INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN

Chapter 1
Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

gürtaçyemişçioğlu
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OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 1

Digital Binary Binary Number-base Octal &

Systems Numbers Arithmetic Conversions Hexadecimal
Numbers

Complements Signed Binary Binary Binary Storage Binary Logic

Numbers Codes & Registers

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1.1 DIGITAL SYSTEMS
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D I G I TA L S Y S T E M S
• Digital age and information age
• Digital computers
– General purposes
– Many scientific, industrial and commercial applications
• Digital systems
– Telephone switching exchanges
– Digital camera
– Electronic calculators, PDA's
– Digital TV
• Discrete information-processing systems
– Manipulate discrete elements of information
– For example, {1, 2, 3, …} and {A, B, C, …}…
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D I G I TA L S Y S T E M S
D I G I TA L S I G N A L ANALOG SIGNAL
• The physical quantities or signals • The physical quantities or signals
can assume only discrete values. may vary continuously over a

• Greater accuracy specified range.

X(t)
X(t)

t t

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D I G I TA L S Y S T E M S
• Binary digital signal
– An information variable represented by physical quantity.
– For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete values.
• Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values.

– Binary values are represented abstractly by:

• Digits 0 and 1
• Words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
• Words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
• And words On and Off

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D I G I TA L S Y S T E M S
• Binary values are represented by values or ranges of values of
physical quantities.

V(t)

Logic 1

undefine

Logic 0
t

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1.2 BINARY NUMBERS
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BINARY NUMBERS
Decimal Number System 5 1 2 7 4
• Base (also called radix) = 10
– 10 digits 102 101 100 10-1 10-2
– { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
• Digit Position 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
– Integer & fraction 5x100 1x10 2x1 7x0.1 4x0.01
• Digit Weight
– Weight = (Base) Position 500 + 10 + 2 0.7 + 0.04
• Magnitude
– Sum of “Digit x Weight” 2 1 0 -1 -2
d2 x B + d1 x B + d0 x B +d-1 x B +d-2x B
• Formal Notation
(512.74)10
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BINARY NUMBERS
Octal Number System 5 1 2 7 4
• Base = 8
– 8 digits 82 81 80 8-1 8-2
– { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
64 8 1 1/8 1/64
• Weights
5x64 1x8 2x1 7x1/8 4x1/64
– Weight = (Base) Position
• Magnitude
320 + 8 + 2 0.875 + 0.0625
– Sum of “Digit x Weight”
• Formal Notation o2 x B2 + o1 x B1 + o0 x B0 + o-1 x B-1+o-2 x B-2
(330.9375)10
(512.74)8
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BINARY NUMBERS
Hexadecimal Number System 1 E 5 7 A
• Base = 16
– 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 162 161 160 16-1 16-2
7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F}
256 16 1 1/16 1/256
• Weights
– Weight = (Base) Position 1x256 14x16 5x1 7x1/16 10x1/256
• Magnitude
– Sum of “bit x Weight” 256 + 224 + 5 0.4375 + 0.039
• Formal Notation H2 x B2 + H1 x B1 + H0 x B0+H-1 x B-1+H-2x B-2
(458.4765625)10
(1E5.7A)16
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BINARY NUMBERS
Binary Number System 1 0 1 0 1
• Base = 2
– 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
digits or “bits”
4 2 1 0.5 0.25
• Weights
– Weight = (Base) Position 1x4 0x2 1x1 0x0.5 1x0.25
• Magnitude
– Sum of “bit x Weight” 4 + 0 + 1 0 + 0.25
• Formal Notation b2 x B2 + b1 x B1 + b0 x B0+b-1 x B-1+b-2x B-2
• Groups of bits (5.25)10
– 4 bits = Nibble, 8 bits = Byte (101.01)2
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BINARY NUMBERS
The power of 2
n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
2 22=4 10 210=1024
3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
5 25=32 20 220=1M
6 26=64 30 230=1G
7 27=128 40 240=1T

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1.3 BINARY
ARITHMETIC
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BINARY ARITHMETIC
ADDITION
Decimal Addition

5 5
+ 5 5

= Ten ≥ Base
 Subtract a Base
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BINARY ARITHMETIC
ADDITION
Binary Addition - Column Addition

