Radiographic Density Film density is measured with a densitometer.

A
densitometer simply has a photoelectric sensor that measures
Radiographic density (AKA optical, photographic, or film density) is a measure the amount of light transmitted through a piece of film. The
of the degree of film darkening. Technically it should be called "transmitted film is placed between the light source and the sensor and a
density" when associated with transparent-base film since it is a measure of the density reading is produced by the instrument.
light transmitted through the film. Radiographic density is the logarithm of two
measurements: the intensity of light incident on the film (I0) and the intensity of
light transmitted through the film (It). This ratio is the inverse of transmittance.
Exposure Calculations

Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are
many variables that affect the final radiograph. Some of the variables that
Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of significantly affect the density of the radiograph include:
different sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers. The following
table shows the relationship between the amount of transmitted light and the  The spectrum of radiation produced by the x-ray generator.
calculated film density.  The voltage potential used to generate the x-rays (KeV).
 The amperage used to generate the x-rays (mA).
Transmittance Percent Inverse of Film  The exposure time.
(It/I0) Transmittance Transmittance Density  The distance between the radiation source and the film.
(I0/It) (Log(I0/It))
 The material of the component being radiographed.
1.0 100% 1 0  The thickness of the material that the radiation must travel through.
0.1 10% 10 1  The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film.
0.01 1% 100 2  The film being used.
0.001 0.1% 1000 3
 The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the contact time.
0.0001 0.01% 10000 4 The current industrial practice is to develop a procedure that produces an
0.00001 0.001% 100000 5 acceptable density by trail for each specific x-ray generator. This process may
0.000001 0.0001% 1000000 6 begin using published exposure charts to determine a starting exposure, which
0.0000001 0.00001% 10000000 7 usually requires some refinement.

From this table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only However, it is possible to calculate the density of a radiograph to a fair degree
one percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 accuracy when the spectrum of an x-ray generator has been characterized. The
only 0.01% of transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes calculation cannot completely account for scattering but, otherwise, the
and standards typically require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and relationship between many of the variables and their effect on film density is
4.0 for acceptable viewing with common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely known. Therefore, the change in film density can be estimated for any given
bright viewing lights is necessary for evaluation. Contrast within a film variable change. For example, from Newton's Inverse Square Law, it is known
increases with increasing density, so in general, the higher the density the that the intensity of the radiation varies inversely with distance from the
better. When radiographs will be digitized, densities above 4.0 are often used source. It is also known that the intensity of the radiation transmitted through a
since digitization systems can capture and redisplay for easy viewing material varies exponentially with the linear attenuation coefficient (m) and the
information from densities up to 6.0. thickness of the material.
A number of radiographic modeling program are available that make this Caution: This applet does not have knowledge of the characteristics of any particular real-life x-ray source
and should NOT be used other than as a theoretical tool for making predictions of exposure and contrast.
calculation. These programs can provide a fair representation of the radiograph
that will be produce with a specific setup and parameters. The applet below is
a very simple radiographic density calculator. The applet allows the density of
a radiograph to be estimated based on material, thickness, geometry, energy
(voltage), current, and time. The effect of the energy and the physical setup are
shown by looking at the film density after exposure. Since the calculation uses
a generic (and fixed characteristic) x-ray source, fixed film type and
development, the applet results will differ considerably from industrial x-ray
configurations. The applet is design simply to demonstrate the affects of the
variable on the resulting film density.

