFE Technical Bulletin Vol. 1, CCOP, Bangkok.

Evans, A.M. (1975) Mineralization in Geosynclines - the Alpine Enigma.

Mineralium Deposita, 10 : 254 - 260.

Frakes, K.A. (1979) Climates throughout Geologic Time. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Fraser, H.J. (1935) Experimental study of the porosity and permeability of

clastic sediments. J. geol. Chicago, V. 43 : 910 - 1010.

Frick, C. (1987) Stream sediment geochemical anomalies for uranium on

granite plutons with high and low zirconium contents.
J. Geochem. Explor., 29 : 405 - 406.

Frostick, L.E., Lucas, P.M. and Reid, I. (1984) The infiltration of fine
matrices into coarse grained alluvial sediments and its
implications for stratigraphical interpretation. J. geol.
Soc. London, V. 141 : 955 - 965.

Gregory, G. P. and White, D.R . (1989) Collection and Treatment of

diamond exploration samples. In: Kimberlites
and Related Rocks, Vol. 2. Proceedings of the Fourth
International Kimberlite Conference, Perth, 1986.
G.S.A. Spec. Publ. No. 14 : 1123 - 1134.

Gurney, J.J. (1984) A correlation between garnets and diamonds in

Kimberlites. In: J.E. Glover and P. G. Harris (Eds . )
Kimberlite . Occurrence and Origin: Conceptual Models
in Exploration. Publ. Geol. Dep. Extens. Serv., Univ.
of Western Australia, 8 : 143 - 166.

Gurney, J.J . and Moore, R.O . (1991) Kimberlitic garnet, chromite and
ilmenite compositions applications to exploration.
 -95-

Hails, J.R . (1976) Placer Deposits. In: Wolf, K.H. (Ed.) Handbook of
Strata-bound and Stratiform Ore Deposits, V.3: 123 -
239.

Hall, A.M., Thomas, M.F. and Thorp, M. B. (1985) Late Quaternary alluvial
placer development in the humid tropics: the case of
the Birim Diamond Placer, Ghana . J. geol. Soc. London,
v. 42 : 777 -787.

Hallbauer, D.K. and Utter, T. (1977) Geochemical and morphological

characteristics of gold particles from recent river deposits
and the fossil placer of the Witwatersrand. Mineralium
Deposita, V. 12 : 293 - 306.

Harger, H.S. (1909) The occurrence of diamonds in Dwyka conglomerate and

amygdaloidal lavas, and the origin of Vaal River diamond.
Trans. Geol. Soc. S.Afr., Vol . 12, 139 - 158.

Henley, R.W., Norris, R.J. and Paterson, C.J. (1976) Multistage ore
genesis in the New Zealand geosyncline: a history of
post-metamorphic lode emplacement. Mineral. Deposita,
11 : 180 - 196.

Henley, R.W. and Adams, J. (1979) On the evolution of giant gold placers.
Trans. Instn. Min. Metall., 88 : B41 - 50.

Jansen, M.L. and Bateman, A.M. (1979) Economic mineral deposits .

John Wiley and Sons, pp. 213 - 238.

Johnston, C.H. (1984) Placer Deposits: A review of their geology

and processes of formation that influence their
economic viability. M.Sc dissertation, Rhodes
University (unpubl.).

Kartashov . I.P . (1971) Geological features of alluvial placers.

Econ . Geol., V. 66 : 879 - 885 .
 -96-

King (1951) South African Scenery . Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 379pp.

Komar, P.O. and Wang, C. (1984) Processes of selective grain transport and the
formation of placers on beaches, J. Geol . Chicago, 92 :
637 - 655.

Leeder, M. R. and Bridges, P.H. (1975) Flow separation in meander bends.

Nature, London, V. 253 : 338 - 339.

Leeder, M.R. (1982) Sedimentology: Process and Product.

George Allen and Unwin, London, 344 pp.

Leopold, L.B. and Wolman, M.G. (1957) River channel patterns, braided
meandering and straight. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap.
282 - B.

Levinson, A.A. (1974) Introduction to Exploration Geochemistry. Applied

Publishing Ltd., Wilmette, Illinois, U.S.A., 924p.

Lidstone, C.D . (1981) The development of alluvial placer deposits.

M.Sc. thesis (unpubl.) Colorado State University.

Linkholm, A.A. (1968) Occurrence, mining and recovery of diamonds.

Mining and minerals engineering, August, 1968.

Lynn. M.D. (1991) Diamonds. Commodity report, Module EVT.

M.Sc Explor. Geol., Rhodes University (unpubl.).

Macdonald, E.H. (1983) Alluvial Mining The geology, technology and

economics of placers. Chapman and Hall, london, 508 pp .

Mason, R. (1991) Felsic magmatism and hydrothermal gold deposits - a

tectonic perspesctive. In: Proceedings 8th International
Basement Tectonics Conference - Butte, Montana, (In pre ss).
 -97-

Matheys, F.G. (1990) The alluvial diamond deposits of the Lower Vaal River
between Barkly West and the Vaal-Harts confluence in the
northern Cape Province, South Africa, M.Sc. thesis,
Rhodes University (unpubl.).