1 1 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1

≥ (2)10
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BINARY ARITHMETIC
SUBTRACTION
Binary Subtraction - Borrow a “Base” when needed

1
0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
− 1 0 1 1 1

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BINARY ARITHMETIC
MULTIPLICATION
Binary Multiplication – Bit by bit
x 1 0 1 0

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1.4 NUMBER-BASE
CONVERSION
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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N

Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Decimal Magnitude Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
(Base 16)

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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N

Decimal to binary conversion

• Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

• Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient

• Take the quotient and repeat the division

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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N
Decimal (integer) to binary conversion
Example: (13)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
13 / 2 = 6 1 a0 = 1
6 /2= 3 0 a1 = 0
3 /2= 1 1 a2 = 1
1 /2= 0 1 a3 = 1
Answer: (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N

Decimal (fraction) to binary conversion

• Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

• Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient

• Take the resultant fraction and repeat the division

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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N
Decimal (fraction) to binary conversion
Example: (0.625)10

Integer Fraction Coefficient

0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 *2= 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N
Decimal (integer) to octal conversion
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2/ 8 = 0 2 a2 = 2

Answer: (175)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (257)8

MSB LSB
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N U M B E R BA S E CO N V E R S I O N
Decimal (fraction) to octal conversion
Example: (0.3125)10

Integer Fraction Coefficient

0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4

Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.24)8

MSB LSB
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 1.5 OCTAL &
HEXADECIMAL
NUMBERS
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O C TA L & H E X A D E C I M A L N U M B E R S
• Binary to octal conversion Octal Binary
• 8 = 23 0 000
• Each group of 3 bits represents an octal 1 001
digit 2 010
Example: Assume Zeros
3 011
(01 0 1 1 0 . 0 10)2 4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
( 2 6 . 2 )8
Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary)
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O C TA L & H E X A D E C I M A L N U M B E R S
Hex Binary

• Binary to hexadecimal conversion 0

1
0000

0001

• 16 = 24 2 0010

3 0011
• Each group of 4 bits represents a 4 0100

hexadecimal digit 5 0101

Example: Assume Zeros 6 0110

7 0111

8 1000
( 0001 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 00 )2 9 1001

A 1010

B 1011

C 1100

D 1101

( 1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110

F 1111
Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to Binary)
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O C TA L & H E X A D E C I M A L N U M B E R S
Example: ( 2 6 . 2 )8
• Octal to hexadecimal
conversion

• Convert to binary as an Assume Zeros

intermediate step
( 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 0 )2

( 1 6 . 4 )16

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O C TA L & H E X A D E C I M A L N U M B E R S
Decimal Octal Hex Binary

00 00 0 0000

01 01 1 0001

02 02 2 0010

03 03 3 0011

04 04 4 0100

05 05 5 0101

06 06 6 0110

07 07 7 0111

08 10 8 1000

09 11 9 1001

10 12 A 1010

11 13 B 1011

12 14 C 1100

13 15 D 1101

14 16 E 1110

15 17 F 1111

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1.6 COMPLEMENTS
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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Complements are used in digital computers to simplify the subtraction

operation and for logical manipulation. Simplifying operations leads to
simpler, less expensive circuits to implement the operations.

• There are two types of complements for each base-r system:

– diminished radix complement.

– the radix complement

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Diminished Radix Complement (r-1)’s Complement

– Given a Number = N, base = r, digits = n,

– The (r–1)’s complement of N is defined as:

(rn –1) – N

• Example for 6-digit decimal numbers:

– 9’s complement is (rn – 1)–N = (106–1)–N = 999999–N

– 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999–546700 = 453299

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• For decimal numbers r = 10 and

– (r-1) = 9, this is called 9’s complement of N.
– (10n-1)-N.
– 10n represents a number that consist of a single 1 followed by n 0’s.
– 10n-1 is a number represented by n 9’s.
• For binary numbers r = 2 and
– r-1 = 1, this is called 1’s complement of N.
– (2n-1)-N.
– 2n represents a binary number that consist of a 1 followed by n 0’s.