How To Use This Applet

First choose a material. Each material has a mass attenuation constant, mu.
Next, the voltage to the x-ray source needs to be set. Continue to fill in Film Processing
numbers for the rest of the variables. The current is the number of milliamps
that flow to the source. After the Distance, Time, and Thickness have been set, As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a
press the "Calculate" button. transparent, blue-tinted base coated on both sides with an
emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
Note, the Io field has a number in it. This is the initial intensity of the x-ray microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals,
beam. For large numbers, it may be necessary to use the mouse to see the entire such as silver bromide and silver chloride. When x-rays,
number. Click on the number and move the mouse as if selecting it. The cyan gamma rays or light rays strike the the crystals or grains,
pointer indicates the density on the resultant radiograph. The two other pointers some of the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the
represent under- and over-exposure by a factor of four. These may be used to Ag+ ions. In this condition, the radiograph is said to
judge the degree of contrast in the resultant radiograph. contain a latent (hidden) image because the change in the
grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains are
Try the following examples: material: aluminum, kV: 120, mA: 5, distance: now more sensitive to reaction with the developer.
0.5 meter, time: 90 seconds, thickness: 6.5 cm. The resultant density will be
2.959. As can be noted on the stepwedge, reducing the exposure by a factor of When the film is processed, it is exposed to several
four will change the density to a value of 1.0, and increasing the exposure by a different chemicals solutions for controlled periods of
factor of four will result in a density of 5.0. Reduce the time from 90 seconds to time. Processing film basically involves the following
22.5 seconds (factor of four) and note the results. five steps.
Change the material to iron and press "Calculate". Note that not enough  Development - The developing agent gives up
radiation is received to generate an image. Change the following: kV: 320, mA: electrons to convert the silver halide grains to
10, time: 900 seconds, thickness: 1.25 cm, and then click "Calculate". Note the metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to
resulting center density of 0.561. With aluminum, the time was altered by a the radiation develop more rapidly, but given enough time the developer
factor of four to change the density. With the iron, current (mA) must be will convert all the silver ions into silver metal. Proper temperature
increased by a factor of four to produce an increase in density. Change the control is needed to convert exposed grains to pure silver while keeping
current from 10 to 40 and calculate the results. unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
  Stopping the development - The stop bath simply stops the development levels must be measured. Ideally, pH should be measured daily and it is
process by diluting and washing the developer away with water. important to record these measurements, as regular logging provides very
 Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. useful information. The daily measurements of pH values for the developer and
The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal fixer can then be plotted to observe the trend of variations in these values
behind. compared to the normal pH operating levels to identify problems.
 Washing - The film is washed with water to remove all the processing
chemicals. Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of films
 Drying - The film is dried for viewing. in the automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve
measurement of basic fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1° C
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical intervals of temperature. The range of temperature measurement depends on
concentration, temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing the type of chemistry in use, whether cold or hot developer. These three
is done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require a measurements: fog level, speed, and average gradient, should then be plotted
high degree of consistency and quality control. against temperature and compared with the manufacturer's supplied figures

Manual Processing & Darkrooms

Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be located
in a central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable distance
from the exposure area. For portability, darkrooms are often mounted on Viewing Radiographs
pickups or trailers.
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a generally viewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly common
metal bin that is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film bin to digitize radiographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. Proper
that is dry and free of dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the film. viewing conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The
Another area, the wet side, should be used to process the film. This method viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs.
protects the film from any water or chemicals that may be located on the
surface of the wet side. Viewing Radiographs

Each of step in the film processing must be excited properly to develop the Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the
image, wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf viewing equipment and area should be considered. The
life of the radiograph. The objective of processing is two fold: first, to produce area should be clean and free of distracting materials.
a radiograph adequate for viewing, and second, to prepare the radiograph for Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers
archival storage. Radiographs are often stored for 20 years or more as a record should be close at hand. Thin cotton gloves should be
of the inspection. available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the
radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low.
Automatic Processor Evaluation Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc are often
The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray recommended, but subdued lighting (rather than total
department. The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when darkness) is preferable in the viewing room. The
compared to manual development by a factor of four. To monitor the brightness of the surroundings should be about the
performance of a processor, apart from optimum temperature and mechanical same as the area of interest in the radiograph. Room
checks, chemical and sensitometric checks should be performed for developer illumination must be arranged so that there are no
and fixer. Chemical checks involve measuring the pH values of the developer reflections from the surface of the film under examination.
and fixer as well as both replenishers. Also, the specific gravity and fixer silver
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By
groups of film viewers. These include strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers, using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the
and a combination of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a interpreter will increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can
cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will
allow only 1% of the incident light to pass. A film containing a density of 4.0
will allow only 0.01% of the incident light to pass. With such low levels of
light passing through the radiograph, the delivery of a good light source is
Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
important.
In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also
The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written
be skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes
procedure or code, or as required by contractual documents. The required
place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation.
documents should be available in the viewing area and referenced as necessary
All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is
when evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as
the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual
required by the procedure, should first be determined. It should be verified that
to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition
the radiograph was produced to the correct density on the required film type,
in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various
and that it contains the correct identification information. It should also be
features in the image. The following material was developed to help students
verified that the proper image quality indicator was used and that the required
develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how
sensitivity level was met. Next, the radiograph should be checked to ensure that
they appear in a radiograph.
it does not contain processing and handling artifacts that could mask
discontinuities or other details of interest. The technician should develop a
Discontinuities
standard process for evaluating the radiographs so that details are not
overlooked. Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These
interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected"
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation. zones. Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or
Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity
specifications used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as
with knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated
defects.
discontinuities. If the component is inspected while in service, an
understanding of applied loads and history of the component is helpful. A General Welding Discontinuities
process for viewing radiographs (e.g. left to right, top to bottom, etc.) is helpful
and will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. This process is often The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
developed over time and individualized. One part of the interpretation process,
sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes need to Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with
occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs. the base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc
does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small to flow into the base material without bonding.
light source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing
the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant
indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help
identify and evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being
inspected is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details
seen in a radiograph.
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can
take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical
porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called inclusions.
wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it will have a
higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the

weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a
moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-
the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the
porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together. weldment.
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of
fuse with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset
line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as
preparation or joining area. LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.

Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown
radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has irregular of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the
edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image. outside edge of the weld area.
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in
being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on
a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will
density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the
is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area. engineering requirements.

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam.
weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can
easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher
(darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material.
 material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the
radiograph.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process, including
aluminum and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
homogeneous weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear
in the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures as light, "wire like" indications.
are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is
more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
a distinct outline on the radiograph. penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a
thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are
referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots,
which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding
 Sand inclusions and dross are
nonmetallic oxides, which appear on the
radiograph as irregular, dark blotches.
Radiograph Interpretation - Castings These come from disintegrated portions
of mold or core walls and/or from oxides
The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of (formed in the melt) which have not been
defects that adversely affect the strength of the product. Castings are a product skimmed off prior to the introduction of
form that often receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects the metal into the mold gates. Careful
produced by the casting process are volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively control of the melt, proper holding time
easy to detect with this method. These discontinuities of course, are related to in the ladle and skimming of the melt
casting process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate during pouring will minimize or obviate this source of trouble.
accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since
different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the performance of Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the
the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the type and radiograph. Shrinkage assumes various forms, but in all cases it occurs because
size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of the final casting.
produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting is
found in components. The castings used to produce the standard radiographs adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the shrinkage. Shrinkage in
have been destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities its various forms can be recognized by a number of characteristics on
present. The following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity radiographs. There are at least four types of shrinkage: (1) cavity; (2) dendritic;
types included in existing reference radiograph documents (in graded types or (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types
as single illustrations). by numbers, without actual names, to
avoid possible misunderstanding.
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS
FOR CASTINGS Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with
distinct jagged boundaries. It may be
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused produced when metal solidifies between
by accumulated gas or air which is two original streams of melt coming from
trapped by the metal. These opposite directions to join a common
discontinuities are usually smooth-walled front. Cavity shrinkage usually occurs at
rounded cavities of a spherical, elongated a time when the melt has almost reached
or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high solidification temperature and there is no
enough to provide the necessary heat source of supplementary liquid to feed
transfer needed to force the gas or air out possible cavities.
of the mold, the gas or air will be trapped
as the molten metal begins to solidify.
Blows can also be caused by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a
low permeability so that gas cannot escape. Too high a moisture content in the
sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive volumes of water vapor away
from the casting. Another cause of blows can be attributed to using green
ladles, rusty or damp chills and chaplets.
Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or small elongated
cavities that may vary in density and are
usually unconnected.

Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as

a continuous structure of connected lines Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in
or branches of variable length, width and an otherwise solid metallic matrix. They
density, or occasionally as a network. may be less or more dense than the
matrix alloy and will appear on the
radiograph, respectively, as darker or
lighter indications. The latter type is
more common in light metal castings.

Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas

of lacy texture with diffuse outlines,
generally toward the mid-thickness of
heavier casting sections. Sponge
shrinkage may be dendritic or
filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary
sponge shrinkage appears more blurred
because it is projected through the Core shift shows itself as a variation in
relatively thick coating between the section thickness, usually on radiographic
discontinuities and the film surface. views representing diametrically opposite
portions of cylindrical casting portions.