McCandless, T.E. (1990) Kimberlite xenocryst wear in high energy fluvial

systems: experimental studies . J. Geochem. Explor . , 34
323 - 331 .

McGowan, J.H. and Groat, C.G. (1973) Van Horn Sandstone, West Texas: An
alluvial "fan prospecting model for mineral exploration .
Bureau of Econ. Geology, Univ . Texas at Austin, 57 pp.

McLaurin, A.N . (1978) Geochemical dispersion from the Gamsberg orebody,

northwestern Cape, South Africa .
J. Geochem . Explor., 10 : 295 - 306.

McQuivery, R.S. and Keefer, T.N. (1969) The relation of magnetite over ripples.
Prof. Pap . U.S. geol. Surv. 650 D, 244 - 247.

Miall, A.D. (1977) A review of the braided river depositional environment

Earth Sci. Rev., V.13, p. 1 - 62.

Miall, A.D. (1978) Lithofacies types and vertical profile models in

braided river deposits: a summary : in A.D Miall (ed . )
Fluvial Sedimentology, Canad Soc. Petrol. Geol. Memoir
5, pp. 597 - 604 .

Minter, W.E.L. (1978) A Sedimentological synthesis of placer gold, uranium

and pyite concentrations in Proterozoic Witwatersrand
sediments . In: Miall, A.D. (Ed.), Fluvial sedimentology
Canadian Society Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 5 : 89 - 99.

Minter, W.E.L . and Toens, P.D. (1970) Experimental simulation of gold

deposition in rocks. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 634 pp .
 -98-

Moore, J.M. (1991) Course notes for modules EXT, M.Sc . Explor. Geol.
course, Rhodes Un i v. (unpubl.) 76 pp.

Mosig, R.W. (1980) Morphology of indicator minerals as a guide to

proximity of source . Publ. Geol. Dep. Extens. Serv.,
Univ. of Western Australia, 5 : 81 - 88.

Mosley, M.P. and Schumm, S.A. (1977) Stream Junctions - a probable location
for bedrock placers. Econ. Geol., V. 72, p. 691 - 694.

Muggeridge, M.T. (1989) The eff i ciency of fluv i al trap sites in

concentrating kimberlitic indicator minerals and
experimental sampl i ng survey. In: Kimberlites and
related rocks, Vol . 2, Geol. Soc . Australia, spec. publ.
no . 14 : 1154 - 1168.

Partridge, T.C . and Maud, R.R. (1987) Geomorphic evolution of southern

Africa since the Mesozoic. S.Afr. J. Geol., V. 90 :
179 - 208.

Petersen, L.R. and Stendal, H. (1987) Tungsten exploration in the

Valnesfjord region, Nordland, northern Nor.way. J.
Geochem. Explor., 29 : 151 - 163.

Read, S. E. (1979) Concentration of heavy minerals in braided channel :

the effect of convergent flow . M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of
Illinois (unpubl).

Reed . L. E. and Sincla i r, I.G.L . (1991) The search for kimberl i te in the
James Bay Lowlands of Ontario. CIM Bulletin, V. 84 ,
No. 947 : 132 - 139.

Reid,I. and Frostick, L.E . (1985) Role of settling, entrainment and dispersive
equivalence and of interstice trapping in placer formation.
J. geol. Soc. London, V. 142, pp. 739 - 746.
 -99-

Rubey, W.W. (1933) The size - distribution of heavy-minerals within a water-

laid sandstone, J. Sed.Pet., V.3 : 3 - 29.

Ruhe, R.V. and Cady, J.G. (1967) The relation of Pleistocene geolo9Y and
soils between Bently and Adair in southwestern lowa,
U.S. Dept. Agric, Tech. Bull. 1349.

Schumm, S.A. (1973) Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of drainage

systems. In: Morisawa, Marie (ed.), Fluvial
Geomorphology: SUNY, Binghampton, N.Y., Publications in
Geomorphology, p. 299 - 310.

Schumm, S.A. and Parker, R. S. (1973) Implications of complex response of

drainage systems for Quaternary alluvial stratigraphy.
Nature Phys. Science, V. 243 : 99 - 100.

Scott Smith, B.H., Danchin, R.V., Harris, J.W. and Stracke, J.W. (1984)
Kimberlites near Orroroo, South Australia. In
Kornprobst, J. (ed.), Kimberlites I: Kimberlites and
Related Rocks, pp. 121 - 142. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Shackleton, N.J., Blackman, J.C. et al. (1984) Oxygen isotope calibration

of glaciation of the onset of ice-rafting and history of
glaciation in the North Atlantic region. Nature, V. 307
620 - 623.

Shumilov, Yu. V. and Shumovsky, A.G. (1975) Experimental data on the

hydraulic size of some placer minerals in the NE USSR.
Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR. V. 225 : 1174 - 1176.