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• For Example: 0011

( 2 4- 1 ) – 0 0 1 1
2 4 = 10000 1111
- 1 - 0011
01111 1100
• When subtracting binary digit from 1 we can have either 1-0 =1
or 1-1 =0 which causes bit to change from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
• 1’s complement of a binary is formed by changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s.
• Example: 0 0 1 1 0 1 1  1 1 0 0 1 0 0

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Example for 7-digit binary numbers:

– 1’s complement is (rn – 1) – N = (27–1)–N = 1111111–N

– 1’s complement of 1011000 is 1111111–1011000 = 0100111

• Observation:

– Subtraction from (rn – 1) will never require a borrow

– Diminished radix complement can be computed digit-by-digit

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CO M P L E M E N T S

1’s Complement (Diminished Radix Complement)

• All ‘0’s become ‘1’s

• All ‘1’s become ‘0’s

• If you add a number and its 1’s complement …

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
+ 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Radix Complement, the r's Complement

• Given a Number = N, base = r, digits = n,
– The r’s complement of N is defined as:
rn - N, for N ≠ 0 and 0 for N = 0.
• The r's complement is obtained by adding 1 to the (r  1) 's complement,
since
– = [(rn  1) – N] + 1.
– = rn-N

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• 10’s complement of N can be formed:

– By leaving all least significant 0’s unchanged.
– By subtracting first non-zero least significant digit by 10
– By subtracting all higher significant digits from 9.
• 2’s complement of N can be formed:
– By leaving all least significant 0’s and the first 1 unchanged and
replacing 1’s with 0’s and 0’s with 1’s in all other higher significant
digits.

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Example: Base-10

– The 10's complement of 012398:

9 9 9 9 9 10
- 0 1 2 3 9 8
9 8 7 6 0 2
– The 10’s complement of 246700:
9 9 9 10 0 0
- 2 4 6 7 0 0
7 5 3 3 0 0
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CO M P L E M E N T S
• 2’s Complement (Radix Complement)
– Take 1’s complement then add 1
– Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right
Example:
Number: 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1’s Comp.: 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
+ 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Example: Base-2

– The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100

1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
+ 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Example: Base-2

– The 2's complement of 0110111 is 1001001

0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
+ 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

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CO M P L E M E N T S

• Complement of the complement restores the number to its

original value
– r’s complement of N is rn-N

– The complement of the complement is

– r n - ( r n - N ) = N  original number

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CO M P L E M E N T S
• The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M – N in base r
can be done as follows:
1. Add the minuend M to the r’s complement of the subtrahend N.
o N r’s complement = rn-N
o = M + rn-N
o = M – N+rn
2. If M ≥ N, the sum will produce an end carry rn, which can be
discarded; what is left is the result M – N.
3. If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to rn-
(N-M), which is the r’s complement of (N-M). To obtain the answer in
a familiar form, take the r’s complement of the sum and place
negative sign in front.
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CO M P L E M E N T
• Example 1.5
– Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 – 3250.
M = 72532 N = 3250
Step1: Take 10’s complement of N

9 9 9 10 0
- 3 2 5 0
9 6 7 5 0

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CO M P L E M E N T
Step2: To find the SUM, Add 10’s complement of N to M

72532
+ 96750
SUM= 169282

Step3: To find the ANSWER discard end carry 105, Subtract rn from SUM
169282
- 100000
ANSWER= 69282

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CO M P L E M E N T
• Example 1.6
– Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 - 72532.
M = 3250 N = 72532
Step1: Take 10’s complement of N

9 9 9 9 10
- 7 2 5 3 2
2 7 4 6 8

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CO M P L E M E N T
Step2: To find the SUM, Add 10’s complement of N to M
03250
+ 27468
SUM= 30718
Step3: To find the ANSWER take the –(10’s complement of SUM)

9 9 9 9 10
- 3 0 7 1 8
6 9 2 8 2

ANSWER= - 6 9 2 8 2

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CO M P L E M E N T
Example 1.7: Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011,
perform the subtraction (a) X – Y and (b) Y – X using 2’s complements.
(a) Step1: Take the 2’s complement of Y

1 0 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 1
Step2: Add 2’s complement of Y to X
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
+ 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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CO M P L E M E N T
Step3: Discard the end carry.
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
+1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ANSWER= 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

(b) Y – X: Step1: Take the 2’s complement of X

1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 1 0 0

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CO M P L E M E N T
Step2: Add 2’s complement of X to Y
1 0 0 0 0 1 1
+ 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
SUM= 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Step3: To find the answer Y – X = - (2’s complement of SUM)