Cracks are thin (straight or jagged)

linearly disposed discontinuities that
occur after the melt has solidified. They
generally appear singly and originate at
casting surfaces.

Cold shuts generally appear on or near a

surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a
unite. They may appear on a radiograph metal during solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may
as cracks or seams with smooth or occur due to overly hard (completely unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect
rounded edges. of hot tears as a stress concentration is similar to that of an ordinary crack, and
hot tears are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in
larger runs of a casting type, explicit improvements in the casting technique Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration
will be required. through the thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It
is located at the center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication.
Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable
dimensions with a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a
occurrence and not readily eliminated by specific remedial actions in the weld joint with adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal).
process. On a radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the
centerline of the weld joint or at the fusion line.
Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more
or less dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing
relatively vague, thin-section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete
steel. Mottling is caused by interaction of the object's grain boundary material melting of a localized region but without the development of a void or open
with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may hole. On a radiograph, melt-through generally appears as a round or elliptical
incorrectly consider mottling as indications of unacceptable casting flaws. Even indication.
experienced interpreters often have to check the condition by re-radiography
from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling are then very Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or
pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only slightly in adjacent base metal.
appearance.
Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in
surface contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are
Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds caused by the heat generated when electrical energy passes between the
surfaces of the finished weld or base metal and the current source.
Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from
defective conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are
of casting repair that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are expelled during welding. These particles do not form part of the actual weld.
provided here. The terms appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For Weld spatter appears as many small, light cylindrical indications on a
additional information, see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, radiograph.
Section 9 on the "Radiographic Control of Welds."
Tungsten inclusion is usually more dense than base-metal particles. Tungsten
Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld inclusions appear very light radiographic images. Accept/reject decisions for
material and base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, this defect are generally based on the slag criteria.
from long narrow indications to short wide indications, and in various densities,
from gray to very dark. Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding,
resulting in oxide formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of
Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is purge of the weld atmosphere. The condition is also called sugaring.
generally cylindrical or elliptical in shape.
Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring
Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left or into the clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It
unfilled by weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be appears in radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition.
corrected, and appears as a dark indication at the toe of a weld.
Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal
surface of the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.
 1. Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some
cases, its weight and location.
2. Type of radiation used, whether x-rays from
Radiographic Film an x-ray generator or gamma rays from a
radioactive source.
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an 3. Kilovoltages available with the x-ray
emulsion-gelatin containing radiation sensitive silver equipment or the intensity of the gamma
halide crystals, such as silver bromide or silver radiation.
chloride, and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base. 4. Relative importance of high radiographic
The emulsion is different from those used in other detail or quick and economical results.
types of photography films to account for the distinct
characteristics of gamma rays and x-rays, but X-ray Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique
films are sensitive to light. Usually, the emulsion is usually involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors.
coated on both sides of the base in layers about 0.0005 For example, if high resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance,
inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base a slower and finer grained film should be used in place of a faster film.
doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the
film speed. The emulsion layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and Film Packaging
drying can be accomplished in a reasonable time. A few of the films used for Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of different packaging
radiography only have emulsion on one side which produces the greatest detail options. The most basic form is as individual sheets in a box. In preparation for
in the image. use, each sheet must be loaded into a cassette or film holder in the darkroom to
protect it from exposure to light. The sheets are available in a variety of sizes
When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike and can be purchased with or without interleaving paper. Interleaved packages
the grains of the sensitive silver halide in have a layer of paper that separates each piece of film. The interleaving paper is
the emulsion, some of the Br- ions are removed before the film is loaded into the film holder. Many users find the
liberated and captured by the interleaving paper useful in separating the sheets of film and offer some
Ag+ ions. This change is of such a small protection against scratches and dirt during handling.
nature that it cannot be detected by
ordinary physical methods and is called a Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is
"latent (hidden) image." However, the enclosed in a light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side
exposed grains are now more sensitive to without removing it from the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to
the reduction process when exposed to a remove the film in the darkroom for processing. This form of packaging has the
chemical solution (developer), and the advantage of eliminating the process of loading the film holders in the
reaction results in the formation of black, darkroom. The film is completely protected from finger marks and dirt until the
metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in time the film is removed from the envelope for processing.
the gelatin on both sides of the base, that
creates an image. See the page on film processing for additional information. Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the radiographer to cut
the film to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape
Film Selection in the darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of circumferential
The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends welds and the examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of
on a number of different factors. Listed below are some of the factors that must film offer great economic advantage. The film is wrapped around the outside of
be considered when selecting a film and developing a radiographic technique. a structure and the radiation source is positioned on axis inside, allowing for
examination of a large area with a single exposure.
Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film sandwiched between Additionally, walk in vaults are equipped with emergency "kill buttons" that
two lead oxide screens. The screens function to reduce scatter radiation at allow radiographers to shut down the system if it should accidentally be started
energy levels below 150keV and as intensification screens above 150 keV. while they were in the vault.

Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-
flexible holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
be sure pressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high spots, such
as on an un-ground weld, the pressure may be great enough to produce Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to
desensitized areas in the radiograph. This precaution is particularly important atoms of the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is
when using envelope-packed films. released in the form of gamma rays. Two of the more common industrial
gamma-ray sources for industrial radiography are iridium-192 and cobalt-60.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with These isotopes emit radiation in a few discreet wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will
processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47,
always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. In comparison to an X-ray generator, cobalt-60
should be kept close at hand as an incentive to dry the hands often and well. produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MeV X-ray system and iridium-192 to
Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these problems until the a 460 keV X-ray system. These high energies make it possible to penetrate
envelope is opened for processing. thick materials with a relatively short exposure time. This and the fact that
sources are very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are widely
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons, used for field radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source
exposure holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or is that it can never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant
treelike black markings in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static responsibility.
electric discharges.
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally
an isotope material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on
the level of activity desired, a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel
capsule and sealed by welding. The capsule is attached to short flexible cable
Exposure Vaults & Cabinets called a pigtail.

Exposure vaults and cabinets allow personnel to work

safely in the area while exposures are taking place.
Exposure vaults tend to be larger walk in rooms with
shielding provided by high-density concrete block and
lead.

Exposure cabinets are often self-contained units with

integrated x-ray equipment and are typically shielded
with steel and lead to absorb x-ray radiation.

Exposure vaults and cabinets are equipped with protective interlocks that
disable the system if anything interrupts the integrity of the enclosure.
 is stretched as far as possible to put as much distance as possible between the
exposure device and the radiographer. To make the exposure, the radiographer
quickly cranks the source out of the exposure device and into position in the
collimator at the end of the guide tube. At the end of the exposure time, the
source is cranked back into the exposure device. There is a series of safety
procedures, which include several radiation surveys, that must be accomplished
when making an exposure with a gamma source. See the radiation
safety material for more information.

The source capsule and the pigtail is housed in a shielding device referred to as
a exposure device or camera. Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding
material for sources. The exposure device for iridium-192 and cobalt-60
sources will contain 45 pounds and 500 pounds of shielding materials,
respectively. Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a trailer and transported to and
from inspection sites. When the source is not being used to make an exposure,
it is locked inside the exposure device.