Sirinawan, T., Fletcher, W.K. and Dousset, P.E. (1987) Evaluation of

geochemical methods in exploration for primary tin
deposits: Batu Gajah - Tanjong Tulang Area, Perak,
Malaysia. J. Geochem. Explor., 29 : 165 - 181.
 -100-

Slingerland, R.L. (1977) The effect of entrainment on the hydraulic

equivalence relationships of light and heavy minerals
in sand: J. Sed. Pet, 47 : 753 - 770.

Slingerland, R. (1984) Role of hydraulic sorting in the origin of fluvial

placers. J. Sed. pet., Vol. 54 : 137 - 150.

Smith, N.D . (1980) A short course on braided stream systems. Rhodes

University library (unpubl.), 55 pp.

Smith, G.L. and Eriksson, K.A. (1979) A fluvioglacial and glaciolacustrine

deltaic depositional model for Permo - Carboniferous coals
of the north-eastern Karoo Basin, South Africa: Palaeogeog.,
Palaeoclim., Palaeoecol., V. 27, P 67 - 84.

Smith, D.G. and Smith, N.D. (1980) Sedimentation in anastomosed river systems:
examples from alluvial valleys near Banff, Alberta. J. Sed.
Pet., V. 50, No. I, p. 157 - 164.

Smith, N.D . and Minter, W.E.L (1980) sedimentological controls of gold and
uranium in Witwaterand palaeoplacers. Econ. Geol. Vol . 75
1 - 14.

Sneed, E.D. and Folk, R.L. (1958) Pebbles in the Lower Colorado River, Texas.
A study in morphogenesis. J. Geol. Chicago, V. 66 : 114 -
150.

Sobolev, N.V . (1980) Siberian diamonds - minerals from the Earth's mantle.
Indiaqua 26(3) : 9 - 15.

Stanistreet, I.G. and McCarthy, T.S. (1991) Changing tectono-sedimentary

scenarios relevant to the development of the Late
Archaean Witwatersrand Basins. J. Afr. E. Sci.
13 : 65 -81.
 -101-

Thomas, M.B. (1974) Tropical Geomporpholgy. Macmillan, London.

Thompkins, L.A. (1987) Exploration for Kimberlites in the Southwest

Goias Region, Brazil: mineral chemistry of stream
sediment samples. J. Geochem. Expl., 27 : 1 - 28.

Toh, E.S.C. (1978) Comparison of exploration for alluvial tin and gold.
In : Jones, M.J. (Ed.), Proceedings, 11th Commonwealth
Mining and Metallurgical Congresss, Hong Kong: Trans,
Inst. Min . Met . , p. 259 - 278.

Tooms, J.S. (1987) Exploration for gold in the humid tropics. J. Geochem.
Explor., 29 : 437 - 439.

Van Wyk, J.P. and Piennar, L.F. (1985) Daimondiferous gravels of the lower
Orange River, Namaqualand. In: Anhaeusser, C.R. and
Maske, S. (Eds.), Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa,
Vol. II : 2209 - 2321. Geological Soc. of S.Africa,
Johannesburg.

Visser, J.N.J. and Loock, J.C. (1988) Sedimentary Facies of the Dwyka
Formation associated with the Nooitgedacht glacial
pavement, Barkly West district. S. Afr. J. Geol.,
V. 91 : 38 - 48.

Vlasov, K.A. (1958) Geochemistry and mineralogy of rare elements and genetic
types of their deposits, 3 : 614 - 633.

Wagner, P.A. (1914) The diamond fields of southern Africa. The

Transvaal Leader, Johannesburg.

Ward, J.D. (1987) The Cenozoic succession in the Kuiseb Valley central
Namib Desert. Mem. 9, Geol. Surv. Namibia, 124 pp.
 -102-

Watts, J .T., Tooms, J.S. and Webb, J.S. (1963) Geochemical dispersion of
niobium from pyrochlore-bearing carbonatites in
Northern Rhodesia. Inst. Min. Metall. Trans.
V. 72 : 729 - 747.

Wentworth, C.K. (1922) A field study of the shapes of river pebbles

Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., no. 730 - c, p. 114.

de Wit, M.C.J. (1983) Patterns of heavy mineral distribution in modern

sediments of the river South Esk, eastern Scotland.
Unpubl. M.Sc. thesis, Reading University.

de Wit, M.C.J. (in prep) Caenozoic evolution of drainage systems in the

N.W. Cape. Phd. thesis, U.C.T.

Yeend, W. (1975) Experimental abras i on of detrital gold.

Jour. Res. U.S. Geol. Surv., 3 : 203 - 212.

Zantop, H. and Nespereira, J. (1978) Heavy mineral panning techniques in

the exploration for tin and tungsten in northwestern
Spain. In: Watterson, J.R. and Theobald, P.K.
(Eds.) Geochemical Exploration, 1978, Ass. Explor.
Geochemists, pp. 329 - 336.