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

-0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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CO M P L E M E N T S
• Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of
the (r  1)'s complement. Remember that the (r  1) 's
complement is one less then the r's complement.
Example 1.8 :Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's
complement.
(a) X – Y = 1010100 – 1000011(84 – 67 = 17)
Step1: Take the 1’s complement of Y

1 0 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 0

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CO M P L E M E N T S
Step2: Add1’s complement of Y to the X

1 0 1 0 1 0 0
+ 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
SUM= 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 = 16

Step3: Remove the end carry and add 1 (End-around carry)

0 0 1 0 0 0 0
+ 1
ANSWER= 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 17

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CO M P L E M E N T S
Example 1.8 :Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's
complement.
(a) Y – X = 1000011 – 1010100 (67 – 84 = -17)
Step1: Take the 1’s complement of X

1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1

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CO M P L E M E N T S
Step2: Add1’s complement of X to the Y

1 0 0 0 0 1 1
+ 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
SUM= 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

Step3: To find the answer Y – X = - (1’s complement of SUM)

1 1 0 1 1 1 0

ANSWER= -0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = -17

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1.7 SIGNED BINARY
NUMBERS
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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

• To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative values.

• It is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the left most position
of the number since binary digits.
• The convention is to make the sign bit
– 0 for positive and 1 for negative.
• Example
– Signed-magnitude representation: 10001001
– Signed-1’s complement representation: 11110110
– Signed-2’s complement representation: 11110111
• Table 1.3 lists all possible four-bit signed binary numbers in the
three representations.

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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

Decimal Signed-2’s Signed-1’s Signed
Complement Complement Magnitude

+7 0111 0111 0111

+6 0110 0110 0110

+5 0101 0101 0101

+4 0100 0100 0100

+3 0011 0011 0011

+2 0010 0010 0010

+1 0001 0001 0001

+0 0000 0000 0000

-0 - 1111 1000

-1 1111 1110 1001

-2 1110 1101 1010

-3 1101 1100 1011

-4 1100 1011 1100

-5 1011 1010 1101

-6 1010 1001 1110

-7 1001 1000 1111

-8 1000 - -

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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

• Arithmetic addition
– The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system
follows the rules of ordinary arithmetic.
• If the signs are the same;
– we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the common sign.

• If the signs are different;

– we subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give the difference the
sign of the larger magnitude.

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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

– The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative numbers

represented in signed-2's-complement form is obtained from the
addition of the two numbers, including their sign bits.

– A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.

• Example:

+ 6 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 - 6 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
+1 3 +0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 +1 3 +0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
+1 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 + 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

• Example:

+ 6 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 - 6 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
- 13 +1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 - 13 +1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
- 7 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 - 19 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

• Arithmetic Subtraction
– In 2’s-complement form:
1. Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit) and
add it to the minuend (including sign bit).
2. A carry out of sign-bit position is discarded.
(±A) – (+B) = (±A)+ −B
(±A) – (-B) = (±A)+ +B

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SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

• Example:
 (-6) – (-13)  (11111010 – 11110011)

- 6 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
+1 3 - 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
+ 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

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1.8 BINARY CODES
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B I N A R Y CO D E S
• BCD Code
– A number with k decimal digits will require 4k bits in BCD.

– Decimal 396 is represented in BCD with 12bits as:

396

0011 1001 0110

– Each group of 4 bits representing one decimal digit.

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
Decimal Symbol BCD Digit
– A decimal number in BCD is
0 0000
the same as its equivalent 1 0001
binary number only when 2 0010

the number is between 0 3 0011

and 9. 4 0100

5 0101
– The binary combinations
6 0110
1010 through 1111 are not
7 0111
used and have no meaning 8 1000

in BCD. 9 1001

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
• Example:
– Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value in BCD and binary:
(185) 10

(0001 1000 0101) BCD

=
(10111001) 2

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• BCD Addition
– Consider the addition of two decimal digits in BCD
– Since each digit does not exceed 9
– The sum cannot be greater than 9 + 9 + 1 = 19
• the 1 in the sum being a previous carry

– Suppose we add the BCD digits as if they were binary numbers

– The binary sum will produce a result in the range from 0 to 19
– In binary this will be from 0000 to 10011, but in BCD it is from 0000 to 1 1001
• The first 1 being a carry and the next four bits being the BCD digit sum