To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-

out mechanism and a guide tube are attached
to opposite ends of the exposure device. The
guide tube often has a collimator at the end
to shield the radiation except in the direction
necessary to make the exposure. The end of
the guide tube is secured in the location
where the radiation source needs to be to
produce the radiograph. The crank-out cable
 The high-voltage between the cathode and the anode
affects the speed at which the electrons travel and
strike the anode. The higher the kilovoltage, the more
speed and, therefore, energy the electrons have when
X-ray Generators they strike the anode. Electrons striking with more
energy results in X-rays with more penetrating
The major components of an X-ray generator are the power. The high-voltage potential is measured in
tube, the high voltage generator, the control console, and kilovolts, and this is controlled with the voltage or
the cooling system. As discussed earlier in this material, kilovoltage control on the control console. An
X-rays are generated by directing a stream of high speed increase in the kilovoltage will also result in an
electrons at a target material such as tungsten, which has increase in the intensity of the radiation.
a high atomic number. When the electrons are slowed or
stopped by the interaction with the atomic particles of A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of
the target, X-radiation is produced. This is accomplished the target called the focal spot. The focal spot size is an important factor in the
in an X-ray tube such as the one shown here. The X-ray system's ability to produce a sharp image. See the information on image
tube is one of the components of an X-ray generator and resolution and geometric unsharpness for more information on the effect of the
tubes come a variety of shapes and sizes. The image focal spot size. Much of the energy applied to the tube is transformed into heat
below shows a portion of the Roentgen tube collection of at the focal spot of the anode. As mentioned above, the anode target is
Grzegorz Jezierski, a professor at Opole University of commonly made from tungsten, which has a high melting point in addition to a
Technology. For more information on X-ray tubes visit high atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive means
Dr. Jezierski's website atwww.xraylamp.webd.pl is necessary. Water or oil recirculating systems are often used to cool tubes.
Some low power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive
The tube cathode (filament) is heated with a low-voltage materials and heat radiating fins.
current of a few amps. The filament heats up and the
electrons in the wire become loosely held. A large It should also be noted that in order to prevent the cathode from burning up and
electrical potential is created between to prevent arcing between the anode and the cathode, all of the oxygen is
the cathode and the anode by the high- removed from the tube by pulling a vacuum. Some systems have external
voltage generator. Electrons that break vacuum pumps to remove any oxygen that may have leaked into the tube.
free of the cathode are strongly However, most industrial X-ray tubes simply require a warm-up procedure to
attracted to the anode target. The be followed. This warm-up procedure carefully raises the tube current and
stream of electrons between the voltage to slowly burn any of the available oxygen before the tube is operated
cathode and the anode is the tube at high power.
current. The tube current is measured
in milliamps and is controlled by The other important component of an X-ray generating system is the control
regulating the low-voltage, heating console. Consoles typically have a keyed lock to prevent unauthorized use of
current applied to the cathode. The the system. They will have a button to start the generation of X-rays and a
higher the temperature of the filament, the larger the number of electrons that button to manually stop the generation of X-rays. The three main adjustable
leave the cathode and travel to the anode. The milliamp or current setting on controls regulate the tube voltage in kilovolts, the tube amperage in millivolts,
the control console regulates the filament temperature, which relates to the and the exposure time in minutes and seconds. Some systems also have a
intensity of the X-ray output. switch to change the focal spot size of the tube.
X-ray Generator Options systems are useful when examining objects in rapid motion or when studying
Kilovoltage - X-ray generators come in a large variety of sizes and transient events such as the tripping of an electrical breaker. In these type of
configurations. There are stationary units that are intended situations, high-speed video is used to rapidly capture images from an image
for use in lab or production environments and portable intensifier or other real-time detector. Since the exposure time for each image is
systems that can be easily moved to the job site. Systems very short, a high level of radiation intensity is needed in order to get a usable
are available in a wide range of energy levels. When output from the detector. To prevent the imaging system from becoming
inspecting large steel or heavy metal components, systems saturated from a continuous exposure high intensity radiation, the generator
capable of producing millions of electron volts may be supplies microsecond bursts of radiation. The tubes of these X-ray generators
necessary to penetrate the full thickness of the material. do not have a heated filament but instead electrons are pulled from the cathode
Alternately, small, lightweight components may only by the strong electrical potential between the cathode and the anode. This
require a system capable of producing only a few tens of process is known as field emission or cold emission and it is capable of
kilovolts. producing electron currents in the thousands of amperes