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• BCD Addition
– When binary sum is equal to or less than 1001 (without a carry)
• The corresponding BCD digit is correct

– When the binary sum is greater than or equal to 1010

• The result is an invalid BCD digit

– The addition of 6 = (0110)2 to the binary sum converts it to the correct digit and
also produces a carry as required
– This is because the difference between a carry in the most significant bit position
of the binary sum and a decimal carry.
• 16 – 10 = 6

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• BCD Addition
– Consider the following three addition of two decimal digits in BCD

4 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 8 1 0 0 0
+ 5
9
+ 0
1  1
0
0
0
1
1
+ 8
12
+ 1
1
+ 0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
+ 9
17
+ 1
1 0
+ 0
0
0 0 1
1 1 0
0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Carry Correct BCD Carry Correct BCD
digit sum (2) digit sum (7)

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• The addition of two n-digit unsigned BCD numbers follows the same
procedure.
– Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD
1 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 8 4
+ 0 1 0 1 + 0 1 1 1 + 0 1 1 0 +5 7 6
Binary Sum 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Add 6 + 0 1 1 0 + 0 1 1 0
BCD Sum 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 6 0

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• The representation of signed decimal numbers in BCD is similar to the

representation of signed numbers in binary.

• We can use either the familiar sign and magnitude system or the signed-
complement system.

• The sign of a decimal number is usually represented with four bits to

conform to the 4-bit code of the decimal digits.

– “+” with 0 0 0 0 and “-” with 1001 (BCD equivalent of 9)

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• The signed-complement system can be either the 9’s or the 10’s

complement.
– But the 10’s complement is the one most often used.

• To obtain the 10’s complement of a BCD number:

– First take the 9’s complement
• 9’s complement is calculated from the subtraction of each digit from 9.

– Then add one to the least significant digit

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• The procedures developed for the signed-2’s complement system in the

previous section apply also to the signed-10’s complement system for
decimal numbers.

• Addition is done by:

– adding all digits,

– including the sign digit and

– discarding the end carry.

• This assumes that all negative numbers are in 10’s complement form.

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• Consider the addition (+375) + (-240) = +135

• Step1: Find the 10’s complement of (-240)

9 10 0
- 2 4 0
7 6 0
• Step 2: Add 10’s complement of (-240) to 375 and discard the end
carry.
0 375
+9 760
0 135
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B I N A R Y CO D E S

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
• Gray code:
– The output data of many physical systems produce quantities that
are continuous.
– These data must be converted into digital form before they are
applied to a digital system.
– Continuous or analog information is converted into digital form by
means of an analog-to-digital converter.
X(t)

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
Gray Code Decimal Equivalent

• Gray code: 0000 0

0001 1
– It is convenient to use gray 0011 2
code to represent the digital 0010 3
data when it is converted 0110 4
from analog data. 0111 5

– The advantage is that only 0101 6

bit in the code group 0100 7

changes in going from one 1100 8

number to the next. 1101 9

1111 10
• Error detection.
1110 11
• Representation of analog 1010 12
data. 1011 13
• Low power design. 1001 14

1000 15

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
Character Code (Refer to Table 1.7)
• A popular code used to represent information sent as character-
based data.
• It uses 7-bits to represent 128 characters:
– 94 Graphic printing characters.
– 34 Non-printing characters.
• Some non-printing characters are used for text format (e.g. BS =
Backspace, CR = carriage return).
• Other non-printing characters are used for record marking and
flow control (e.g. STX and ETX start and end text areas).

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

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B I N A R Y CO D E S

• ASCII has some interesting properties:

– Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values 3016 to 3916

– Upper case A-Z span 4116 to 5A16

– Lower case a-z span 6116 to 7A16

• Lower to upper case translation (and vice versa) occurs by flipping bit 6.

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
• Error-Detecting Code
– To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth
bit is sometimes added to the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
– A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total
number of 1's either even or odd.
• Example:
– Consider the following two characters and their even and odd parity:

With even parity With odd parity

ASCII A = 1000001 01000001 11000001
ASCII T = 1010100 11010100 01010100

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B I N A R Y CO D E S
• Error-Detecting Code
– Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the form of extra bits, can be
incorporated into binary code words to detect and correct errors.
– A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra bit appended onto the
code word to make the number of 1’s odd or even. Parity can detect all
single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors.
– A code word has even parity if the number of 1’s in the code word is
even.
– A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’s in the code word is odd.
– Example:
• Message A: 10001001 1 (even parity)
• Message B: 10001001 0 (odd parity)

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1.9 BINARY STORAGE &
REGISTERS
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B I N A R Y S TO R AG E & R E G I S T E R S

• Registers
– A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is
capable of storing one of the two states.
1/0

– A register is a group of binary cells. A register with n cells can store

any discrete quantity of information that contains n bits.
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

n cells 2n possible states

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B I N A R Y S TO R AG E & R E G I S T E R S
• A binary cell
– Two stable state
– Store one bit of information
– Examples: flip-flop circuits, ferrite cores, capacitor
• A register
– A group of binary cells
– AX in x86 CPU
• Register Transfer
– A transfer of the information stored in one register to another.
– One of the major operations in digital system.
– An example in next slides.

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B I N A R Y S TO R AG E & R E G I S T E R S

Memory

CPU
Control Unit Datapath

Inputs: Keyboard, Outputs: CRT, LCD,

mouse, modem, Input / Output modem, speakers
microphone
Synchronous or Asynchronous?

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B I N A R Y S TO R AG E & R E G I S T E R
MEMORY UNIT
J O H N

01001010 01001111 11001000 11001110 Memory

Register

PROCESSOR UNIT

8 cells 8 cells 8 cells 8 cells Processor

Register

INPUT UNIT
8 cells Input
Register

O
Keyboard H
Control
N

Figure 1.1 Transfer of information among register

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B I N A R Y S TO R AG E & R E G I S T E R S
MEMORY UNIT
SUM
0100100011 • The other major component
Operand1 of a digital system
0011100001
– Circuit elements to
Operand2
0001000010 manipulate individual bits of
information
– Load-store machine
0001000010 R1 LD R1;
Digital logic LD R2;
circuits for 0100100011 R3
binary addition
ADD R3, R2, R1;
SD R3;
0011100001 R2
PROCESSOR UNIT
Figure 1.2 Example of binary information processing
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1.10 BINARY LOGIC
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B I N A R Y LO G I C

• Definition of Binary Logic

– Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical
operations.

– The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B,

C, x, y, z, etc., with each variable having two and only two distinct
possible values: 1 and 0,

– Three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.

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B I N A R Y LO G I C

1. AND operation is represented by a dot (∙) or by the absence of

an operator.
• Example: X ∙ Y = Z or X Y = Z

 “X AND Y is equal to Z”.

 Z =1 if only X = 1 and Y = 1; otherwise Z = 0.

o X, Y and Z are binary variables and can be equal either to 1

or 0, nothing else.

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2. OR operation is represented by a plus (+).

• Example: X + Y = Z

 “X OR Y is equal to Z”.

 Z =1 if X = 1 OR Y = 1 or if both X = 1 OR Y = 1.

 If both X = 0 OR Y = 0, then Z =0.

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3. NOT operation is represented by a prim (’) sometimes by an

overbar ( )
• Example: X’ = Z or X = Z

 “NOT X is equal to Z”.

 If X = 1, then Z =0, but if X = 0, then Z = 1.

 The NOT operation is also referred to as the complement

operation, since it changes a 1 to 0 and a 0 to 1.

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• Truth tables, Boolean expressions and Logic Gates
AND OR NOT

X Y Z X Y Z X Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Z=X∙Y Z=X+Y X=Z

X X X Z
Z Z
Y Y

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AND OR
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0

B I N A R Y LO G I C
• Example of binary signals
Volts

3
Signal
range for
logic 1 3
2 Logic 1
Transition occurs 2
between these limits
undefined
1
Signal
1
range for Logic 0
logic 0
0
0
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1

B I N A R Y LO G I C
• Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:
X X X Z
Z Z
Y Y

(a) two input AND gate (b) two input OR gate (c) NOT gate or Inverter

0 1 1 0 0
X

0 0 1 1 0
Y
0 0 1 0 0
X∙Y

0 1 1 1 0
X+Y

X 1 0 0 1 0

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2

B I N A R Y LO G I C
• Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for many input logic gates:
A
A B
B F=A∙B∙C F=A+B+C+D
C C
D

(a) three input AND gate (b) four input OR gate

6 October, 2016 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC DESIGN