Focal Spot Size - Another important consideration is the

focal spot size of the tube since this factors into the geometric unsharpness of
the image produced. Generally, the smaller the spot size the better. But as the
electron stream is focused to a smaller area, the power of the tube must be Radiation Safety
reduced to prevent overheating at the tube anode. Therefore, the focal spot size
becomes a tradeoff of resolving capability and power. Generators can be Ionizing radiation is an extremely important NDT tool but it can pose a hazard
classified as a conventional, minifocus, and microfocus system. Conventional to human health. For this reason, special precautions must be
units have focal-spots larger than about 0.5 mm, minifocus units have focal- observed when using and working around ionizing radiation.
spots ranging from 50 microns to 500 microns (.050 mm to .5 mm), and The possession of radioactive materials and use of radiation
microfocus systems have focal-spots smaller than 50 microns. Smaller spot producing devices in the United States is governed by strict
sizes are especially advantageous in instances where the magnification of an regulatory controls. The primary regulatory authority for
object or region of an object is necessary. The cost of a system typically most types and uses of radioactive materials is the federal
increases as the spot size decreases and some microfocus tubes exceed Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). However, more
$100,000. Some manufacturers combine two filaments of different sizes to than half of the states in the US have entered into
make a dual-focus tube. This usually involves a conventional and a minifocus "agreement" with the NRC to assume regulatory control of radioactive material
spot-size and adds flexibility to the system. use within their borders. As part of the agreement process, the states must adopt
and enforce regulations comparable to those found in Title 10 of the Code of
AC and Constant Potential Systems - AC X-ray systems supply the tube with Federal Regulations. Regulations for control of radioactive material used in
sinusoidal varying alternating current. They produce X-rays only during one Iowa are found in Chapter 136C of the Iowa Code.
half of the 1/60th second cycle. This produces bursts of radiation rather than a
constant stream. Additionally, the voltage changes over the cycle and the X-ray For most situations, the types and maximum quantities of radioactive materials
energy varies as the voltage ramps up and then back down. Only a portion of possessed, the manner in which they may be used, and the individuals
the radiation is useable and low energy radiation must usually be filtered out. authorized to use radioactive materials are stipulated in the form of a "specific"
Constant potential generators rectify the AC wall current and supply the tube license from the appropriate regulatory authority. In Iowa, this authority is the
with DC current. This results in a constant stream of relatively consistent Iowa Department of Public Health. However, for certain institutions which
radiation. Most newer systems now use constant potential generators. routinely use large quantities of numerous types of radioactive materials, the
exact quantities of materials and details of use may not be specified in the
Flash X-Ray Generators license. Instead, the license grants the institution the authority and
Flash X-ray generators produce short, intense bursts of radiation. These responsibility for setting the specific requirements for radioactive material use
within its facilities. These licensees are termed "broadscope" and require a radiographer to easily determine if the IQI is the correct material type for the
Radiation Safety Committee and usually a full-time Radiation Safety Officer. product. The notches in the IQI to the right indicate that it is made of
aluminum. The thickness in thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter
by one or more lead number. The IQI to the right is 0.005 inch thick. IQIs may
also be manufactured to a military or other industry specification and the
material type and thickness may be indicated differently. For example, the IQI
Controlling Radiographic Quality on the left in the image above uses lead letters to indicate the material. The
numbers on this same IQI indicate the sample thickness that the IQI would
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is
typically be placed on when attempting to achieve two percent contrast
through the use of image quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs, which are
sensitivity.
also referred to as penetrameters, provide a means of visually
informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such
definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified as 2-2T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of
amount of change in material thickness will be detectable in the the region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the
radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level of definition expression refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is
so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without expressed as a multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would
such a reference point, consistency and quality could not be mean that the shim thickness should be two percent of the material thickness
maintained and defects could go undetected. and that a hole that is twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the
radiograph. This presentation of a 2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies that the
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the
radiographic technique is capable of showing a material loss of 2% in the area
various codes or standards that invoke their use. In the United
of interest.
States, two IQI styles are prevalent: the placard, or hole-type and the
wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material types so that one with radiation It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a
absorption characteristics similar to the material being radiographed can be defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in
used. the IQI represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Discontinues
within the part may contain gradual changes and are often less visible. The IQI
is used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and not intended to
be used as a measure of the size of a cavity that can be located on the
radiograph.

Wire IQIs

ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using

wire IQIs to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires
arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two sheets
of clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQI sets, which control the wire
Hole-Type IQIs diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of the
IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the material group. The same
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material
image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for hole-type IQIs are
group classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 designates
typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that correspond to various
eight groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A
hole-type quality levels can be found in a table in E747 or can be calculated
notching system is incorporated into the requirements, which allows the
using the following formula.
Where:
F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire)
d = wire diameter (mm or inch)
l = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire)
T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch)
H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch)

Placement of IQIs

IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a
material thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the
IQI may be placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of
interest. When a block is used, the IQI should be the same distance from the
film as it would be if placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The
IQI should also be placed slightly away from the edge of the part so that at least
three of its edges are visible in the radiograph.